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Datsun
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| fate = Discontinued
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| products = Automobiles, light trucks
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Datsun (, ) was a Japanese automobile manufacturer brand owned by Nissan. Datsun's original production run began in 1931. From 1958 to 1986, only vehicles exported by Nissan were identified as Datsun. Nissan phased out the Datsun brand in March 1986, but relaunched it in June 2013 as the brand for low-cost vehicles manufactured for emerging markets. Nissan considered phasing out the Datsun brand for a second time in 2019 and 2020, eventually discontinuing the struggling brand in April 2022.
In 1931, DAT Motorcar Co. chose to name its new small car "Datson", a name which indicated the new car's smaller size when compared to the DAT's larger vehicle already in production. When Nissan took control of DAT in 1934, the name "Datson" was changed to "Datsun", because "son" also means "loss" (損 son) in Japanese, and to honour the sun depicted in the national flag – thus the name Datsun: . The Datsun name is internationally well known for the 510, Fairlady roadsters, and the Z and ZX coupés.
History
Origin of Datsun
Before the Datsun brand name came into being, an automobile named the DAT car was built in 1914, by the , in the Azabu-Hiroo District in Tokyo. The new car's name was an acronym of the initials of the company partners:
*
*
* Meitaro Takeuchi The firm was renamed Kaishinsha Motorcar Co. in 1918, seven years after their establishment and again, in 1925, to DAT Motorcar Co. DAT Motors constructed trucks in addition to the DAT passenger cars. In fact, their output focused on trucks since there was almost no consumer market for passenger cars at the time. Beginning in 1918, the first DAT trucks were assembled for the military market. The low demand from the military market during the 1920s forced DAT to consider merging with other automotive industries. In 1926 the Tokyo-based DAT Motors merged with the Osaka-based also known as Jitsuyo Motors (established 1919, as a Kubota subsidiary) to become in Osaka until 1932. (Jitsuyo Jidosha began producing a three-wheeled vehicle with an enclosed cab called the Gorham in 1920, and the following year produced a four-wheeled version. From 1923 to 1925, the company produced light cars and trucks under the name of Lila.)
The DAT corporation had been selling full size cars to Japanese consumers under the DAT name since 1914. In 1930, the Japanese government created a ministerial ordinance that allowed cars with engines up to 500 cc to be driven without a license. DAT Automobile Manufacturing began development of a line of 495 cc cars to sell in this new market segment, calling the new small cars "Datson" – meaning "Son of DAT". The name was changed to "Datsun" two years later in 1933.
The first prototype Datson was completed in the summer of 1931. The production vehicle was called the Datson Type 10, and "approximately ten" of these cars were sold in 1931. They sold around 150 cars in 1932, now calling the model the Datsun Type 11.
By 1935, the company had established a true production line, following the example of Ford, and were producing a car closely resembling the Austin 7. There is evidence that six of these early Datsuns were exported to New Zealand in 1936, a market they then re-entered in May 1962. In 1937, Datsun's biggest pre-war year, 8593 were built, with some exported to Australia in knock-down form. and then not again until the 1980s. The Japanese market Z-car (sold as the Fairlady Z) also had Nissan badging. In the United States, the Nissan branch was named "Nissan Motor Corporation in U.S.A.", and chartered on September 28, 1960, in California, but the small cars the firm exported to America were still named Datsun.
Corporate choice favored Datsun, so as to distance the parent factory Nissan's association by Americans with Japanese military manufacture. In fact Nissan's involvement in Japan's military industries was substantial. The company's car production at the Yokohama plant shifted towards military needs just a few years after the first passenger cars rolled off the assembly line, on April 11, 1935. By 1939 Nissan's operations had moved to Manchuria, then under Japanese occupation, where its founder and President, Yoshisuke Ayukawa, established the Manchurian Motor Company to manufacture military trucks.
Ayukawa, a well-connected and aggressive risk taker, also made himself a principal partner of the Japanese Colonial Government of Manchukuo. Ultimately, Nissan Heavy Industries emerged near the end of the war as an important player in Japan's war machinery. After the war ended, Soviet Union seized all of Nissan's Manchuria assets, while the Occupation Forces made use of over half of the Yokohama plant. General MacArthur had Ayukawa imprisoned for 21 months as a war criminal. After release he was forbidden from returning to any corporate or public office until 1951. He was never allowed back into Nissan, which returned to passenger car manufacture in 1947 and to its original name of Nissan Motor Company Ltd. in 1949.
American service personnel in their teens or early twenties during the Second World War would be in prime car-buying age by 1960, if only to find an economical small second car for their growing family needs. Yutaka Katayama (Mr. "K"), former president of Nissan's American operations, would have had his personal wartime experiences in mind supporting the name Datsun. Katayama's visit to Nissan's Manchuria truck factory in 1939 made him realise the appalling conditions prevalent on the assembly lines, leading him to abandon the firm. In 1945, near the end of the war, Katayama was ordered to return to the Manchurian plant, however he rebuffed these calls and refused to return.
Katayama desired to build and sell passenger cars to people, not to the military; for him, the name "Datsun" had survived the war with its purity intact, not "Nissan". This obviously led Katayama to have problems with the corporate management. The discouragement felt by Katayama as regards his prospects at Nissan, led to his going on the verge of resigning, when Datsun's 1958 Australian Mobilgas victories vaulted him, as leader of the winning Datsun teams, to national prominence in a Japan bent on regaining international status.
The company's first product to be exported around the world was the 113, with a proprietary four-cylinder engine.
Datsun entered the American market in 1958, with sales in California. By 1959, the company had dealers across the U.S. and began selling the 310 (known as Bluebird domestically). From 1962 to 1969 the Nissan Patrol utility vehicle was sold in the United States (as a competitor to the Toyota Land Cruiser J40 series), making it the only Nissan-badged product sold in the US prior to that name's introduction worldwide decades later.
From 1960 on, exports and production continued to grow. A new plant was built at Oppama, south of Yokohama; it opened in 1962. The next year, Bluebird sales first topped 200,000, and exports touched 100,000. By 1964, Bluebird was being built at 10,000 cars a month.
For 1966, Datsun debuted the Sunny/1000, allowing kei car owners to move up to something bigger. That same year, Datsun won the East African Safari Rally and merged with Prince Motors, giving the company the Skyline model range, as well as a test track at Murayama.
The company introduced the Bluebird 510 in 1967. This was followed in 1968 with the iconic 240Z, which proved affordable sports cars could be built and sold profitably: it was soon the world's #1-selling sports car. It relied on an engine based on the Bluebird and used Bluebird suspension components. It would go on to two outright wins in the East African Rally.
Katayama was made Vice President of the Nissan North American subsidiary in 1960, and as long as he was involved in decision making, both as North American Vice President from 1960 to 1965, and then President of Nissan Motor Company U.S.A. from 1965 to 1975, the cars were sold as Datsuns. "What we need to do is improve our car's efficiency gradually and creep up slowly before others notice. Then, before Detroit realizes it, we will have become an excellent car maker, and the customers will think so too. If we work hard to sell our own cars, we won't be bothered by whatever the other manufacturers do. If all we do is worry about the other cars in the race, we will definitely lose."
Datsun in Europe
In 1935, the first Datsun-badged vehicle was shipped to Britain by car magnate Sir Herbert Austin. The vehicle, a Type 14, was never meant for the road or production, but was a part of a patent dispute as Austin saw a number of similarities to the car with the Austin 7 Ruby. Nissan began exporting Datsun-badged cars to the United Kingdom in 1968, at which time foreign cars were a rarity, with only a small percentage of cars being imported – some of the most popular examples at the time including the Renault 16 from France and Volkswagen Beetle from West Germany. The first European market that Nissan had entered was Finland, where sales began in 1962. Within a few years, it was importing cars to most of Western Europe.
Datsun was particularly successful on the British market. It sold just over 6,000 cars there as late as 1971, but its sales surged to more than 30,000 the following year and continued to climb over the next few years, with well-priced products including the Cherry 100A and Sunny 120Y proving particularly popular, at a time when the British motor industry was plagued by strikes and British Leyland in particular was gaining a reputation for building cars which had major issues with build quality and reliability. During the 1970s and early 1980s, Nissan frequently enjoyed the largest market share in Britain of any foreign carmaker.
By the early 1980s, the Nissan badge was gradually appearing on Datsun-badged cars, and eventually the Datsun branding was phased out, the final new car with a Datsun badge being the Micra supermini, launched in Britain from June 1983. By the end of 1984, the Datsun branding had completely disappeared in Britain, although it lingered elsewhere until 1986.Rebranding
]]
In Japan, there appears to have been what probably constituted a long-held 'official' company bias against use of the name "Datsun". At the time, Kawamata was a veteran of Nissan, in the last year of his presidency, a powerful figure whose experience in the firm exceeded two decades. His rise to its leadership position occurred in 1957 in part because of his handling of the critical Nissan workers' strike that began May 25, 1953, and ran for 100 days. During his tenure as president, Kawamata stated that he "regretted that his company did not imprint its corporate name on cars, the way Toyota does. 'Looking back, we wish we had started using Nissan on all of our cars,' he says. 'But Datsun was a pet name for the cars when we started exporting.'"
Ultimately, the decision was made to stop using the brand name Datsun worldwide, in order to strengthen the company name Nissan.
"The decision to change the name Datsun to Nissan in the U.S. was announced in the autumn (September/October) of 1981. The rationale was that the name change would help the pursuit of a global strategy. A single name worldwide would increase the possibility that advertising campaigns, brochures, and promotional materials could be used across countries and simplify product design and manufacturing. Further, potential buyers would be exposed to the name and product when traveling to other countries. Industry observers, however, speculated that the most important motivation was that a name change would help Nissan market stocks and bonds in the U.S. They also presumed substantial ego involvement, since the absence of the Nissan name in the U.S. surely rankled Nissan executives who had seen Toyota and Honda become household words."
Ultimately, the name change campaign lasted for a three-year period from 1982 to 1984 – Datsun badged vehicles had been progressively fitted with small "Nissan" and "Datsun by Nissan" badges from the late 1970s onward until the Nissan name was given prominence in 1983 – although in some export markets, vehicles continued to wear both the Datsun and Nissan badges until 1986. In the United Kingdom for example, the Nissan name initially was used as a prefix to the model name, with Datsun still being used as the manufacturer's name (e.g. Datsun-Nissan Micra) from 1982 until 1984. In the United States, the Nissan name was used for some new vehicles for 1982 such as the Nissan Stanza and the Nissan Sentra while the Datsun name was used on existing vehicles through 1983 including – confusingly enough – the Datsun Maxima, which like the Stanza and Sentra was also a new model for 1982, albeit as a renamed Datsun 810. The Maxima and Z continue in production in North America as of 2021, as Nissan's last direct link to its Datsun years.
The name change had cost Nissan a figure in the region of US$500 million. Operational costs included the changing of signs at 1,100 Datsun dealerships, and amounted to US$30 million. Another US$200 million were spent during the 1982 to 1986 advertising campaigns, where the "Datsun, We Are Driven!" campaign (which was adopted in late 1977 in the wake of the 1973 oil crisis and subsequent 1979 energy crisis) yielded to "The Name is Nissan" campaign (the latter campaign was used for some years beyond 1985). Another US$50 million was spent on Datsun advertisements that were paid for but stopped or never used. Five years after the name change program was over, Datsun still remained more familiar than Nissan.
Datsun truck
thumb|right|Nissan Datsun
In 2001, Nissan marketed its D22 pick-up model in Japan with the name Datsun. This time however, the use of the brand name was wholly restricted to this one specific model name. Production of this model was between May 2001 and October 2002.
Relaunch
at Datsun Go launch in New Delhi, India, 2013]]
On 20 March 2012, it was announced that Nissan would revive the Datsun marque as a low-cost car brand for use in Indonesia, Nepal, South Africa, India, and Russia, and on 15 July 2013, nearly three decades after it was phased out, the name was formally resurrected. Nissan said the brand's reputation for value and reliability would help it gain market share in emerging markets.
The Datsun brand was relaunched in New Delhi, India, with the Datsun Go, which went on sale in India in early 2014. Datsun models are sold in Indonesia, Russia, India, Nepal and South Africa since 2014. The brand entered Kazakhstan in 2015, and Belarus and Lebanon in 2016.
The Datsun Go was being built at the Renault-Nissan plant in Chennai, India. It was also produced in Indonesia. The Go is based on the same Nissan V platform as the Nissan Micra. The Go+, a 5+2 seater station wagon, was added to the range in September 2013.
In February 2014, the redi-Go concept car was presented. The redi-Go crossover became available in India mid-2015.
In April 2014, the first model for the Russian market, the Datsun on-Do based on Lada Granta, was launched.
In November 2019, it was announced that Datsun would stop its production in Indonesia and Russia in 2020.
In April 2022, Nissan announced that it is shutting down the production of Datsun cars in India.Models
* Datsun Go (2013–2022)
* Datsun Go+ (2013–2022)
* Datsun on-Do (2014–2020)
* Datsun mi-Do (2015–2020)
* Datsun redi-Go (2016–2022)
* Datsun Cross (2018–2020)
See also
* Datsun Sports
* Laurence Hartnett
* Yutaka Katayama
* Nissan
* Nissan Motor Car Carrier
* Sports Car International Top Sports Cars
References
Bibliography
*External links
*
*[http://www.datsun.ru/ Official site in Russia]
*[http://www.datsun.co.id/ Official site in Indonesia]
Category:Nissan
Category:Car manufacturers of Japan
Category:Japanese companies established in 1931
Category:Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1931
Category:Products introduced in 2013
Category:Japanese brands
Category:Car brands
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Dynamite
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Dynamite is an explosive made of nitroglycerin, sorbents (such as powdered shells or clay), and stabilizers. It was invented by the Swedish chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel in Geesthacht, Northern Germany, and was patented in 1867. It rapidly gained wide-scale use as a more robust alternative to the traditional black powder explosives. It allows the use of nitroglycerine's favorable explosive properties while greatly reducing its risk of accidental detonation.History
Dynamite was invented by Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel in 1866 and was the first safely manageable explosive stronger than black powder.
Alfred Nobel's father, Immanuel Nobel, was an industrialist, engineer, and inventor. He built bridges and buildings in Stockholm and founded Sweden's first rubber factory. His construction work inspired him to research new methods of blasting rock that were more effective than black powder. After some bad business deals in Sweden, in 1838 Immanuel moved his family to Saint Petersburg, where Alfred and his brothers were educated privately under Swedish and Russian tutors. At the age of 17, Alfred Nobel was sent abroad for two years; in the United States he met Swedish engineer John Ericsson and in France studied under famed chemist Théophile-Jules Pelouze and his pupil Ascanio Sobrero, who had first synthesized nitroglycerin in 1847. Pelouze cautioned Nobel against using nitroglycerine as a commercial explosive because of its great sensitivity to shock.
In 1857, Nobel filed the first of several hundred patents, mostly concerning air pressure, gas and fluid gauges, but remained fascinated with nitroglycerin's potential as an explosive. Nobel, along with his father and brother Emil, experimented with various combinations of nitroglycerin and black powder. Nobel came up with a way to safely detonate nitroglycerin by inventing the detonator, or blasting cap, that allowed a controlled explosion set off from a distance using a fuse. In 1863 Nobel performed his first successful detonation of pure nitroglycerin, using a blasting cap made of a copper percussion cap and mercury fulminate. In 1864, Alfred Nobel filed patents for both the blasting cap and his method of synthesizing nitroglycerin, using sulfuric acid, nitric acid and glycerin. On 3 September 1864, while experimenting with nitroglycerin, Emil and several others were killed in an explosion at the factory at Immanuel Nobel's estate at Heleneborg. After this, Alfred founded the company Nitroglycerin Aktiebolaget in Vinterviken to continue work in a more isolated area and the following year moved to Germany, where he founded another company, Dynamit Nobel. After its introduction, dynamite rapidly gained wide-scale use as a safe alternative to black powder and nitroglycerin. Nobel tightly controlled the patents, and unlicensed duplicating companies were quickly shut down. A few American businessmen got around the patent by using absorbents other than diatomaceous earth, such as resin.
Nobel originally sold dynamite as "Nobel's Blasting Powder" and later changed the name to dynamite, from the Ancient Greek word dýnamis (), meaning "power".
Manufacture
Form
Dynamite is usually sold in the form of cardboard cylinders about long and about in diameter, with a mass of about . A stick of dynamite thus produced contains roughly 1 MJ (megajoule) of energy. Other sizes also exist, rated by either portion (Quarter-Stick or Half-Stick) or by weight.
Dynamite is usually rated by "weight strength" (the amount of nitroglycerin it contains), usually from 20% to 60%. For example, 40% dynamite is composed of 40% nitroglycerin and 60% "dope" (the absorbent storage medium mixed with the stabilizer and any additives).
Storage considerations
The maximum shelf life of nitroglycerin-based dynamite is recommended as one year from the date of manufacture under good storage conditions. With a hammer of 2 kg, mercury fulminate detonates with a drop distance of 1 to 2 cm, nitroglycerin with 4 to 5 cm, dynamite with 15 to 30 cm, and ammoniacal explosives with 40 to 50 cm.Major manufacturersSouth AfricaFor several decades beginning in the 1940s, the largest producer of dynamite in the world was the Union of South Africa. There, the De Beers company established a factory in 1902 at Somerset West. The explosives factory was later operated by AECI (African Explosives and Chemical Industries). The demand for the product came mainly from the country's vast gold mines, centered on the Witwatersrand. The factory at Somerset West was in operation in 1903 and by 1907 it was already producing 340,000 cases, each, annually. A rival factory at Modderfontein was producing another 200,000 cases per year.
There were two large explosions at the Somerset West plant during the 1960s. Some workers died, but the loss of life was limited by the modular design of the factory and its earth works, and the planting of trees that directed the blasts upward. There were several other explosions at the Modderfontein factory. After 1985, pressure from trade unions forced AECI to phase out the production of dynamite. The factory then went on to produce ammonium nitrate emulsion-based explosives that are safer to manufacture and handle.
United States
Dynamite was first manufactured in the US by the Giant Powder Company of San Francisco, California, whose founder had obtained the exclusive rights from Nobel in 1867. Giant was eventually acquired by DuPont, which produced dynamite under the Giant name until Giant was dissolved by DuPont in 1905.
Thereafter, DuPont produced dynamite under its own name until 1911–12, when its explosives monopoly was broken up by the U.S. Circuit Court in the "Powder Case". Two new companies were formed upon the breakup, the Hercules Powder Company and the Atlas Powder Company, which took up the manufacture of dynamite (in different formulations).
Currently, only Dyno Nobel manufactures dynamite in the US. The only facility producing it is located in Carthage, Missouri, but the material is purchased from Dyno Nobel by other manufacturers who put their labels on the dynamite and boxes.
Non-dynamite explosives
Other explosives are often referred to or confused with dynamite:
Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is often assumed to be the same as (or confused for) dynamite largely because of the ubiquity of both explosives during the 20th century. This incorrect connection between TNT and dynamite was enhanced by cartoons such as Bugs Bunny, where animators labeled any kind of bomb (ranging from sticks of dynamite to kegs of black powder) as TNT, because the initialism was shorter and more memorable and did not require literacy to recognize that TNT meant "bomb".
Aside from both being high explosives, TNT and dynamite have little in common. TNT is a second-generation castable explosive adopted by the military, while dynamite, in contrast, has never been popular in warfare because it degenerates quickly under severe conditions and can be detonated by either fire or a wayward bullet. The German armed forces adopted TNT as a filling for artillery shells in 1902, some 40 years after the invention of dynamite, which is a first-generation phlegmatized explosive primarily intended for civilian earthmoving. TNT has never been popular or widespread in civilian earthmoving, as it is considerably more expensive and less powerful by weight than dynamite, as well as being slower to mix and pack into boreholes. TNT's primary asset is its remarkable insensitivity and stability: it is waterproof and incapable of detonating without the extreme shock and heat provided by a blasting cap (or a sympathetic detonation); this stability also allows it to be melted at , poured into high explosive shells and allowed to re-solidify, with no extra danger or change in the TNT's characteristics. Accordingly, more than 90% of the TNT produced in the United States was always for the military market, with most TNT used for filling shells, hand grenades and aerial bombs, and the remainder being packaged in brown "bricks" (not red cylinders) for use as demolition charges by combat engineers.
"Extra" dynamite
In the United States, in 1885, the chemist Russell S. Penniman invented "ammonium dynamite", a form of explosive that used ammonium nitrate as a substitute for the more costly nitroglycerin. Ammonium nitrate has only 85% of the chemical energy of nitroglycerin.
It is rated by either "weight strength" (the amount of ammonium nitrate in the medium) or "cartridge strength" (the potential explosive strength generated by an amount of explosive of a certain density and grain size used in comparison to the explosive strength generated by an equivalent density and grain size of a standard explosive). For example, high-explosive 65% Extra dynamite has a weight strength of 65% ammonium nitrate and 35% "dope" (the absorbent medium mixed with the stabilizers and additives). Its "cartridge strength" would be its weight in pounds times its strength in relation to an equal amount of ANFO (the civilian baseline standard) or TNT (the military baseline standard). For example, 65% ammonium dynamite with a 20% cartridge strength would mean the stick was equal to an equivalent weight strength of 20% ANFO.
"Military dynamite"
"Military dynamite" (or M1 dynamite) is a dynamite substitute made with more stable ingredients than nitroglycerin. It contains 75% RDX, 15% TNT and 10% desensitizers and plasticizers. It has only 60% equivalent strength as commercial dynamite, but is much safer to store and handle.
Regulation
Various countries around the world have enacted laws regarding explosives and require licenses to manufacture, distribute, store, use, and possess explosives or ingredients.
See also
* Blast fishing
* Blasting machine
* Dynamite gun
* Nobel Prize
* Relative effectiveness factor
References
Further reading
* Cartwright, A. P. (1964). The dynamite Company: The Story of African Explosives and Chemical Industries Limited. Cape Town: Purnell & Sons (S.A.) (Pty) Ltd.
*
* Schück, H. and Sohlman, R. (1929). The Life of Alfred Nobel. London: William Heinemann Ltd.
External links
* [https://www.nobelprize.org/alfred-nobel/alfred-nobels-dynamite-companies/ Alfred Nobel’s dynamite companies]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060630065530/http://www.oregon.gov/OSP/AES/Dynamite.shtml Oregon State Police – Arson and Explosives Section (Handling instructions and photos)]
* (Dynamite US patent)
* [http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/mv_dynamite.htm Dynamite and TNT] at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
Category:Alfred Nobel
Category:Explosives
Category:Swedish inventions
Category:1867 introductions
Category:19th-century inventions
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David Fincher
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| birth_place = Denver, Colorado, U.S.
| death_date | death_place
| occupation = Film director
| years_active = 1980–present
| works = Filmography
| awards = Full list
| spouse =
*
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| children = 1
| relatives = Jack Fincher (father)
}}
David Andrew Leo Fincher (born August 28, 1962) is an American filmmaker. Often described as one of the most preeminent directors of his generation, his films, of which most are psychological thrillers, have collectively grossed over $2.1 billion worldwide and have received numerous accolades, including three nominations for the Academy Award for Best Director. He has also received four Primetime Emmy Awards, two Grammy Awards, a BAFTA Award, and a Golden Globe Award.
Fincher co-founded the production company Propaganda Films in 1986. He directed numerous music videos for the company, including Madonna's "Express Yourself" in 1989 and "Vogue" in 1990, both of which won him the MTV Video Music Award for Best Direction. He received two Grammy Awards for Best Music Video for "Love Is Strong" (1994) by the Rolling Stones and "Suit & Tie" (2013) by Justin Timberlake featuring Jay-Z.
He made his feature film debut with Alien 3 (1992) and gained his breakthrough with Seven (1995). He has since directed The Game (1997), Fight Club (1999), Panic Room (2002), Zodiac (2007), The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo (2011), Gone Girl (2014), and The Killer (2023). He received nominations for the Academy Award for Best Director for the dramas The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (2008), The Social Network (2010), and Mank (2020).
In television, Fincher has served as an executive producer and director for the Netflix series House of Cards (2013–2018) and Mindhunter (2017–2019), winning the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for the pilot episode of the former. He also executive produced and co-created the Netflix animated series Love, Death & Robots (2019–present) which received three Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Short Form Animated Program.
Early life
David Andrew Leo Fincher was born in Denver on August 28, 1962. His mother, Claire Mae (née Boettcher), was a mental health nurse from South Dakota who worked in drug addiction programs. His father, Howard Kelly "Jack" Fincher (1930–2003), was an author from Oklahoma who worked as a reporter and bureau chief for Life magazine. When Fincher was two years old, the family moved to San Anselmo, California, where he counted filmmaker George Lucas among his neighbors.
Career
1983–1991: Early work
While establishing himself in the film industry, Fincher was employed at John Korty's studio as a production head. Gaining further experience, he became a visual effects producer, working on the animated Twice Upon a Time (1983) with George Lucas. He was hired by Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) in 1983 as an assistant cameraman and matte photographer In 1984, he left ILM to direct a television commercial for the American Cancer Society that depicted a fetus smoking a cigarette. Set on a directing career, Fincher co-founded production company Propaganda Films and started directing commercials and music videos.
Fincher directed TV commercials for many companies including Levi's, Converse, Nike, Pepsi, Revlon, Sony, Coca-Cola and Chanel, although he loathed doing them. Starting in 1984, Fincher began his foray into music videos. He directed videos for various artists including singer-songwriters Rick Springfield, Don Henley, Martha Davis, Paula Abdul, rock band the Outfield, and R&B singer Jermaine Stewart.
He directed Michael Jackson's "Who Is It", Aerosmith's "Janie's Got A Gun" and Billy Idol's "Cradle of Love". For Madonna, he directed the videos for "Express Yourself", "Oh Father", "Bad Girl" and "Vogue". Between 1984 and 1993, Fincher was credited as a director for 53 music videos. He referred to the production of music videos as his own "film school", in which he learned how to work efficiently within a small budget and time frame.1992–2000: BreakthroughIn 1990, 20th Century Fox hired Fincher to replace Vincent Ward as the director for the science-fiction horror Alien 3 (1992), his film directorial debut. It was the third installment in the Alien franchise starring Sigourney Weaver. The film was released in May 1992 to a mixed reception from critics and was considered weaker than the preceding films. From the beginning, Alien 3 was hampered by studio intervention and several abandoned scripts. Peter Travers of the Rolling Stone called the film "bold and haunting", despite the "struggle of nine writers" and "studio interference".
The film received an Academy Award nomination for Best Visual Effects. Years later, Fincher publicly expressed his dismay and subsequently disowned the film. In the book ''Director's Cut: Picturing Hollywood in the 21st Century'', Fincher blames the producers for their lack of trust in him. In an interview with The Guardian in 2009, he stated, "No one hated it more than me; to this day, no one hates it more than me."
After this critical disappointment, Fincher eschewed reading film scripts or directing another project. He briefly retreated to directing commercials and music videos, including the video for the song "Love Is Strong" by the Rolling Stones in 1994, which won the Grammy Award for Best Music Video. Shortly, Fincher decided to make a foray back into film. He read Andrew Kevin Walker's original screenplay for Seven (1995), which had been revised by Jeremiah Chechik, the director attached to the project at one point. Fincher expressed no interest in directing the revised version, so New Line Cinema agreed to keep the original ending. Starring Brad Pitt, Morgan Freeman, Gwyneth Paltrow, R. Lee Ermey, and Kevin Spacey, it tells the story of two detectives who attempt to identify a serial killer who bases his murders on the Christian seven deadly sins. Seven was positively received by film critics and was one of the highest-earning films of 1995, grossing more than $320 million worldwide. Writing for Sight and Sound, John Wrathall said it "stands as the most complex and disturbing entry in the serial killer genre since Manhunter" and Roger Ebert opined that Seven is "one of the darkest and most merciless films ever made in the Hollywood mainstream."
Following Seven, Fincher directed a music video for "6th Avenue Heartache" by the Wallflowers and went on to direct his third feature film, the mystery thriller The Game (1997), written by the duo John Brancato and Michael Ferris. Fincher also hired Seven screenwriter Andrew Kevin Walker to contribute and polish the script. Filmed on location in San Francisco, the story follows an investment banker, played by Michael Douglas, who receives an unusual gift from his younger brother (Sean Penn), where he becomes involved in a "game" that integrates with his everyday life, making him unable to differentiate between game and reality. Upon The Game<nowiki/>'s release in September 1997, the film received generally favorable reviews but performed moderately at the box office. The Game was later included in the Criterion Collection.
In August 1997, Fincher agreed to direct Fight Club, based on the 1996 novel of the same name by Chuck Palahniuk. It was his second film with 20th Century Fox after the troubled production of Alien 3. Starring Brad Pitt, Edward Norton and Helena Bonham Carter, the film is about a nameless office worker suffering from insomnia, who meets a salesman, and together form an underground fighting club as a form of therapy. Fox struggled with the marketing of the film, and were concerned that it would have a limited audience. Fight Club premiered on October 15, 1999, in the United States to a polarized response and modest box office success; the film grossed $100.9 million against a budget of $63 million. Initially, many critics thought the film was "a violent and dangerous express train of masochism and aggression." However, in following years, Fight Club became a cult favorite and gained acknowledgement for its multilayered themes; the film has been the source of critical analysis from academics and film critics.
2001–2010: Continued success
and Fincher at the 2010 New York Film Festival]]
In 2001, Fincher served as an executive producer for the first season of The Hire, a series of short films to promote BMW automobiles. The films were released on the internet in 2001. Next in 2002, Fincher returned to another feature film, a thriller titled Panic Room. The story follows a single mother and her daughter who hide in a safe room of their new home, during a home invasion by a trio. Starring Jodie Foster (who replaced Nicole Kidman), Forest Whitaker, Kristen Stewart, Dwight Yoakam, and Jared Leto, it was theatrically released on March 29, 2002, after a month delay, to critical acclaim and commercial success.
In North America, the film earned $96.4 million. In other countries, it grossed $100 million for a worldwide $196.4 million. Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle praised the filmmakers for their "fair degree of ingenuity... for 88 minutes of excitement" and the convincing performance given by Foster. Fincher acknowledged Panic Room for being more mainstream, describing the film, "It's supposed to be a popcorn movie—there are no great, overriding implications. It's just about survival."
Five years after Panic Room, Fincher returned on March 2, 2007, with Zodiac, a thriller based on Robert Graysmith's books about the search for the Zodiac, a real life serial murderer who terrorized communities between the late 1960s and early 1970s. Fincher first learned of the project after being approached by producer Brad Fischer; he was intrigued by the story due to his childhood personal experience. "The highway patrol had been following our school buses", he recalled. His father told him, "There's a serial killer who has killed four or five people... who's threatened to... shoot the children as they come off the bus."
After extensive research on the case with fellow producers, Fincher formed a principal cast of Jake Gyllenhaal, Mark Ruffalo, Robert Downey Jr., Anthony Edwards and Brian Cox. It was the first of Fincher's films to be shot in digital, with a Thomson Viper FilmStream HD camera. However, high-speed film cameras were used for particular murder scenes. Zodiac was well received, appearing in more than two hundred top ten lists (only No Country for Old Men and There Will Be Blood appeared in more). However, the film struggled at the United States box office, earning $33 million, but did better overseas with a gross of $51.7 million. Worldwide, Zodiac was a moderate success. Despite a campaign by Paramount Pictures, the film did not receive any major award nominations.
In 2008, Fincher was attached to a film adaptation of the science-fiction novel, Rendezvous with Rama by Arthur C. Clarke, however, Fincher said the film is unlikely to go ahead due to problems with the script. His next project was The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (2008), an adaptation of F. Scott Fitzgerald's eponymous 1923 short story, about a man who is born as a seventy-year-old baby and ages in reverse. The romantic-drama marked Fincher's third collaboration with Brad Pitt, who stars opposite Cate Blanchett. The budget for the film was estimated to be $167 million, with very expensive visual effects utilized for Pitt's character.
Filming started in November 2006 in New Orleans, taking advantage of Louisiana's film incentive. The film was theatrically released on December 25, 2008, in the United States to a commercial success and warm reception. Writing for the USA Today, Claudia Puig praises the "graceful and poignant" tale despite it being "overlong and not as emotionally involving as it could be". The film received thirteen Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Best Director for Fincher, Best Actor for Pitt, and Best Supporting Actress for Taraji P. Henson, and won three, for Best Art Direction, Best Makeup, and Best Visual Effects.
Fincher directed the 2010 film The Social Network, a biographical drama about Facebook founder, Mark Zuckerberg and his legal battles. The screenplay was written by Aaron Sorkin, who adapted it from the book The Accidental Billionaires. It stars Jesse Eisenberg as Zuckerberg, with a supporting cast of Andrew Garfield, Justin Timberlake, Armie Hammer and Max Minghella. Principal photography started in October 2009 in Cambridge, Massachusetts and the film was released one year later. The Social Network was also a commercial success, earning $224.9 million worldwide. At the 83rd Academy Awards, the film received eight nominations and won three awards; soundtrack composers Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross won for Best Original Score, and the other two awards were for Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Film Editing. The film received awards for Best Motion Picture – Drama, Best Director, Best Screenplay, and Best Original Score at the 68th Golden Globe Awards. Critics including Roger Ebert, complimented the writing, describing the film as having "spellbinding dialogue. It makes an untellable story clear and fascinating".
2011–present: Established filmmaker and work with Netflix
, Daniel Craig, and Fincher at the premiere of The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo]]
In 2011, Fincher followed the success of The Social Network with The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo, a psychological thriller based on the novel by Swedish writer Stieg Larsson. Screenwriter Steven Zaillian spent three months analyzing the novel, writing notes and deleting elements to achieve a suitable running time. Featuring Daniel Craig as journalist Mikael Blomkvist and Rooney Mara as Lisbeth Salander, it follows Blomkvist's investigation to solve what happened to a woman from a wealthy family who disappeared four decades ago. To maintain the novel's setting, the film was primarily shot in Sweden.
The soundtrack, composed by collaborators Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross, was described by A. O. Scott of The New York Times as, "unnerving and powerful". Upon the film's release in December, reviews were generally favorable, according to review aggregator Metacritic. Scott adds, "Mr. Fincher creates a persuasive ambience of political menace and moral despair". Philip French of The Guardian praises the "authentic, quirky detail" and faithful adaptation. The film received five Academy Award nominations, including Best Actress for Mara, and won the award for Best Film Editing. In 2012, Fincher signed a first look deal with Regency Enterprises.
In 2013, Fincher served as an executive producer for the Netflix television series House of Cards, a political thriller about a Congressman's quest for revenge, of which he also directed the first two episodes. The series received positive reviews, earning nine Primetime Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series. Fincher won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for the first episode. He also directed a music video for the first time since 2005, "Suit & Tie" by Justin Timberlake and Jay-Z, which won a Grammy Award for Best Music Video.
In 2014, Fincher signed a deal with HBO for three television series - Utopia (an adaptation of the British series, to be written by Gillian Flynn), Shakedown, and Videosyncrazy. In August 2015, budget disputes between him and the network halted production. Three years later, in 2018, Utopia was picked up by Amazon Studios, with Gillian Flynn as creator.
Fincher directed Gone Girl (2014), an adaptation of Gillian Flynn's novel of the same name, starring Ben Affleck and Rosamund Pike. He even met with Flynn to discuss his interest in the project before a director was selected. Set in Missouri, the story begins as a mystery that follows the events surrounding Nick Dunne (Affleck), who becomes the prime suspect in the sudden disappearance of his wife Amy (Pike). A critical and commercial success, the film earned $369 million worldwide against a $61 million budget, making it Fincher's highest-grossing work to date. Writing for Salon magazine, Andrew O'Hehir praises the "tremendous ensemble cast who mesh marvelously", adding, "All the technical command of image, sound and production design for which Fincher is justly famous is here as well." Gone Girl garnered awards and nominations in a various categories; Pike earned an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress and Fincher received his third Golden Globe nomination for Best Director. at the 52nd New York Film Festival|199x199px]]Between 2016 and 2019, Fincher directed, produced and served as showrunner for another series, Mindhunter, starring Holt McCallany and Jonathan Groff. The series, based on the book ''Mind Hunter: Inside the FBI's Elite Serial Crime Unit'', debuted on Netflix worldwide on October 13, 2017. He has expressed interest in eventually making a third season of Mindhunter, which was put on indefinite hold in 2020. In 2023, Fincher confirmed that Netflix will not be making a third season of Mindhunter, saying "I'm very proud of the first two seasons. But it's a very expensive show and, in the eyes of Netflix, we didn't attract enough of an audience to justify such an investment [for Season 3]."
In June 2017, Jim Gianopulos of Paramount Pictures announced that a sequel to World War Z was "in advanced development" with Fincher and Brad Pitt. Producers Dede Gardner and Jeremy Kleiner said that Fincher would begin directing it in June 2019. However, in February 2019, Paramount cancelled the project. As of 2019, Fincher serves as an executive producer for Love, Death & Robots, an animated science-fiction web series for Netflix.
In July 2019, Fincher signed on to direct Mank, a biopic about Citizen Kane screenwriter Herman J. Mankiewicz. Mank received a limited theatrical release on November 13, 2020, and was made available on Netflix on December 4. Gary Oldman portrayed Mankiewicz, and the film received ten Academy Award nominations, winning two for Best Cinematography and Best Production Design.
Fincher served as an executive producer on a series titled Voir (2021) for Netflix. In 2022, Fincher made his first foray in animation directing an episode for the third season of Love, Death & Robots. The episode is titled "Bad Travelling" and was written by Seven screenwriter Andrew Kevin Walker. In February 2021, it was reported that Fincher would direct an adaptation of the graphic novel The Killer for Netflix, with Andrew Kevin Walker writing the screenplay and Michael Fassbender attached to star. It premiered at the 80th Venice International Film Festival. It began a limited theatrical release in October 2023 and was subsequently released on Netflix on 10 November.
In 2024, it was reported that Fincher was interested in working on an American adaptation of the popular Korean series Squid Game and was developing it alongside a Chinatown prequel miniseries that he co-wrote with the late Robert Towne. It was confirmed in October 2024 that he would develop and work on the Squid Game adaptation for 2025. In April 2025, it was announced that Fincher would direct a sequel to Quentin Tarantino's Once Upon a Time in Hollywood, with Tarantino writing the script.
Filmmaking style and techniques
Influences
Fincher did not attend film school. He has listed filmmakers George Roy Hill, Alfred Hitchcock, Stanley Kubrick, Alan J. Pakula, Ridley Scott, and Martin Scorsese as his major influences. His personal favorite films include Rear Window (1954), Lawrence of Arabia (1962), The Graduate (1967), Paper Moon (1973), American Graffiti (1973), Jaws (1975), ''All the President's Men (1976), Taxi Driver (1976), Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977), and Zelig'' (1983). He suggested that his film Panic Room is a combination of Rear Window and Straw Dogs (1971).
For Seven, Fincher and cinematographer Darius Khondji were inspired by films The French Connection (1971) and Klute (1971), as well as the work of photographer Robert Frank. He has cited graphic designer Saul Bass as an inspiration for his films' title sequences; Bass designed many such sequences for prominent directors, including Hitchcock and Kubrick.
Method
{| class="wikitable"
! Year
! Title
! Distributor
|-
|1992
|Alien 3
|20th Century Fox
|-
|1995
|Se7en
|New Line Cinema
|-
|1997
|The Game
|PolyGram Filmed Entertainment
|-
|1999
|Fight Club
|20th Century Fox
|-
|2002
|Panic Room
|Sony Pictures Releasing
|-
|2007
|Zodiac
|rowspan="2"|Paramount Pictures / Warner Bros. Pictures
|-
|2008
|The Curious Case of Benjamin Button
|-
|2010
|The Social Network
|rowspan=2|Sony Pictures Releasing
|-
|2011
|The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo
|-
|2014
|Gone Girl
|20th Century Fox
|-
|2020
|Mank
|rowspan=2|Netflix
|-
|2023
|The Killer
|-
|}
Awards and recognitions
Tim Walker of The Independent praised Fincher's work, stating "His portrayals of the modern psyche have a power and precision that few film-makers can match." In 2012, The Guardian listed him again in their ranking of 23 best film directors in the world, applauding "his ability to sustain tone and tension". In 2016, Zodiac and The Social Network appeared in the BBC's 100 Greatest Films of the 21st Century list. In addition to films, Fincher has often been admired for producing some of the most creative music videos.
Fincher received three Academy Award for Best Director nominations for The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (2008), The Social Network (2010), and Mank (2020). He won both the BAFTA Award for Best Direction and the Golden Globe Award for Best Director for The Social Network. He also received two Grammy Awards for "Love Is Strong" (1995) by The Rolling Stones and "Suit & Tie" (2013) by Justin Timberlake and Jay-Z as well as four Primetime Emmy Awards for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for House of Cards (2013) and three Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Short Form Animated Program for Love, Death & Robots.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Awards and nominations received by Fincher's films
|-
! rowspan="2" | Year
! rowspan="2" | Title
! colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" width=160| Academy Awards
! colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" width=160| BAFTA Awards
! colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" width=160| Golden Globe Awards
|-
! Nominations
! Wins
! Nominations
! Wins
! Nominations
! Wins
|-
| 1992
| Alien 3
|align=center|1
|
|align=center|1
|
|
|
|-
| 1995
| Seven
|align=center|1
|
|align=center|1
|
|
|
|-
| 1999
| Fight Club
|align=center|1
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| 2008
| The Curious Case of Benjamin Button
|align=center|13
|align=center|3
|align=center|11
|align=center|3
|align=center|5
|
|-
| 2010
| The Social Network
|align=center|8
|align=center|3
|align=center|6
|align=center|3
|align=center|6
|align=center|4
|-
| 2011
| The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo
|align=center|5
|align=center|1
|align=center|2
|
|align=center|2
|
|-
| 2014
| Gone Girl
|align=center|1
|
|align=center|2
|
|align=center|4
|
|-
| 2020
| Mank
|align=center|10
|align=center|2
|align=center|6
|align=center|1
|align=center|6
|
|-
!colspan="2"|Total
!align=center|40
!align=center|9
!align=center|29
!align=center|7
!align=center|23
!align=center|4
|}
Directed Academy Award performances<br />
Under Fincher's direction, these actors have received Academy Award nominations for their performances in their respective roles.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Performer
!Film
!Result
|-
! colspan="4" |Academy Award for Best Actor
|-
|2008
|Brad Pitt
|The Curious Case of Benjamin Button
|
|-
|2010
|Jesse Eisenberg
|The Social Network
|
|-
|2020
|Gary Oldman
|Mank
|
|-
! colspan="4" |Academy Award for Best Actress
|-
|2011
|Rooney Mara
|The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo
|
|-
|2014
|Rosamund Pike
|Gone Girl
|
|-
! colspan="4" |Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress
|-
|2008
|Taraji P. Henson
|The Curious Case of Benjamin Button
|
|-
|2020
|Amanda Seyfried
|Mank
|
|-
|}
Notes
References
Bibliography
*
External links
*
}}
Category:1962 births
Category:Living people
Category:American music video directors
Category:Grammy Award winners
Category:People from Ashland, Oregon
Category:Mass media people from Denver
Category:Best Director BAFTA Award winners
Category:Best Director Golden Globe winners
Category:American television directors
Category:Television producers from California
Category:Primetime Emmy Award winners
Category:Television commercial directors
Category:People from San Anselmo, California
Category:Film directors from California
Category:Film producers from California
Category:American horror film directors
Category:Film directors from Colorado
Category:Film directors from Oregon
Category:Film producers from Oregon
Category:MTV Video Music Award winners
Category:Industrial Light & Magic people
Category:American people of German descent
Category:Television producers from Oregon
Category:Postmodernist filmmakers
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Fincher
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|
List of decades, centuries, and millennia
|
The list below includes links to articles with further details for each decade, century, and millennium from 15,000BC to AD3000.
Century Decades 15th millennium BC · 15,000–14,001 BC 14th millennium BC · 14,000–13,001 BC 13th millennium BC · 13,000–12,001 BC 12th millennium BC · 12,000–11,001 BC 11th millennium BC · 11,000–10,001 BC 10th millennium BC · 10,000–9001 BC 9th millennium BC · 9000–8001 BC 8th millennium BC · 8000–7001 BC 7th millennium BC · 7000–6001 BC 6th millennium BC · 6000–5001 BC 5th millennium BC · 5000–4001 BC 4th millennium BC · 4000–3001 BC 40th century BC 39th century BC 38th century BC 37th century BC 36th century BC 35th century BC 34th century BC 33rd century BC 32nd century BC 31st century BC 3rd millennium BC · 3000–2001 BC 30th century BC 29th century BC 28th century BC 27th century BC 26th century BC 25th century BC 24th century BC 23rd century BC 22nd century BC 21st century BC 2nd millennium BC · 2000–1001 BC 20th century BC 19th century BC 18th century BC 1790s BC 1780s BC 1770s BC 1760s BC 1750s BC 1740s BC 1730s BC 1720s BC 1710s BC 1700s BC 17th century BC 1690s BC 1680s BC 1670s BC 1660s BC 1650s BC 1640s BC 1630s BC 1620s BC 1610s BC 1600s BC 16th century BC 1590s BC 1580s BC 1570s BC 1560s BC 1550s BC 1540s BC 1530s BC 1520s BC 1510s BC 1500s BC 15th century BC 1490s BC 1480s BC 1470s BC 1460s BC 1450s BC 1440s BC 1430s BC 1420s BC 1410s BC 1400s BC 14th century BC 1390s BC 1380s BC 1370s BC 1360s BC 1350s BC 1340s BC 1330s BC 1320s BC 1310s BC 1300s BC 13th century BC 1290s BC 1280s BC 1270s BC 1260s BC 1250s BC 1240s BC 1230s BC 1220s BC 1210s BC 1200s BC 12th century BC 1190s BC 1180s BC 1170s BC 1160s BC 1150s BC 1140s BC 1130s BC 1120s BC 1110s BC 1100s BC 11th century BC 1090s BC 1080s BC 1070s BC 1060s BC 1050s BC 1040s BC 1030s BC 1020s BC 1010s BC 1000s BC 1st millennium BC · 1000–1 BC 10th century BC 990s BC 980s BC 970s BC 960s BC 950s BC 940s BC 930s BC 920s BC 910s BC 900s BC 9th century BC 890s BC 880s BC 870s BC 860s BC 850s BC 840s BC 830s BC 820s BC 810s BC 800s BC 8th century BC 790s BC 780s BC 770s BC 760s BC 750s BC 740s BC 730s BC 720s BC 710s BC 700s BC 7th century BC 690s BC 680s BC 670s BC 660s BC 650s BC 640s BC 630s BC 620s BC 610s BC 600s BC 6th century BC 590s BC 580s BC 570s BC 560s BC 550s BC 540s BC 530s BC 520s BC 510s BC 500s BC 5th century BC 490s BC 480s BC 470s BC 460s BC 450s BC 440s BC 430s BC 420s BC 410s BC 400s BC 4th century BC 390s BC 380s BC 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC 340s BC 330s BC 320s BC 310s BC 300s BC 3rd century BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 2nd century BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 1st century BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC 1st millennium · AD 1–1000 1st century 0s 10s 20s 30s 40s 50s 60s 70s 80s 90s 2nd century 100s 110s 120s 130s 140s 150s 160s 170s 180s 190s 3rd century 200s 210s 220s 230s 240s 250s 260s 270s 280s 290s 4th century 300s 310s 320s 330s 340s 350s 360s 370s 380s 390s 5th century 400s 410s 420s 430s 440s 450s 460s 470s 480s 490s 6th century 500s 510s 520s 530s 540s 550s 560s 570s 580s 590s 7th century 600s 610s 620s 630s 640s 650s 660s 670s 680s 690s 8th century 700s 710s 720s 730s 740s 750s 760s 770s 780s 790s 9th century 800s 810s 820s 830s 840s 850s 860s 870s 880s 890s 10th century 900s 910s 920s 930s 940s 950s 960s 970s 980s 990s 2nd millennium · AD 1001–2000 11th century 1000s 1010s 1020s 1030s 1040s 1050s 1060s 1070s 1080s 1090s 12th century 1100s 1110s 1120s 1130s 1140s 1150s 1160s 1170s 1180s 1190s 13th century 1200s 1210s 1220s 1230s 1240s 1250s 1260s 1270s 1280s 1290s 14th century 1300s 1310s 1320s 1330s 1340s 1350s 1360s 1370s 1380s 1390s 15th century 1400s 1410s 1420s 1430s 1440s 1450s 1460s 1470s 1480s 1490s 16th century 1500s 1510s 1520s 1530s 1540s 1550s 1560s 1570s 1580s 1590s 17th century 1600s 1610s 1620s 1630s 1640s 1650s 1660s 1670s 1680s 1690s 18th century 1700s 1710s 1720s 1730s 1740s 1750s 1760s 1770s 1780s 1790s 19th century 1800s 1810s 1820s 1830s 1840s 1850s 1860s 1870s 1880s 1890s 20th century 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 3rd millennium · AD 2001–3000 21st century 2000s 2010s 2020s 2030s 2040s 2050s 2060s 2070s 2080s 2090s 22nd century 2100s 2110s 2120s 2130s 2140s 2150s 2160s 2170s 2180s 2190s 23rd century 2200s 2210s 2220s 2230s 2240s 2250s 2260s 2270s 2280s 2290s 24th century 2300s 2310s 2320s 2330s 2340s 2350s 2360s 2370s 2380s 2390s 25th century 2400s 2410s 2420s 2430s 2440s 2450s 2460s 2470s 2480s 2490s 26th century 2500s 2510s 2520s 2530s 2540s 2550s 2560s 2570s 2580s 2590s 27th century 2600s 2610s 2620s 2630s 2640s 2650s 2660s 2670s 2680s 2690s 28th century 2700s 2710s 2720s 2730s 2740s 2750s 2760s 2770s 2780s 2790s 29th century 2800s 2810s 2820s 2830s 2840s 2850s 2860s 2870s 2880s 2890s 30th century 2900s 2910s 2920s 2930s 2940s 2950s 2960s 2970s 2980s 2990s
Notes
See also
List of years
Timelines of world history
List of timelines
Chronology
See calendar and list of calendars for other groupings of years.
See history, history by period, and periodization for different organizations of historical events.
For earlier time periods, see Timeline of the Big Bang, Geologic time scale, Timeline of evolution, and Logarithmic timeline.
*
Decades
Category:Historical timelines
*
*
*
*
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_decades,_centuries,_and_millennia
|
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|
Douglas Engelbart
|
| birth_name = Douglas Carl Engelbart
| birth_place = Portland, Oregon, U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = Atherton, California, U.S.
| death_cause | field
| work_institutions
| alma_mater =
| doctoral_advisor
| thesis_title = A Study of High-Frequency Gas-Conduction Electronics in Digital Computers
| thesis_url = https://www.proquest.com/docview/301923912/
| thesis_year = 1956
| doctoral_students | known_for
| prizes
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
Douglas Carl Engelbart (January 30, 1925 – July 2, 2013) was an American engineer, inventor, and a pioneer in many aspects of computer science. He is best known for his work on founding the field of human–computer interaction, particularly while at his Augmentation Research Center Lab in SRI International, which resulted in creation of the computer mouse, for more information.}} and the development of hypertext, networked computers, and precursors to graphical user interfaces. These were demonstrated at The Mother of All Demos in 1968. Engelbart's law, the observation that the intrinsic rate of human performance is exponential, is named after him.
NLS, the "oN-Line System", developed by the Augmentation Research Center under Engelbart's guidance with funding primarily from ARPA (as DARPA was then known), demonstrated numerous technologies, most of which are now in widespread use; it included the computer mouse, bitmapped screens, word processing, and hypertext; all of which were displayed at "The Mother of All Demos" in 1968. The lab was transferred from SRI to Tymshare in the late 1970s, which was acquired by McDonnell Douglas in 1984, and NLS was renamed Augment (now the Doug Engelbart Institute). At both Tymshare and McDonnell Douglas, Engelbart was limited by a lack of interest in his ideas and funding to pursue them and retired in 1986.
In 1988, Engelbart and his daughter Christina launched the Bootstrap Institute – later known as The Doug Engelbart Institute – to promote his vision, especially at Stanford University; this effort did result in some DARPA funding to modernize the user interface of Augment. In December 2000, United States President Bill Clinton awarded Engelbart the National Medal of Technology, the U.S.'s highest technology award. In December 2008, Engelbart was honored by SRI at the 40th anniversary of the "Mother of All Demos".
Early life and education
Engelbart was born in Portland, Oregon, on January 30, 1925, to Carl Louis Engelbart and Gladys Charlotte Amelia Munson Engelbart. His ancestors were of German, Swedish and Norwegian descent.
He was the middle of three children, with a sister Dorianne (three years older), and a brother David (14 months younger). The family lived in Portland, Oregon, in his early years, and moved to the surrounding countryside along Johnson Creek when he was 8. His father died one year later. He graduated from Portland's Franklin High School in 1942.
Midway through his undergraduate years at Oregon State University, he served two years in the United States Navy as a radio and radar technician in the Philippines. He returned to Oregon State and completed his bachelor's degree in electrical engineering in 1948. While at Oregon State, he was a member of Sigma Phi Epsilon social fraternity. He was hired by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics at the Ames Research Center, where he worked in wind tunnel maintenance. In his off hours he enjoyed hiking, camping, and folk dancing. It was there he met Ballard Fish (August 18, 1928 – June 18, 1997), who was just completing her training to become an occupational therapist. They were married in Portola State Park on May 5, 1951. Soon after, Engelbart left Ames to pursue graduate studies at the University of California, Berkeley. At Berkeley, he studied electrical engineering with a specialty in computers, earning his MS in 1953 and his PhD in 1955.
Career and accomplishments
, as designed by Bill English from Engelbart's sketches]]
Guiding philosophy
Engelbart's career was inspired in December 1950 when he was engaged to be married and realized he had no career goals other than "a steady job, getting married and living happily ever after". Over several months he reasoned that:
# he would focus his career on making the world a better place
# any serious effort to make the world better would require some kind of organized effort that harnessed the collective human intellect of all people to contribute to effective solutions.
# if you could dramatically improve how we do that, you'd be boosting every effort on the planet to solve important problems – the sooner the better
# computers could be the vehicle for dramatically improving this capability. a call to action for making knowledge widely available as a national peacetime grand challenge. He had also read something about the recent phenomenon of computers, and from his experience as a radar technician, he knew that information could be analyzed and displayed on a screen. He envisioned intellectual workers sitting at display "working stations", flying through information space, harnessing their collective intellectual capacity to solve important problems together in much more powerful ways. Harnessing collective intellect, facilitated by interactive computers, became his life's mission at a time when computers were viewed as number crunching tools.
As a graduate student at Berkeley, he assisted in the construction of CALDIC. His graduate work led to eight patents. After completing his doctorate, Engelbart stayed on at Berkeley as an assistant professor for a year before departing when it became clear that he could not pursue his vision there. Engelbart then formed a startup company, Digital Techniques, to commercialize some of his doctoral research on storage devices, but after a year decided instead to pursue the research he had been dreaming of since 1951. SRI and the Augmentation Research Center Engelbart took a position at SRI International (known then as Stanford Research Institute) in Menlo Park, California in 1957. He worked for Hewitt Crane on magnetic devices and miniaturization of electronics; Engelbart and Crane became close friends. At SRI, Engelbart soon obtained a dozen patents, Among other highlights, this paper introduced "Building Information Modelling", which architectural and engineering practice eventually adopted (first as "parametric design") in the 1990s and after.
This led to funding from ARPA to launch his work. Engelbart recruited a research team in his new Augmentation Research Center (ARC, the lab he founded at SRI). Engelbart embedded a set of organizing principles in his lab, which he termed "bootstrapping strategy". He designed the strategy to accelerate the rate of innovation of his lab.
The ARC became the driving force behind the design and development of the oN-Line System (NLS). He and his team developed computer interface elements such as bitmapped screens, the mouse, hypertext, collaborative tools, and precursors to the graphical user interface. He conceived and developed many of his user interface ideas in the mid-1960s, long before the personal computer revolution, at a time when most computers were inaccessible to individuals who could only use computers through intermediaries (see batch processing), and when software tended to be written for vertical applications in proprietary systems.
mice, 1986]]
Engelbart applied for a patent in 1967 and received it in 1970, for the wooden shell with two metal wheels (computer mouse – ), which he had developed with Bill English, his lead engineer, sometime before 1965. In the patent application it is described as an "X-Y position indicator for a display system". Engelbart later revealed that it was nicknamed the "mouse" because the tail came out the end. His group also called the on-screen cursor a "bug", but this term was not widely adopted. Engelbart's original cursor was displayed as an arrow pointing upward, but was slanted to the left upon its deployment in the XEROX PARC machine to better distinguish between on-screen text and the cursor in the machine's low-resolution interface. The now-familiar cursor arrow is characterized by a vertical left side and a 45-degree angle on the right.
He never received any royalties for the invention of the mouse. During an interview, he said, "SRI patented the mouse, but they really had no idea of its value. Some years later it was learned that they had licensed it to Apple Computer for something like $40,000." Engelbart showcased the chorded keyboard and many more of his and ARC's inventions in 1968 at The Mother of All Demos. Tymshare and McDonnell Douglas Engelbart slipped into relative obscurity by the mid-1970s. As early as 1970, several of his researchers became alienated from him and left his organization for Xerox PARC, in part due to frustration, and in part due to differing views of the future of computing. Engelbart retired from McDonnell Douglas in 1986, determined to pursue his work free from commercial pressure. while participating in a larger program addressing the IT requirements of the Joint Task Force.
Engelbart was Founder Emeritus of the Doug Engelbart Institute, which he founded in 1988 with his daughter Christina Engelbart, who is executive director. The Institute promotes Engelbart's philosophy for boosting Collective IQ—the concept of dramatically improving how we can solve important problems together—using a strategic bootstrapping approach for accelerating our progress toward that goal. In 2005, Engelbart received a National Science Foundation grant to fund the open source HyperScope project. The Hyperscope team built a browser component using Ajax and Dynamic HTML designed to replicate Augment's multiple viewing and jumping capabilities (linking within and across various documents).<!-- The Doug Engelbart Institute is now based at SRI International. I don't think this is accurate – based on the ref I think they are simply leasing space there. -->
Later years and death
Engelbart attended the Program for the Future 2010 Conference where hundreds of people convened at The Tech Museum in San Jose and online to engage in dialog about how to pursue his vision to augment collective intelligence.
The most complete coverage of Engelbart's bootstrapping ideas can be found in Boosting Our Collective IQ, by Douglas C. Engelbart, 1995. This includes three of Engelbart's key papers, edited into book form by Yuri Rubinsky and Christina Engelbart to commemorate the presentation of the 1995 SoftQuad Web Award to Doug Engelbart at the World Wide Web conference in Boston in December 1995. Only 2,000 softcover copies were printed, and 100 hardcover, numbered and signed by Engelbart and Tim Berners-Lee. Engelbart's book is now being republished by the Doug Engelbart Institute.
Two comprehensive histories of Engelbart's laboratory and work are in What the Dormouse Said: How the Sixties Counterculture Shaped the Personal Computer Industry by John Markoff and ''A Heritage of Innovation: SRI's First Half Century'' by Donald Neilson. Other books on Engelbart and his laboratory include Bootstrapping: Douglas Engelbart, Coevolution, and the Origins of Personal Computing by Thierry Bardini and The Engelbart Hypothesis: Dialogs with Douglas Engelbart, by Valerie Landau and Eileen Clegg in conversation with Douglas Engelbart. All four of these books are based on interviews with Engelbart as well as other contributors in his laboratory.
Engelbart served on the Advisory Boards of the University of Santa Clara Center for Science, Technology, and Society, Foresight Institute,
Engelbart had four children, Gerda, Diana, Christina and Norman with his first wife Ballard, who died in 1997 after 47 years of marriage. He remarried on January 26, 2008, to writer and producer Karen O'Leary Engelbart. An 85th birthday celebration was held at the Tech Museum of Innovation.
Engelbart died at his home in Atherton, California, on July 2, 2013, due to kidney failure. A close friend and fellow computer scientist, Ted Nelson, gave a speech paying tribute to Engelbart. According to the Doug Engelbart Institute, his death came after a long battle with Alzheimer's disease, which he was diagnosed with in 2007. Engelbart was 88 and was survived by his second wife, the four children from his first marriage, and nine grandchildren. Bardini points out that Engelbart was strongly influenced by the principle of linguistic relativity developed by Benjamin Lee Whorf. Where Whorf reasoned that the sophistication of a language controls the sophistication of the thoughts that can be expressed by a speaker of that language, Engelbart reasoned that the state of our current technology controls our ability to manipulate information, and that fact in turn will control our ability to develop new, improved technologies. He thus set himself to the revolutionary task of developing computer-based technologies for manipulating information directly, and also to improve individual and group processes for knowledge-work. In December 1995, at the Fourth WWW Conference in Boston, he was the first recipient of what would later become the Yuri Rubinsky Memorial Award. In 1997, he was awarded the Lemelson-MIT Prize of $500,000, the world's largest single prize for invention and innovation, and the ACM Turing Award. He was inducted into National Inventors Hall of Fame in 1998.
Engelbart was awarded the Stibitz-Wilson Award from the American Computer & Robotics Museum in 1998.
Also in 1998, Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) SIGCHI awarded Engelbart the CHI Lifetime Achievement Award. ACM SIGCHI later inducted Engelbart into the CHI Academy in 2002.
In December 2000, U.S. President Bill Clinton awarded Engelbart the National Medal of Technology, the country's highest technology award. In 2001 he was awarded the British Computer Society's Lovelace Medal. In 2005, he was made a Fellow of the Computer History Museum "for advancing the study of human–computer interaction, developing the mouse input device, and for the application of computers to improving organizational efficiency." Robert X. Cringely did an hour-long interview with Engelbart on December 9, 2005, in his NerdTV video podcast series.
On December 9, 2008, Engelbart was honored at the 40th Anniversary celebration of the 1968 "Mother of All Demos". The event was produced by SRI International and held at Memorial Auditorium at Stanford University. Speakers included several members of Engelbart's original Augmentation Research Center (ARC) team including Don Andrews, Bill Paxton, Bill English, and Jeff Rulifson, Engelbart's chief government sponsor Bob Taylor, and other pioneers of interactive computing, including Andy van Dam and Alan Kay. In addition, Christina Engelbart spoke about her father's early influences and the ongoing work of the Doug Engelbart Institute. In 2011, Engelbart was inducted into IEEE Intelligent Systems' AI's Hall of Fame. Engelbart received the first honorary Doctor of Engineering and Technology degree from Yale University in May 2011. See also
* Dynamic knowledge repository
* Global brain
* List of pioneers in computer science
Notes
References
Further reading
*
* The Doug Engelbart Foundation [http://www.dougengelbart.org/library/books-unauthorized.html claims] the book was not authorized by Douglas Engelbart and he was not a co-author.
*
*
*[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/douglas-engelbart-invented-future-180967498/ How Douglas Engelbart Invented the Future | Innovation | Smithsonian]
External links
* [http://dougengelbart.org/ Doug Engelbart's official Web site and home of the Doug Engelbart Institute] (formerly Bootstrap)
*
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VeSgaJt27PM Douglas Engelbart Interviewed by John Markoff of The New York Times] (recorded March 26, 2002)
* [https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/ft3n39n626/entire_text/ Guide to the Douglas C. Engelbart Papers], Special Collections, Stanford University Libraries (with new accessions added in 2016)
* [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt8778694/?modedesktop&ref_m_ft_dsk The Augmentation of Douglas Engelbart], a documentary film directed by Daniel Silveira, 2018
Category:1925 births
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Category:Computer hardware engineers
Category:Deaths from kidney failure in California
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Engelbart
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Diamond
|
|strunz = 1.CB.10a
|dana = 1.3.6.1
|color = Typically yellow, brown, or gray to colorless. Less often blue, green, black, translucent white, pink, violet, orange, purple, and red.
|habit = Octahedral
|system = Cubic
|class = Hexoctahedral (mm) <br/>H-M symbol: (4/m 2/m)
|symmetry = Fdm (No. 227)
|twinning = Spinel law common (yielding "macle")
|cleavage = 111 (perfect in four directions)
|fracture = Irregular/Uneven
|mohs = 10 (defining mineral)
|luster = Adamantine
|polish = Adamantine
|refractive = 2.418 (at 500 nm)
|opticalprop = Isotropic
|birefringence = None
|dispersion = 0.044
|pleochroism = None
|streak = Colorless
|melt = Pressure dependent
|gravity =
|density
|diaphaneity = Transparent to subtransparent to translucent
|references
|SMILES = C1(C2(C7))C3(C89)C(C4(C0))C5CC1C(C1)C(C5(C5))C36C3(C21)C(C78)C(C1)C(C90)C6(C54)CC1C3
|Jmol = C1(C2(C7))C3(C89)C(C4(C0))C5CC1C(C1)C(C5(C5))C36C3(C21)C(C78)C(C1)C(C90)C6(C54)CC1C3
}}
Diamond is a solid form of the element carbon with its atoms arranged in a crystal structure called diamond cubic. Diamond as a form of carbon is tasteless, odourless, strong, brittle solid, colourless in pure form, a poor conductor of electricity, and insoluble in water. Another solid form of carbon known as graphite is the chemically stable form of carbon at room temperature and pressure, but diamond is metastable and converts to it at a negligible rate under those conditions. Diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any natural material, properties that are used in major industrial applications such as cutting and polishing tools. They are also the reason that diamond anvil cells can subject materials to pressures found deep in the Earth.
Because the arrangement of atoms in diamond is extremely rigid, few types of impurity can contaminate it (two exceptions are boron and nitrogen). Small numbers of defects or impurities (about one per million of lattice atoms) can color a diamond blue (boron), yellow (nitrogen), brown (defects), green (radiation exposure), purple, pink, orange, or red. Diamond also has a very high refractive index and a relatively high optical dispersion.
Most natural diamonds have ages between 1 billion and 3.5 billion years. Most were formed at depths between in the Earth's mantle, although a few have come from as deep as . Under high pressure and temperature, carbon-containing fluids dissolved various minerals and replaced them with diamonds. Much more recently (hundreds to tens of million years ago), they were carried to the surface in volcanic eruptions and deposited in igneous rocks known as kimberlites and lamproites.
Synthetic diamonds can be grown from high-purity carbon under high pressures and temperatures or from hydrocarbon gases by chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Natural and synthetic diamonds are most commonly distinguished using optical techniques or thermal conductivity measurements. Properties
Diamond is a solid form of pure carbon with its atoms arranged in a crystal. Solid carbon comes in different forms known as allotropes depending on the type of chemical bond. The two most common allotropes of pure carbon are diamond and graphite. In graphite, the bonds are sp<sup>2</sup> orbital hybrids and the atoms form in planes, with each bound to three nearest neighbors, 120 degrees apart. In diamond, they are sp<sup>3</sup> and the atoms form tetrahedra, with each bound to four nearest neighbors. Tetrahedra are rigid, the bonds are strong, and, of all known substances, diamond has the greatest number of atoms per unit volume, which is why it is both the hardest and the least compressible. It also has a high density, ranging from 3150 to 3530 kilograms per cubic metre (over three times the density of water) in natural diamonds and 3520 kg/m in pure diamond. In graphite, the bonds between nearest neighbors are even stronger, but the bonds between parallel adjacent planes are weak, so the planes easily slip past each other. Thus, graphite is much softer than diamond. However, the stronger bonds make graphite less flammable.
Diamonds have been adopted for many uses because of the material's exceptional physical characteristics. It has the highest thermal conductivity and the highest sound velocity. It has low adhesion and friction, and its coefficient of thermal expansion is extremely low. Its optical transparency extends from the far infrared to the deep ultraviolet and it has high optical dispersion. It also has high electrical resistance. It is chemically inert, not reacting with most corrosive substances, and has excellent biological compatibility.
Thermodynamics
of carbon]]
The equilibrium pressure and temperature conditions for a transition between graphite and diamond are well established theoretically and experimentally. The equilibrium pressure varies linearly with temperature, between at and at (the diamond/graphite/liquid triple point). However, the phases have a wide region about this line where they can coexist. At standard temperature and pressure, and , the stable phase of carbon is graphite, but diamond is metastable, with a significant kinetic energy barrier that the atoms must overcome in order to reach the lower energy state, and its rate of conversion to graphite is negligible, with a timescale of millions to billions of years.
Rapid conversion of graphite to diamond requires pressures well above the equilibrium line: at , a pressure of (about 350,000 standard atmospheres) is needed. At high pressures, silicon and germanium have a BC8 body-centered cubic crystal structure, and a similar structure is predicted for carbon at high pressures. At , the transition is predicted to occur at .
Results published in Nature Physics in 2010 suggest that, at ultra-high pressures and temperatures (about 10 million atmospheres or 1 TPa and 50,000 °C), diamond melts into a metallic fluid. The extreme conditions required for this to occur are present in the ice giant planets Neptune and Uranus, both of which are made up of approximately 10 percent carbon and could hypothetically contain oceans of liquid carbon. Since large quantities of metallic fluid can affect the magnetic field, this could serve to explain why the geographic and magnetic poles of the two planets are not aligned. Crystal structure
The most common crystal structure of diamond is called diamond cubic. It is formed of unit cells (see the figure) stacked together. Although there are 18 atoms in the figure, each corner atom is shared by eight unit cells and each atom in the center of a face is shared by two, so there are a total of eight atoms per unit cell. The length of each side of the unit cell is denoted by a and is 3.567 angstroms.
The nearest neighbor distance in the diamond lattice is 1.732a/4 where a is the lattice constant, usually given in Angstrøms as a = 3.567 Å, which is 0.3567 nm.
A diamond cubic lattice can be thought of as two interpenetrating face-centered cubic lattices with one displaced by of the diagonal along a cubic cell, or as one lattice with two atoms associated with each lattice point.
Crystal habit
Diamonds occur most often as euhedral or rounded octahedra and twinned octahedra known as macles. As diamond's crystal structure has a cubic arrangement of the atoms, they have many facets that belong to a cube, octahedron, rhombicosidodecahedron, tetrakis hexahedron, or disdyakis dodecahedron. The crystals can have rounded-off and unexpressive edges and can be elongated. Diamonds (especially those with rounded crystal faces) are commonly found coated in nyf, an opaque gum-like skin.
Some diamonds contain opaque fibers. They are referred to as opaque if the fibers grow from a clear substrate or fibrous if they occupy the entire crystal. Their colors range from yellow to green or gray, sometimes with cloud-like white to gray impurities. Their most common shape is cuboidal, but they can also form octahedra, dodecahedra, macles, or combined shapes. The structure is the result of numerous impurities with sizes between 1 and 5 microns. These diamonds probably formed in kimberlite magma and sampled the volatiles.
Diamonds can also form polycrystalline aggregates. There have been attempts to classify them into groups with names such as boart, ballas, stewartite, and framesite, but there is no widely accepted set of criteria. It has never been observed in a volcanic rock. There are many theories for its origin, including formation in a star, but no consensus.
Mechanical
Hardness
er.]]
Diamond is the hardest material on the qualitative Mohs scale. To conduct the quantitative Vickers hardness test, samples of materials are struck with a pyramid of standardized dimensions using a known force – a diamond crystal is used for the pyramid to permit a wide range of materials to be tested. From the size of the resulting indentation, a Vickers hardness value for the material can be determined. Diamond's great hardness relative to other materials has been known since antiquity, and is the source of its name. This does not mean that it is infinitely hard, indestructible, or unscratchable. Indeed, diamonds can be scratched by other diamonds and worn down over time even by softer materials, such as vinyl phonograph records.
Diamond hardness depends on its purity, crystalline perfection, and orientation: hardness is higher for flawless, pure crystals oriented to the <111> direction (along the longest diagonal of the cubic diamond lattice). Therefore, whereas it might be possible to scratch some diamonds with other materials, such as boron nitride, the hardest diamonds can only be scratched by other diamonds and nanocrystalline diamond aggregates.
The hardness of diamond contributes to its suitability as a gemstone. Because it can only be scratched by other diamonds, it maintains its polish extremely well. Unlike many other gems, it is well-suited to daily wear because of its resistance to scratching—perhaps contributing to its popularity as the preferred gem in engagement or wedding rings, which are often worn every day.
The hardest natural diamonds mostly originate from the Copeton and Bingara fields located in the New England area in New South Wales, Australia. These diamonds are generally small, perfect to semiperfect octahedra, and are used to polish other diamonds. Their hardness is associated with the crystal growth form, which is single-stage crystal growth. Most other diamonds show more evidence of multiple growth stages, which produce inclusions, flaws, and defect planes in the crystal lattice, all of which affect their hardness. It is possible to treat regular diamonds under a combination of high pressure and high temperature to produce diamonds that are harder than the diamonds used in hardness gauges.
Diamonds cut glass, but this does not positively identify a diamond because other materials, such as quartz, also lie above glass on the Mohs scale and can also cut it. Diamonds can scratch other diamonds, but this can result in damage to one or both stones. Hardness tests are infrequently used in practical gemology because of their potentially destructive nature. these tend to result in extremely flat, highly polished facets with exceptionally sharp facet edges. Diamonds also possess an extremely high refractive index and fairly high dispersion. Taken together, these factors affect the overall appearance of a polished diamond and most diamantaires still rely upon skilled use of a loupe (magnifying glass) to identify diamonds "by eye".
Toughness
Somewhat related to hardness is another mechanical property toughness, which is a material's ability to resist breakage from forceful impact. The toughness of natural diamond has been measured as 50–65 MPa·m<sup>1/2</sup>.{{contradiction inline|reasonUnit of toughness as given at the article on toughness is newton-metres per cubic metre, dimensionally equivalent to newtons per square metre i.e. pascals. What is this factor of m^{1/2} doing here? Should we actually be talking about and linking to Fracture toughness (which unfortunately doesn't have a discussion of units)?|dateOctober 2023}} This value is good compared to other ceramic materials, but poor compared to most engineering materials such as engineering alloys, which typically exhibit toughness over 80MPa·m<sup>1/2</sup>. As with any material, the macroscopic geometry of a diamond contributes to its resistance to breakage. Diamond has a cleavage plane and is therefore more fragile in some orientations than others. Diamond cutters use this attribute to cleave some stones before faceting them. This exceptionally high value, along with the hardness and transparency of diamond, are the reasons that diamond anvil cells are the main tool for high pressure experiments. These anvils have reached pressures of . Much higher pressures may be possible with nanocrystalline diamonds. with a maximum local tensile stress of about , very close to the theoretical limit for this material.
Electrical conductivity
Other specialized applications also exist or are being developed, including use as semiconductors: some blue diamonds are natural semiconductors, in contrast to most diamonds, which are excellent electrical insulators. The conductivity and blue color originate from boron impurity. Boron substitutes for carbon atoms in the diamond lattice, donating a hole into the valence band.
Substantial conductivity is commonly observed in nominally undoped diamond grown by chemical vapor deposition. This conductivity is associated with hydrogen-related species adsorbed at the surface, and it can be removed by annealing or other surface treatments.
Thin needles of diamond can be made to vary their electronic band gap from the normal 5.6 eV to near zero by selective mechanical deformation.
High-purity diamond wafers 5 cm in diameter exhibit perfect resistance in one direction and perfect conductance in the other, creating the possibility of using them for quantum data storage. The material contains only 3 parts per million of nitrogen. The diamond was grown on a stepped substrate, which eliminated cracking. Surface property Diamonds are naturally lipophilic and hydrophobic, which means the diamonds' surface cannot be wet by water, but can be easily wet and stuck by oil. This property can be utilized to extract diamonds using oil when making synthetic diamonds. However, when diamond surfaces are chemically modified with certain ions, they are expected to become so hydrophilic that they can stabilize multiple layers of water ice at human body temperature.
The surface of diamonds is partially oxidized. The oxidized surface can be reduced by heat treatment under hydrogen flow. That is to say, this heat treatment partially removes oxygen-containing functional groups. But diamonds (sp<sup>3</sup>C) are unstable against high temperature (above about ) under atmospheric pressure. The structure gradually changes into sp<sup>2</sup>C above this temperature. Thus, diamonds should be reduced below this temperature.
Chemical stability
At room temperature, diamonds do not react with any chemical reagents including strong acids and bases.
In an atmosphere of pure oxygen, diamond has an ignition point that ranges from to ; smaller crystals tend to burn more easily. It increases in temperature from red to white heat and burns with a pale blue flame, and continues to burn after the source of heat is removed. By contrast, in air the combustion will cease as soon as the heat is removed because the oxygen is diluted with nitrogen. A clear, flawless, transparent diamond is completely converted to carbon dioxide; any impurities will be left as ash. Heat generated from cutting a diamond will not ignite the diamond, and neither will a cigarette lighter, but house fires and blow torches are hot enough. Jewelers must be careful when molding the metal in a diamond ring.
Diamond powder of an appropriate grain size (around 50microns) burns with a shower of sparks after ignition from a flame. Consequently, pyrotechnic compositions based on synthetic diamond powder can be prepared. The resulting sparks are of the usual red-orange color, comparable to charcoal, but show a very linear trajectory which is explained by their high density. Diamond also reacts with fluorine gas above about . Color
in Washington, D.C.]]
]]
Diamond has a wide band gap of corresponding to the deep ultraviolet wavelength of 225nanometers. This means that pure diamond should transmit visible light and appear as a clear colorless crystal. Colors in diamond originate from lattice defects and impurities. The diamond crystal lattice is exceptionally strong, and only atoms of nitrogen, boron, and hydrogen can be introduced into diamond during the growth at significant concentrations (up to atomic percents). Transition metals nickel and cobalt, which are commonly used for growth of synthetic diamond by high-pressure high-temperature techniques, have been detected in diamond as individual atoms; the maximum concentration is 0.01% for nickel and even less for cobalt. Virtually any element can be introduced to diamond by ion implantation.
Nitrogen is by far the most common impurity found in gem diamonds and is responsible for the yellow and brown color in diamonds. Boron is responsible for the blue color. Color in diamond has two additional sources: irradiation (usually by alpha particles), that causes the color in green diamonds, and plastic deformation of the diamond crystal lattice. Plastic deformation is the cause of color in some brown and perhaps pink and red diamonds. In order of increasing rarity, yellow diamond is followed by brown, colorless, then by blue, green, black, pink, orange, purple, and red. In May 2009, a blue diamond fetched the highest price per carat ever paid for a diamond when it was sold at auction for 10.5 million Swiss francs (6.97 million euros, or US$9.5 million at the time). That record was, however, beaten the same year: a vivid pink diamond was sold for US$10.8 million in Hong Kong on December 1, 2009. Clarity Clarity is one of the 4C's (color, clarity, cut and carat weight) that helps in identifying the quality of diamonds. The Gemological Institute of America (GIA) developed 11 clarity scales to decide the quality of a diamond for its sale value. The GIA clarity scale spans from Flawless (FL) to included (I) having internally flawless (IF), very, very slightly included (VVS), very slightly included (VS) and slightly included (SI) in between. Impurities in natural diamonds are due to the presence of natural minerals and oxides. The clarity scale grades the diamond based on the color, size, location of impurity and quantity of clarity visible under 10x magnification. Inclusions in diamond can be extracted by optical methods. The process is to take pre-enhancement images, identifying the inclusion removal part and finally removing the diamond facets and noises. Fluorescence
(top) and normal light (bottom)]]
Between 25% and 35% of natural diamonds exhibit some degree of fluorescence when examined under invisible long-wave ultraviolet light or higher energy radiation sources such as X-rays and lasers. Incandescent lighting will not cause a diamond to fluoresce. Diamonds can fluoresce in a variety of colors including blue (most common), orange, yellow, white, green and very rarely red and purple. Although the causes are not well understood, variations in the atomic structure, such as the number of nitrogen atoms present are thought to contribute to the phenomenon. Thermal conductivity Diamonds can be identified by their high thermal conductivity (900–·K}}). Their high refractive index is also indicative, but other materials have similar refractivity.
Geology
Diamonds are extremely rare, with concentrations of at most parts per billion in source rock. Rarely, they have been found in glacial till (notably in Wisconsin and Indiana), but these deposits are not of commercial quality.
Most diamonds come from the Earth's mantle, and most of this section discusses those diamonds. However, there are other sources. Some blocks of the crust, or terranes, have been buried deep enough as the crust thickened so they experienced ultra-high-pressure metamorphism. These have evenly distributed microdiamonds that show no sign of transport by magma. In addition, when meteorites strike the ground, the shock wave can produce high enough temperatures and pressures for microdiamonds and nanodiamonds to form. Popigai impact structure in Russia may have the world's largest diamond deposit, estimated at trillions of carats, and formed by an asteroid impact.
A common misconception is that diamonds form from highly compressed coal. Coal is formed from buried prehistoric plants, and most diamonds that have been dated are far older than the first land plants. It is possible that diamonds can form from coal in subduction zones, but diamonds formed in this way are rare, and the carbon source is more likely carbonate rocks and organic carbon in sediments, rather than coal. Surface distribution
s of the world. The pink and orange areas are shields and platforms, which together constitute cratons.]]
Diamonds are far from evenly distributed over the Earth. A rule of thumb known as Clifford's rule states that they are almost always found in kimberlites on the oldest part of cratons, the stable cores of continents with typical ages of 2.5billion years or more. However, there are exceptions. The Argyle diamond mine in Australia, the largest producer of diamonds by weight in the world, is located in a mobile belt, also known as an orogenic belt, a weaker zone surrounding the central craton that has undergone compressional tectonics. Instead of kimberlite, the host rock is lamproite. Lamproites with diamonds that are not economically viable are also found in the United States, India, and Australia. It is hybrid rock with a chaotic mixture of small minerals and rock fragments (clasts) up to the size of watermelons. They are a mixture of xenocrysts and xenoliths (minerals and rocks carried up from the lower crust and mantle), pieces of surface rock, altered minerals such as serpentine, and new minerals that crystallized during the eruption. The texture varies with depth. The composition forms a continuum with carbonatites, but the latter have too much oxygen for carbon to exist in a pure form. Instead, it is locked up in the mineral calcite (). Carbon sources The mantle has roughly one billion gigatonnes of carbon (for comparison, the atmosphere-ocean system has about 44,000 gigatonnes). Carbon has two stable isotopes, <sup>12</sup>C and <sup>13</sup>C, in a ratio of approximately 99:1 by mass. Another one was found in the Ellendale Diamond Field in Western Australia in 2021.
In space
Although diamonds on Earth are rare, they are very common in space. In meteorites, about three percent of the carbon is in the form of nanodiamonds, having diameters of a few nanometers. Sufficiently small diamonds can form in the cold of space because their lower surface energy makes them more stable than graphite. The isotopic signatures of some nanodiamonds indicate they were formed outside the Solar System in stars.
High pressure experiments predict that large quantities of diamonds condense from methane into a "diamond rain" on the ice giant planets Uranus and Neptune. Some extrasolar planets may be almost entirely composed of diamond.
Diamonds may exist in carbon-rich stars, particularly white dwarfs. One theory for the origin of carbonado, the toughest form of diamond, is that it originated in a white dwarf or supernova. Diamonds formed in stars may have been the first minerals. Industry
diamond set in a ring]]
The most familiar uses of diamonds today are as gemstones used for adornment, and as industrial abrasives for cutting hard materials. The markets for gem-grade and industrial-grade diamonds value diamonds differently.
Gem-grade diamonds
The dispersion of white light into spectral colors is the primary gemological characteristic of gem diamonds. In the 20th century, experts in gemology developed methods of grading diamonds and other gemstones based on the characteristics most important to their value as a gem. Four characteristics, known informally as the four Cs, are now commonly used as the basic descriptors of diamonds: these are its mass in carats (a carat being equal to 0.2grams), cut (quality of the cut is graded according to proportions, symmetry and polish), color (how close to white or colorless; for fancy diamonds how intense is its hue), and clarity (how free is it from inclusions). A large, flawless diamond is known as a paragon.
A large trade in gem-grade diamonds exists. Although most gem-grade diamonds are sold newly polished, there is a well-established market for resale of polished diamonds (e.g. pawnbroking, auctions, second-hand jewelry stores, diamantaires, bourses, etc.). One hallmark of the trade in gem-quality diamonds is its remarkable concentration: wholesale trade and diamond cutting is limited to just a few locations; in 2003, 92% of the world's diamonds were cut and polished in Surat, India. Other important centers of diamond cutting and trading are the Antwerp diamond district in Belgium, where the International Gemological Institute is based, London, the Diamond District in New York City, the Diamond Exchange District in Tel Aviv and Amsterdam. One contributory factor is the geological nature of diamond deposits: several large primary kimberlite-pipe mines each account for significant portions of market share (such as the Jwaneng mine in Botswana, which is a single large-pit mine that can produce between of diamonds per year). Secondary alluvial diamond deposits, on the other hand, tend to be fragmented amongst many different operators because they can be dispersed over many hundreds of square kilometers (e.g., alluvial deposits in Brazil).
The production and distribution of diamonds is largely consolidated in the hands of a few key players, and concentrated in traditional diamond trading centers, the most important being Antwerp, where 80% of all rough diamonds, 50% of all cut diamonds and more than 50% of all rough, cut and industrial diamonds combined are handled. This makes Antwerp a de facto "world diamond capital". The city of Antwerp also hosts the Antwerpsche Diamantkring, created in 1929 to become the first and biggest diamond bourse dedicated to rough diamonds. Another important diamond center is New York City, where almost 80% of the world's diamonds are sold, including auction sales. but by 2001–2009 the figure had decreased to around 45%, and by 2013 the company's market share had further decreased to around 38% in value terms and even less by volume. De Beers sold off the vast majority of its diamond stockpile in the late 1990s – early 2000s and the remainder largely represents working stock (diamonds that are being sorted before sale). This was well documented in the press but remains little known to the general public.
As a part of reducing its influence, De Beers withdrew from purchasing diamonds on the open market in 1999 and ceased, at the end of 2008, purchasing Russian diamonds mined by the largest Russian diamond company Alrosa. As of January 2011, De Beers states that it only sells diamonds from the following four countries: Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Canada. Alrosa had to suspend their sales in October 2008 due to the global energy crisis, but the company reported that it had resumed selling rough diamonds on the open market by October 2009. Apart from Alrosa, other important diamond mining companies include BHP, which is the world's largest mining company; Rio Tinto, the owner of the Argyle (100%), Diavik (60%), and Murowa (78%) diamond mines; and Petra Diamonds, the owner of several major diamond mines in Africa.
Further down the supply chain, members of The World Federation of Diamond Bourses (WFDB) act as a medium for wholesale diamond exchange, trading both polished and rough diamonds. The WFDB consists of independent diamond bourses in major cutting centers such as Tel Aviv, Antwerp, Johannesburg and other cities across the US, Europe and Asia.
Once purchased by Sightholders (which is a trademark term referring to the companies that have a three-year supply contract with DTC), diamonds are cut and polished in preparation for sale as gemstones ('industrial' stones are regarded as a by-product of the gemstone market; they are used for abrasives). The cutting and polishing of rough diamonds is a specialized skill that is concentrated in a limited number of locations worldwide. Bourses are the final tightly controlled step in the diamond supply chain; wholesalers and even retailers are able to buy relatively small lots of diamonds at the bourses, after which they are prepared for final sale to the consumer. Diamonds can be sold already set in jewelry, or sold unset ("loose"). According to the Rio Tinto, in 2002 the diamonds produced and released to the market were valued at US$9 billion as rough diamonds, US$14 billion after being cut and polished, US$28 billion in wholesale diamond jewelry, and US$57 billion in retail sales.
Cutting
Diamond—an example of unusual diamond cut and jewelry arrangement.]]
Mined rough diamonds are converted into gems through a multi-step process called "cutting". Diamonds are extremely hard, but also brittle and can be split up by a single blow. Therefore, diamond cutting is traditionally considered as a delicate procedure requiring skills, scientific knowledge, tools and experience. Its final goal is to produce a faceted jewel where the specific angles between the facets would optimize the diamond luster, that is dispersion of white light, whereas the number and area of facets would determine the weight of the final product. The weight reduction upon cutting is significant and can be of the order of 50%. Several possible shapes are considered, but the final decision is often determined not only by scientific, but also practical considerations. For example, the diamond might be intended for display or for wear, in a ring or a necklace, singled or surrounded by other gems of certain color and shape. Some of them may be considered as classical, such as round, pear, marquise, oval, hearts and arrows diamonds, etc. Some of them are special, produced by certain companies, for example, Phoenix, Cushion, Sole Mio diamonds, etc.
The most time-consuming part of the cutting is the preliminary analysis of the rough stone. It needs to address a large number of issues, bears much responsibility, and therefore can last years in case of unique diamonds. The following issues are considered:
* The hardness of diamond and its ability to cleave strongly depend on the crystal orientation. Therefore, the crystallographic structure of the diamond to be cut is analyzed using X-ray diffraction to choose the optimal cutting directions.
* Most diamonds contain visible non-diamond inclusions and crystal flaws. The cutter has to decide which flaws are to be removed by the cutting and which could be kept.
* Splitting a diamond with a hammer is difficult, a well-calculated, angled blow can cut the diamond, piece-by-piece, but it can also ruin the diamond itself. Alternatively, it can be cut with a diamond saw, which is a more reliable method.
After initial cutting, the diamond is shaped in numerous stages of polishing. Unlike cutting, which is a responsible but quick operation, polishing removes material by gradual erosion and is extremely time-consuming. The associated technique is well developed; it is considered as a routine and can be performed by technicians. After polishing, the diamond is reexamined for possible flaws, either remaining or induced by the process. Those flaws are concealed through various diamond enhancement techniques, such as repolishing, crack filling, or clever arrangement of the stone in the jewelry. Remaining non-diamond inclusions are removed through laser drilling and filling of the voids produced.
Marketing
Marketing has significantly affected the image of diamond as a valuable commodity.
N. W. Ayer & Son, the advertising firm retained by De Beers in the mid-20th century, succeeded in reviving the American diamond market and the firm created new markets in countries where no diamond tradition had existed before. N. W. Ayer's marketing included product placement, advertising focused on the diamond product itself rather than the De Beers brand, and associations with celebrities and royalty. Without advertising the De Beers brand, De Beers was advertising its competitors' diamond products as well, but this was not a concern as De Beers dominated the diamond market throughout the 20th century. De Beers' market share dipped temporarily to second place in the global market below Alrosa in the aftermath of the global economic crisis of 2008, down to less than 29% in terms of carats mined, rather than sold. The campaign lasted for decades but was effectively discontinued by early 2011. De Beers still advertises diamonds, but the advertising now mostly promotes its own brands, or licensed product lines, rather than completely "generic" diamond products. a jewelry firm which is a 50/50% joint venture between the De Beers mining company and LVMH, the luxury goods conglomerate.
Brown-colored diamonds constituted a significant part of the diamond production, and were predominantly used for industrial purposes. They were seen as worthless for jewelry (not even being assessed on the diamond color scale). After the development of Argyle diamond mine in Australia in 1986, and marketing, brown diamonds have become acceptable gems. The change was mostly due to the numbers: the Argyle mine, with its of diamonds per year, makes about one-third of global production of natural diamonds; 80% of Argyle diamonds are brown. Industrial-grade diamonds
with synthetic diamond blade]]
blade with tiny diamonds shown embedded in the metal]]
]]
Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and thermal conductivity, making many of the gemological characteristics of diamonds, such as the 4 Cs, irrelevant for most applications. Eighty percent of mined diamonds (equal to about annually) are unsuitable for use as gemstones and are used industrially. In addition to mined diamonds, synthetic diamonds found industrial applications almost immediately after their invention in the 1950s; in 2014, of synthetic diamonds were produced, 90% of which were produced in China. Approximately 90% of diamond grinding grit is currently of synthetic origin.
The boundary between gem-quality diamonds and industrial diamonds is poorly defined and partly depends on market conditions (for example, if demand for polished diamonds is high, some lower-grade stones will be polished into low-quality or small gemstones rather than being sold for industrial use). Within the category of industrial diamonds, there is a sub-category comprising the lowest-quality, mostly opaque stones, which are known as bort.
Industrial use of diamonds has historically been associated with their hardness, which makes diamond the ideal material for cutting and grinding tools. As the hardest known naturally occurring material, diamond can be used to polish, cut, or wear away any material, including other diamonds. Common industrial applications of this property include diamond-tipped drill bits and saws, and the use of diamond powder as an abrasive. Less expensive industrial-grade diamonds (bort) with more flaws and poorer color than gems, are used for such purposes. Diamond is not suitable for machining ferrous alloys at high speeds, as carbon is soluble in iron at the high temperatures created by high-speed machining, leading to greatly increased wear on diamond tools compared to alternatives.
Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high-pressure experiments (see diamond anvil cell), high-performance bearings, and limited use in specialized windows.
Mining
Approximately of diamonds are mined annually, with a total value of nearly US$9 billion, and about are synthesized annually.
Roughly 49% of diamonds originate from Central and Southern Africa, although significant sources of the mineral have been discovered in Canada, India, Russia, Brazil, and Australia. The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of powerful businesses, and is also highly concentrated in a small number of locations around the world.
Only a very small fraction of the diamond ore consists of actual diamonds. The ore is crushed, during which care is required not to destroy larger diamonds, and then sorted by density. Today, diamonds are located in the diamond-rich density fraction with the help of X-ray fluorescence, after which the final sorting steps are done by hand. Before the use of X-rays became commonplace,
's Udachnaya diamond mine]]
Historically, diamonds were found only in alluvial deposits in Guntur and Krishna district of the Krishna River delta in Southern India. India led the world in diamond production from the time of their discovery in approximately the 9th century BC to the mid-18th century AD, but the commercial potential of these sources had been exhausted by the late 18th century and at that time India was eclipsed by Brazil where the first non-Indian diamonds were found in 1725.
Diamond extraction from primary deposits (kimberlites and lamproites) started in the 1870s after the discovery of the Diamond Fields in South Africa. Production has increased over time and now an accumulated total of have been mined since that date. Twenty percent of that amount has been mined in the last five years, and during the last 10 years, nine new mines have started production; four more are waiting to be opened soon. Most of these mines are located in Canada, Zimbabwe, Angola, and one in Russia. In 2004, the discovery of a microscopic diamond in the U.S. led to the January 2008 bulk-sampling of kimberlite pipes in a remote part of Montana. The Crater of Diamonds State Park in Arkansas is open to the public, and is the only mine in the world where members of the public can dig for diamonds. In 2005, Russia produced almost one-fifth of the global diamond output, according to the British Geological Survey. Australia boasts the richest diamantiferous pipe, with production from the Argyle diamond mine reaching peak levels of 42metric tons per year in the 1990s. There are also commercial deposits being actively mined in the Northwest Territories of Canada and Brazil. The Kimberley Process aims to ensure that conflict diamonds do not become intermixed with the diamonds not controlled by such rebel groups. This is done by requiring diamond-producing countries to provide proof that the money they make from selling the diamonds is not used to fund criminal or revolutionary activities. Although the Kimberley Process has been moderately successful in limiting the number of conflict diamonds entering the market, some still find their way in. According to the International Diamond Manufacturers Association, conflict diamonds constitute 2–3% of all diamonds traded. Two major flaws still hinder the effectiveness of the Kimberley Process: (1) the relative ease of smuggling diamonds across African borders, and (2) the violent nature of diamond mining in nations that are not in a technical state of war and whose diamonds are therefore considered "clean". to help authenticate Canadian diamonds. This is a stringent tracking system of diamonds and helps protect the "conflict free" label of Canadian diamonds.
Mineral resource exploitation in general causes irreversible environmental damage, which must be weighed against the socio-economic benefits to a country.
Synthetics, simulants, and enhancements
Synthetics
Synthetic diamonds are diamonds manufactured in a laboratory, as opposed to diamonds mined from the Earth. The gemological and industrial uses of diamond have created a large demand for rough stones. This demand has been satisfied in large part by synthetic diamonds, which have been manufactured by various processes for more than half a century. However, in recent years it has become possible to produce gem-quality synthetic diamonds of significant size.
The majority of commercially available synthetic diamonds are yellow and are produced by so-called high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) processes. The yellow color is caused by nitrogen impurities. Other colors may also be reproduced such as blue, green or pink, which are a result of the addition of boron or from irradiation after synthesis.
Another popular method of growing synthetic diamond is chemical vapor deposition (CVD). The growth occurs under low pressure (below atmospheric pressure). It involves feeding a mixture of gases (typically to hydrogen) into a chamber and splitting them into chemically active radicals in a plasma ignited by microwaves, hot filament, arc discharge, welding torch, or laser. This method is mostly used for coatings, but can also produce single crystals several millimeters in size (see picture). Mining companies' expenses average 40 to 60 US dollars per carat for natural colorless diamonds, while synthetic manufacturers' expenses average for synthetic, gem-quality colorless diamonds.
<gallery widths"200px" heights"180px">
File:HPHTdiamonds2.JPG|alt=Six crystals of cubo-octahedral shapes, each about 2 millimeters in diameter. Two are pale blue, one is pale yellow, one is green-blue, one is dark blue and one green-yellow.|Synthetic diamonds of various colors grown by the high-pressure high-temperature technique
File:Apollo synthetic diamond.jpg|alt=A round, clear gemstone with many facets, the main face being hexagonal, surrounded by many smaller facets.|Colorless gem cut from diamond grown by chemical vapor deposition
</gallery>
Simulants
A diamond simulant is a non-diamond material that is used to simulate the appearance of a diamond, and may be referred to as diamante. Cubic zirconia is the most common. The gemstone moissanite (silicon carbide) can be treated as a diamond simulant, though more costly to produce than cubic zirconia. Both are produced synthetically. Enhancements
Diamond enhancements are specific treatments performed on natural or synthetic diamonds (usually those already cut and polished into a gem), which are designed to better the gemological characteristics of the stone in one or more ways. These include laser drilling to remove inclusions, application of sealants to fill cracks, treatments to improve a white diamond's color grade, and treatments to give fancy color to a white diamond.
Coatings are increasingly used to give a diamond simulant such as cubic zirconia a more "diamond-like" appearance. One such substance is diamond-like carbon—an amorphous carbonaceous material that has some physical properties similar to those of the diamond. Advertising suggests that such a coating would transfer some of these diamond-like properties to the coated stone, hence enhancing the diamond simulant. Techniques such as Raman spectroscopy should easily identify such a treatment. Identification
image of a diamond, taken in a scanning electron microscope]]
Early diamond identification tests included a scratch test relying on the superior hardness of diamond. This test is destructive, as a diamond can scratch another diamond, and is rarely used nowadays. Instead, diamond identification relies on its superior thermal conductivity. Electronic thermal probes are widely used in the gemological centers to separate diamonds from their imitations. These probes consist of a pair of battery-powered thermistors mounted in a fine copper tip. One thermistor functions as a heating device while the other measures the temperature of the copper tip: if the stone being tested is a diamond, it will conduct the tip's thermal energy rapidly enough to produce a measurable temperature drop. This test takes about two to three seconds.
Whereas the thermal probe can separate diamonds from most of their simulants, distinguishing between various types of diamond, for example synthetic or natural, irradiated or non-irradiated, etc., requires more advanced, optical techniques. Those techniques are also used for some diamonds simulants, such as silicon carbide, which pass the thermal conductivity test. Optical techniques can distinguish between natural diamonds and synthetic diamonds. They can also identify the vast majority of treated natural diamonds. "Perfect" crystals (at the atomic lattice level) have never been found, so both natural and synthetic diamonds always possess characteristic imperfections, arising from the circumstances of their crystal growth, that allow them to be distinguished from each other.
Several methods for identifying synthetic diamonds can be performed, depending on the method of production and the color of the diamond. CVD diamonds can usually be identified by an orange fluorescence. D–J colored diamonds can be screened through the Swiss Gemmological Institute's Diamond Spotter. Stones in the D–Z color range can be examined through the DiamondSure UV/visible spectrometer, a tool developed by De Beers. Similarly, natural diamonds usually have minor imperfections and flaws, such as inclusions of foreign material, that are not seen in synthetic diamonds.
Screening devices based on diamond type detection can be used to make a distinction between diamonds that are certainly natural and diamonds that are potentially synthetic. Those potentially synthetic diamonds require more investigation in a specialized lab. Examples of commercial screening devices are D-Screen (WTOCD / HRD Antwerp), Alpha Diamond Analyzer (Bruker / HRD Antwerp), and D-Secure (DRC Techno).
Etymology, earliest use and composition discovery
The name diamond is derived from (adámas), 'proper, unalterable, unbreakable, untamed', from ἀ- (a-), 'not' + (damáō), 'to overpower, tame'. Diamonds are thought to have been first recognized and mined in India, where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could be found many centuries ago along the rivers Penner, Krishna, and Godavari. Diamonds have been known in India for at least 3,000years but most likely 6,000years.
Diamonds have been treasured as gemstones since their use as religious icons in ancient India. Their usage in engraving tools also dates to early human history. The popularity of diamonds has risen since the 19th century because of increased supply, improved cutting and polishing techniques, growth in the world economy, and innovative and successful advertising campaigns.
In 1772, the French scientist Antoine Lavoisier used a lens to concentrate the rays of the sun on a diamond in an atmosphere of oxygen, and showed that the only product of the combustion was carbon dioxide, proving that diamond is composed of carbon. Later, in 1797, the English chemist Smithson Tennant repeated and expanded that experiment. By demonstrating that burning diamond and graphite releases the same amount of gas, he established the chemical equivalence of these substances.<ref namehazen/>
See also
* Deep carbon cycle
* Diamondoid
* List of diamonds
** List of largest rough diamonds
* List of minerals
* Superhard material
Citations
General and cited references
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External links
* [http://www.ioffe.ru/SVA/NSM/Semicond/Diamond/index.html Properties of diamond: Ioffe database]
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Category:Abrasives
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Crystals
Category:Cubic minerals
Category:Economic geology
Category:Group IV semiconductors
Category:Impact event minerals
Category:Industrial minerals
Category:Luminescent minerals
Category:Minerals in space group 227
Category:Native element minerals
Category:Transparent materials
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Andre Romell <!--- See citation in Early life section---> Young (born February 18, 1965), known professionally as Dr. Dre, is an American rapper, record producer, record executive, and actor. He is the founder and CEO of Aftermath Entertainment and Beats Electronics, and co-founder of Death Row Records. Dre began his career as a member of the World Class Wreckin' Cru in 1984, and later found fame with the gangsta rap group N.W.A. The group popularized explicit lyrics in hip-hop to detail the violence of street life. During the early 1990s, Dre was credited as a key figure in the crafting and popularization of West Coast G-funk, a subgenre of hip-hop characterized by a synthesizer foundation and slow, heavy production.
Released as Death Row's first major project, Dr. Dre's debut solo album, The Chronic (1992), made him one of the best-selling American music artists of 1993. Its lead single, "Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang" (featuring Snoop Dogg), peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100, while its third, Let Me Ride" won Best Rap Solo Performance at the 36th Annual Grammy Awards. That same year, he produced Death Row labelmate Snoop Dogg's debut album Doggystyle, and mentored producers such as his stepbrother Warren G (leading to the multi-platinum debut Regulate... G Funk Era in 1994) and Snoop Dogg's cousin Daz Dillinger (leading to the double-platinum debut Dogg Food by Tha Dogg Pound in 1995). In 1996, Dre left Death Row Records to establish his own label, Aftermath Entertainment; his compilation album, Dr. Dre Presents: The Aftermath (1996) and second studio album, 2001 (1999) followed thereafter.
During the 2000s, Dr. Dre shifted focus onto production for other artists, occasionally contributing vocals. He signed Eminem in 1998 and 50 Cent in 2002, while extensively contributing to releases by both artists. Aftermath has since signed other artists including the Game, Kendrick Lamar, Anderson .Paak, Silk Sonic, Busta Rhymes, Eve, and Rakim, among others. He has won seven Grammy Awards, including Producer of the Year, Non-Classical. Rolling Stone ranked him number 56 on the list of 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. Outside of music, Dre has acted in films such as Set It Off, The Wash, and Training Day.
Accusations of Dr. Dre's violence against women have been widely publicized. In 1991 he pled no contest to his assault of television host Dee Barnes, for which he was given two years' probation; a related civil suit was settled out of court. In 2015, ex-partner Michel'le accused him of domestic violence. Another of his ex-partners made further accusations, and was granted a restraining order against him. Former labelmate Tairrie B claimed that Dre assaulted her at a party in 1990. Following the release of his third album, Compton (2015), he issued a public apology.Early lifeAndre Romell Young was born in Compton, California, on February 18, 1965, the son of Theodore and Verna Young. His middle name is derived from the Romells, his father's amateur R&B group. His parents married in 1964, separated in 1968, and divorced in 1972. His mother later remarried to Curtis Crayon and had three children: sons Jerome and Tyree (both deceased) and daughter Shameka.
In 1976, Dre began attending Vanguard Junior High School in Compton, but due to gang violence, he transferred to the safer suburban Roosevelt Junior High School. The family moved often and lived in apartments and houses in Compton, Carson, Long Beach, and the Watts and South Central neighborhoods of Los Angeles. Dre has said that he was mostly raised by his grandmother in the New Wilmington Arms housing project in Compton. His mother later married Warren Griffin, which added three step-sisters and one step-brother to the family; the latter would eventually begin rapping under the name Warren G. Dre is also the cousin of producer Sir Jinx.
Dre attended Centennial High School in Compton during his freshman year in 1979, but transferred to Fremont High School in South Central Los Angeles due to poor grades. He attempted to enroll in an apprenticeship program at Northrop Aviation Company, but was ineligible due to poor grades. Thereafter, he focused on his social life and entertainment for the remainder of his high school years.
Dre's frequent absences from school jeopardized his position as a diver on his school's swim team. After high school, he attended Chester Adult School in Compton following his mother's demands for him to get a job or continue his education. After brief attendance at a radio broadcasting school, he relocated to the residence of his father and residence of his grandparents before returning to his mother's house.Musical career1984–1986: World Class Wreckin' CruInspired by the Grandmaster Flash song "The Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel", Dr. Dre often attended a club called Eve's After Dark to watch many DJs and rappers performing live. He subsequently became a DJ in the club, initially under the name "Dr. J", based on the nickname of Julius Erving, his favorite basketball player. At the club, he met aspiring rapper Antoine Carraby, later to become member DJ Yella of N.W.A. Soon afterwards he adopted the moniker Dr. Dre, a mix of previous alias Dr. J and his first name, referring to himself as the "Master of Mixology".
Eve After Dark had a back room with a small four-track studio where Dre and Yella recorded several demos. In their first recording session, they recorded a song entitled "Surgery" in 1984. Dr. Dre's earliest recordings were released in 1994 on a compilation titled Concrete Roots. Critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic described the compiled music, released "several years before Dre developed a distinctive style", as "surprisingly generic and unengaging" and "for dedicated fans only".
Dre later joined the musical group World Class Wreckin' Cru, which released its debut album under the Kru-Cut label in 1985. The group would become stars of the electro-hop scene that dominated early-mid 1980s West Coast hip-hop. "Surgery", which was officially released after being recorded prior to the group's official formation, would prominently feature Dr. Dre on the turntable. The record would become the group's first hit, selling 50,000 copies within the Compton area. Dr. Dre and DJ Yella also performed mixes for local radio station KDAY, boosting ratings for its afternoon rush-hour show The Traffic Jam.1986–1991: N.W.A and Ruthless RecordsIn 1986, Dr. Dre met rapper O'Shea Jackson—known as Ice Cube—who collaborated with him to record songs for Ruthless Records, a hip-hop record label run by local rapper Eazy-E. N.W.A and fellow West Coast rapper Ice-T are widely credited as seminal artists of the gangsta rap genre, a profanity-heavy subgenre of hip-hop, replete with gritty depictions of urban crime and gang lifestyle. Not feeling constricted to racially charged political issues pioneered by rap artists such as Public Enemy or Boogie Down Productions, N.W.A favored themes and uncompromising lyrics, offering stark descriptions of violent, inner-city streets. Propelled by the hit "Fuck tha Police", the group's first full album Straight Outta Compton (1989) became a major success, despite an almost complete absence of radio airplay or major concert tours. The Federal Bureau of Investigation sent Ruthless Records a warning letter in response to the song's content.
After Ice Cube left N.W.A in 1989 over financial disputes, Dr. Dre produced and performed for much of the group's second album Efil4zaggin. He also produced tracks for a number of other acts on Ruthless Records, including Eazy-E's 1988 solo debut Eazy-Duz-It, Above the Law's 1990 debut ''Livin' Like Hustlers'', Michel'le's 1989 self-titled debut, the D.O.C.'s 1989 debut No One Can Do It Better, J.J. Fad's 1988 debut Supersonic and funk rock musician Jimmy Z's 1991 album Muzical Madness.1991–1996: The Chronic and Death Row RecordsAfter a dispute with Eazy-E, Dre left the group at the peak of its popularity in 1991 under the advice of friend, and N.W.A lyricist, the D.O.C. and his bodyguard at the time, Suge Knight. Knight, a notorious strongman and intimidator, was able to have Eazy-E release Young from his contract and, using Dr. Dre as his flagship artist, founded Death Row Records. In 1992, Young released his first single, the title track to the film Deep Cover, a collaboration with rapper Snoop Dogg, whom he met through Warren G.
On the strength of singles such as "Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang", "Let Me Ride", and "Fuck wit Dre Day (and Everybody's Celebratin')" (known as "Dre Day" for radio and television play), all of which featured Snoop Dogg as guest vocalist, The Chronic became a cultural phenomenon, its G-funk sound dominating much of hip-hop music for the early 1990s. and Dr. Dre also won the Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance for his performance on "Let Me Ride". For that year, Billboard magazine also ranked Dr. Dre as the eighth-best-selling musical artist, The Chronic as the sixth-best-selling album, and "Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang" as the 11th-best-selling single.
nominations.]]
Besides working on his own material, Dr. Dre produced Snoop Dogg's debut album Doggystyle, which became the first debut album for an artist to enter the Billboard 200 album charts at number one. In 1994 Dr. Dre produced some songs on the soundtracks to the films Above the Rim and Murder Was the Case. He collaborated with fellow N.W.A member Ice Cube for the song "Natural Born Killaz" in 1995.
In 1995, Death Row Records signed rapper 2Pac, and began to position him as their major star: he collaborated with Dr. Dre on the commercially successful single "California Love", which became both artists' first song to top the Billboard Hot 100. However, in March 1996 Young left the label amidst a contract dispute and growing concerns that label boss Suge Knight was corrupt, financially dishonest and out of control. Later that year, he formed his own label, Aftermath Entertainment, under the distribution label for Death Row Records, Interscope Records.
Dr. Dre also appeared on the single "No Diggity" by R&B group Blackstreet in 1996: it too was a sales success, topping the Hot 100 for four consecutive weeks, and later won the award for Best R&B Vocal by a Duo or Group at the 1997 Grammy Awards. After hearing it for the first time, several of Dr. Dre's former Death Row colleagues, including 2Pac, recorded and attempted to release a song titled "Toss It Up", containing numerous insults aimed at Dr. Dre and using a deliberately similar instrumental to "No Diggity", but were forced to replace the production after Blackstreet sent the label a cease and desist letter stopping them from distributing the song.
1996–2000: Move to Aftermath Entertainment and 2001
The Dr. Dre Presents the Aftermath album, released on November 26, 1996, featured songs by Dr. Dre himself, as well as by newly signed Aftermath Entertainment artists, and a solo track "Been There, Done That", intended as a symbolic farewell to gangsta rap. Despite being certified platinum by the RIAA, In 1997, Dr. Dre produced several tracks on the Firm's The Album; it was met with largely negative reviews from critics. Rumors began to abound that Aftermath was facing financial difficulties. Aftermath Entertainment also faced a trademark infringement lawsuit by the underground thrash metal band Aftermath.
First Round Knock Out, a compilation of various tracks produced and performed by Dr. Dre, was also released in 1996, with material ranging from World Class Wreckin' Cru to N.W.A to Death Row recordings. Dr. Dre chose to take no part in the ongoing East Coast–West Coast hip-hop rivalry of the time, instead producing for, and appearing on, several New York artists' releases, such as Nas' "Nas Is Coming", LL Cool J's "Zoom" and Jay-Z's "Watch Me".
The turning point for Aftermath came in 1998, when Dre's close friend, Jimmy Iovine, the co-founder of Interscope Records (parent label for Aftermath), suggested that Dr. Dre sign Eminem, a white rapper from Detroit. Dre produced three songs and provided vocals for two on Eminem's successful and controversial debut album The Slim Shady LP, released in 1999. The Dr. Dre-produced lead single from that album, "My Name Is", brought Eminem to public attention for the first time, and the success of The Slim Shady LP – it reached number two on the Billboard 200 and received general acclaim from critics – revived the label's commercial ambitions and viability.
in Albany, New York, July 2000]]
Dr. Dre's second solo album, 2001, released on November 16, 1999, was considered an ostentatious return to his gangsta rap roots. It was initially titled The Chronic 2000 to imply being a sequel to his debut solo effort The Chronic but was re-titled 2001 after Death Row Records released an unrelated compilation album with the title Suge Knight Represents: Chronic 2000 in May 1999. Other tentative titles included The Chronic 2001 and Dr. Dre. and has since been certified six times platinum, Dr. Dre won the Grammy Award for Producer of the Year, Non-Classical in 2000,
2000–2010: Focus on production and Detox
Following the success of 2001, Dr. Dre focused on producing songs and albums for other artists. He co-produced six tracks on Eminem's landmark Marshall Mathers LP, including the Grammy-winning lead single, "The Real Slim Shady". The album itself earned a Grammy and proved to be the fastest-selling rap album of all time, moving 1.76 million units in its first week alone. He produced the single "Family Affair" by R&B singer Mary J. Blige for her album No More Drama in 2001. He also produced "Let Me Blow Ya Mind", a duet by rapper Eve and No Doubt lead singer Gwen Stefani and signed R&B singer Truth Hurts to Aftermath in 2001.
Dr. Dre produced and rapped on singer and Interscope labelmate Bilal's 2001 single "Fast Lane", which barely missed the Top 40 of the R&B charts. He later assisted in the production of Bilal's second album, Love for Sale, which Interscope controversially shelved because of its creative direction. Dr. Dre was the executive producer of Eminem's 2002 release, The Eminem Show. He produced three songs on the album, one of which was released as a single, and he appeared in the video for "Without Me". He also produced the D.O.C.'s 2003 album Deuce, where he made a guest appearance on the tracks "Psychic Pymp Hotline", "Gorilla Pympin'" and "Judgment Day".
In 2002, Dr. Dre signed rapper 50 Cent to Aftermath in a joint venture between Interscope and Eminem's Shady Records. Dr. Dre served as executive producer for 50 Cent's commercially successful February 2003 debut studio album Get Rich or Die Tryin'. Dr. Dre produced or co-produced four tracks on the album, including the hit single "In da Club". Eminem's fourth album since joining Aftermath, Encore, again saw Dre taking on the role of executive producer, and this time he was more actively involved in the music, producing or co-producing a total of eight tracks, including three singles.
Dr. Dre also produced "How We Do", a 2005 hit single from rapper the Game from his album The Documentary, as well as tracks on 50 Cent's successful second album The Massacre. For an issue of Rolling Stone magazine in April 2005, Dr. Dre was ranked 54th out of 100 artists for Rolling Stone magazine's list "The Immortals: The Greatest Artists of All Time". Kanye West wrote the summary for Dr. Dre, where he stated Dr. Dre's song "Xxplosive" as where he "got (his) whole sound from".
In November 2006, Dr. Dre began working with Raekwon on his album Only Built 4 Cuban Linx II. He also produced tracks for the rap albums Buck the World by Young Buck, Curtis by 50 Cent, Tha Blue Carpet Treatment by Snoop Dogg, and Kingdom Come by Jay-Z. Dre also appeared on Timbaland's track "Bounce", from his 2007 solo album, Timbaland Presents Shock Value alongside, Missy Elliott, and Justin Timberlake. During this period, the D.O.C. stated that Dre had been working with him on his fourth album Voices through Hot Vessels, which he planned to release after Detox arrived.
Planned but unreleased albums during Dr. Dre's tenure at Aftermath have included a full-length reunion with Snoop Dogg titled Breakup to Makeup, an album with fellow former N.W.A member Ice Cube which was to be titled Heltah Skeltah,
In 2007, Dr. Dre's third studio album, formerly known as Detox, was slated to be his final studio album. Work for the upcoming album dates back to 2001, Later that same year, he decided to stop working on the album to focus on producing for other artists, but then changed his mind; the album had initially been set for a fall 2005 release. Producers confirmed to work on the album include DJ Khalil, Nottz, Bernard "Focus" Edwards Jr., Hi-Tek, J.R. Rotem, RZA, and Jay-Z. Snoop Dogg claimed that Detox was finished, according to a June 2008 report by Rolling Stone magazine.
After another delay based on producing other artists' work, Detox was then scheduled for a 2010 release, coming after 50 Cent's Before I Self Destruct and Eminem's Relapse, an album for which Dr. Dre handled the bulk of production duties. In a Dr Pepper commercial that debuted on May 28, 2009, he premiered the first official snippet of Detox. 50 Cent and Eminem asserted in a 2009 interview on BET's 106 & Park that Dr. Dre had around a dozen songs finished for Detox.
On December 15, 2008, Dre appeared in the remix of the song "Set It Off" by Canadian rapper Kardinal Offishall (also with Pusha T); the remix debuted on DJ Skee's radio show. At the beginning of 2009, Dre produced, and made a guest vocal performance on, the single "Crack a Bottle" by Eminem and the single sold a record 418,000 downloads in its first week and reached the top of the Billboard Hot 100 chart on the week of February 12, 2009. Along with this single, in 2009 Dr. Dre produced or co-produced 19 of 20 tracks on Eminem's album Relapse. These included other hit singles "We Made You", "Old Time's Sake", and "3 a.m." (The only track Dre did not produce was the Eminem-produced single "Beautiful".).
On April 20, 2010, "Under Pressure", featuring Jay-Z and co-produced with Scott Storch, was confirmed by Jimmy Iovine and Dr. Dre during an interview at Fenway Park as the album's first single. The song leaked prior to its intended release in an unmixed, unmastered form without a chorus on June 16, 2010; however, critical reaction to the song was lukewarm, and Dr. Dre later announced in an interview that the song, along with any other previously leaked tracks from Detoxs recording process, would not appear on the final version of the album.
Two genuine singles – "Kush", a collaboration with Snoop Dogg and fellow rapper Akon, and "I Need a Doctor" with Eminem and singer Skylar Grey – were released in the United States during November 2010 and February 2011 respectively: the latter achieved international chart success, reaching number four on the Billboard Hot 100 and later being certified double platinum by the RIAA and the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). On June 25, 2010, the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers honored Dr. Dre with its Founders Award for inspiring other musicians.
2010–2020: The Planets, hiatus, Coachella, and Compton
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In an August 2010 interview, Dr. Dre stated that an instrumental album, The Planets, was in its first stages of production; each song being named after a planet in the Solar System. On September 3, Dr. Dre showed support to longtime protégé Eminem, and appeared on his and Jay-Z's Home & Home Tour, performing hit songs such as "Still D.R.E.", "Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang", and "Crack a Bottle", alongside Eminem and another protégé, 50 Cent. Sporting an "R.I.P. Proof" shirt, Dre was honored by Eminem telling Detroit's Comerica Park to do the same. They did so, by chanting "DEEE-TOX", to which he replied, "I'm coming!"
On November 14, 2011, Dre announced that he would be taking a break from music after he finished producing for artists Slim the Mobster and Kendrick Lamar. In this break, he stated that he would "work on bringing his Beats By Dre to a standard as high as Apple" and would also spend time with his family. On January 9, 2012, Dre headlined the final nights of the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in April 2012.
In June 2014, Marsha Ambrosius stated that she had been working on Detox, but added that the album would be known under another title . In September 2014, Aftermath in-house producer Dawaun Parker confirmed the title change and stated that over 300 beats had been created for the album over the years, but few of them have had vocals recorded over them.
The length of time that Detox had been recorded for, as well as the limited amount of material that had been officially released or leaked from the recording sessions, had given it considerable notoriety within the music industry. Numerous release dates (including the ones mentioned above) had been given for the album over the years since it was first announced, although none of them transpired to be genuine. Several musicians closely affiliated with Dr. Dre, including Snoop Dogg, fellow rappers 50 Cent, the Game and producer DJ Quik, had speculated in interviews that the album will never be released, due to Dr. Dre's business and entrepreneurial ventures having interfered with recording work, as well as causing him to lose motivation to record new material.
On August 1, 2015, Dre announced that he would release what would be his final album, titled Compton. It is inspired by the N.W.A biopic, Straight Outta Compton, and is a compilation-style album, featuring a number of frequent collaborators, including Eminem, Snoop Dogg, Kendrick Lamar, Xzibit and the Game, among others. It was initially released on Apple Music on August 7, with a retail version releasing on August 21. In an interview with Rolling Stone, he revealed that he had about 20 to 40 tracks for Detox but he did not release it because it did not meet his standards. Dre also revealed that he suffers from social anxiety and due to this, remains secluded and out of attention.
On February 12, 2016, it was revealed that Apple would create its first original scripted television series for its then-upcoming Apple TV+ streaming service. Titled Vital Signs, it was set to reflect Dre's life. before the show's cancellation sometime in September 2018, due to its graphic depictions of drugs, gun violence and sex. In October 2016, Sean Combs brought out Dr. Dre, Snoop Dogg and others on his Bad Boy reunion tour.
In 2018, he produced four songs on Oxnard by Anderson .Paak. He was the executive producer on the album, as so its follow-up, 2019's Ventura.
2020–2023: return to production and Super Bowl halftime show
Dr. Dre was the executive producer of Eminem's 2020 release, Music to Be Murdered By. He produced four songs on the album. He also produced two songs on the deluxe edition of the album, Side B, and appeared on the song, "Gunz Blazing". On September 30, 2021, it was revealed that Dre would perform at the Super Bowl LVI halftime show alongside Eminem, Snoop Dogg, Mary J. Blige, and Kendrick Lamar.
In December 2021, an update for the video game, Grand Theft Auto Online, predominantly featured Dre and added some of his previously unreleased tracks which was released as an EP, The Contract, on February 3, 2022. Around this time, Dre announced he was collaborating with Marsha Ambrosius on Casablanco, and with Mary J. Blige on an upcoming album. Later that year, Snoop Dogg announced that he and Dr. Dre are in the process of recording their new album, Missionary. Snoop said the album will be released via Death Row and Aftermath.
On February 13, 2022, Dr. Dre performed at the Super Bowl LVI halftime show alongside Eminem, Snoop Dogg, Kendrick Lamar, and Mary J. Blige, with surprise appearances from 50 Cent and Anderson .Paak. The performance was met with critical acclaim and is the first Super Bowl halftime show to win the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Special (Live). The show also won the Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Production Design for a Variety Special and Outstanding Music Direction. The same year, he produced numerous songs including "The King and I", a collaboration between Eminem and CeeLo Green for the 2022 biopic, Elvis, and a remix of Kanye West's song "Use This Gospel" for DJ Khaled's album God Did, the latter of whom was originally intended for Kanye West and Dr. Dre's joint gospel album, Jesus Is King Part II, which remains unreleased, even though it surfaced online in leaks around September 2023.
In September 2022, it was reported that Dr. Dre will compose the original score for the upcoming animated series, Death for Hire: The Origin of Tehk City. The show is created by Ice-T and Arabian Prince; based on the graphic novel of the same title, it features the voice talent of Ice-T, his wife Coco Austin, Snoop Dogg, Busta Rhymes, and Treach among others.
In February 2023, Dre and Marsha Ambrosius held a listening party for the Casablanco album in Los Angeles. The album was released on June 28, 2024, through Aftermath Entertainment and received critical acclaim. 2024–present: Collaborations with Snoop Dogg, Missionary In February 2024, Snoop launched a range of pre-mixed cocktails with Dr. Dre named after their hit single, Gin and Juice. Flavours include apricot, citrus, melon and passionfruit. A short prohibition themed trailer was created to support the release. A gin called "Still G.I.N.", a reference to the track Still D.R.E., was also released later in 2024. The Venetian glass bottle was designed by Ini Archibong. The album received generally mixed reviews from music critics.
Later in 2024, Snoop Dogg announced a new album coming out called Missionary'', entirely produced by Dr. Dre, serving as a spiritual sequel to Snoop Dogg's first album Doggystyle, which was also produced by Dr. Dre. The album features guest appearances from Eminem, Dr. Dre, 50 Cent, Method Man, and Sting, and received generally favorable reviews with praise directed towards Snoop's lyrics and Dr. Dre's production.Other venturesFilm appearancesDr. Dre made his first on screen appearance as a weapons dealer in the 1996 bank robbery movie Set It Off.<!-- The movie "Who's the Man?" starred the DJ Doctor Dre, not this Dr. Dre --> In 2001, Dr. Dre also appeared in the movies The Wash and Training Day. A song of his, "Bad Intentions" (featuring Knoc-Turn'Al and produced by Mahogany), was featured on The Wash soundtrack. Dr. Dre also appeared on two other songs "On the Blvd." and "The Wash" along with his co-star Snoop Dogg. <!-- "Set it Off" did not feature Dr. Dre but Doctor Dré a DJ, please do not feature this film here -->
Crucial Films
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In February 2007, it was announced that Dr. Dre would produce dark comedies and horror films for New Line Cinema-owned company Crucial Films, along with longtime video director Phillip Atwell. Dr. Dre announced "This is a natural switch for me, since I've directed a lot of music videos, and I eventually want to get into directing." Along with fellow member Ice Cube, Dr. Dre produced Straight Outta Compton (2015), a biographical film about N.W.A.Entrepreneurship Beats Electronics In 2006, Dre co-founded Beats Electronics with his partner, Jimmy Iovine. Its first brand of headphones were launched in July 2008. The line consisted of Beats Studio, a circumaural headphone; Beats Tour, an in-ear headphone; Beats Solo & Solo HD, a supra-aural headphone; Beats Spin; Heartbeats by Lady Gaga, also an in-ear headphone; and Diddy Beats. In late 2009, Hewlett-Packard participated in a deal to bundle Beats By Dr. Dre with some HP laptops and headsets. HP and Dr. Dre announced the deal on October 9, 2009, at a press event. An exclusive laptop, known as the HP ENVY 15 Beats limited edition, was released for sale October 22. In January 2014, Beats Music was introduced and launched as a streaming service. Then, in May, technology giant Apple purchased the Beats brand for $3.4 billion. The deal made Dr. Dre the "richest man in hip-hop". Dr. Dre became an Apple employee in an executive role, and worked with Apple for years. As of 2022, it was found that Apple had subtracted $200 million from the deal after entertainer Tyrese Gibson revealed the news of the acquisition on social media a month before it was completed without the company's permission.
Philanthropy
During May 2013, Dr. Dre and Jimmy Iovine donated a $70-million endowment to the University of Southern California to create the USC Jimmy Iovine and Andre Young Academy for Arts, Technology and the Business of Innovation. The goal of the academy has been stated as "to shape the future by nurturing the talents, passions, leadership and risk-taking of uniquely qualified students who are motivated to explore and create new art forms, technologies, and business models." The first class of the academy began in September 2014.
In June 2017, it was announced that Dr. Dre had committed $10 million to the construction of a performing arts center for the new Compton High School. The center will encompass creative resources and a 1,200-seat theater, and is expected to break ground in 2020. The project is a partnership between Dr. Dre and the Compton Unified School District.Commercial endorsementsIn 2002 and 2003, Dr. Dre appeared in TV commercials for Coors Light beer.
Beginning in 2009, Dr. Dre appeared in TV commercials that also featured his Beats Electronics product line. A 2009 commercial for the Dr Pepper soft drink had Dr. Dre DJing with Beats headphones and playing a brief snippet off the never-released Detox album.Dr. Dre started Burning Man rumorsAn urban legend surfaced in 2011 when a Tumblr blog titled Dr. Dre Started Burning Man began promulgating the notion that the producer, rapper and entrepreneur had discovered Burning Man in 1995 during a music video shoot and offered to cover the cost of the event's permit from the Nevada Bureau of Land Management under an agreement with the festival's organizers that he could institute an entrance fee system, which had not existed before his participation. This claim was supported by an alleged letter from Dre to Nicole Threatt Young that indicated that Dre had shared his experience witnessing the Burning Man festival with her.
Business Insider mentions the portion of the letter where Dr. Dre purportedly states "someone should get behind this ... and make some money off these fools" and compares Dr. Dre's potential entrepreneurial engagement with Burning Man as a parallel to Steve Jobs's efforts to centralize and profit from the otherwise unorganized online music industry. According to Salon, Dr. Dre's ethos seems to be aligned with seven of the ten principles of the Burning Man community: "radical self-reliance, radical self-expression, communal effort, civic responsibility, leaving no trace, participation and immediacy."}}Production style
Dre is noted for his evolving production style, while always keeping in touch with his early musical sound and re-shaping elements from previous work. At the beginning of his career as a producer for the World Class Wreckin Cru with DJ Alonzo Williams in the mid-1980s, his music was in the electro-hop style pioneered by the Unknown DJ, and that of early hip-hop groups like the Beastie Boys and Whodini.
From Straight Outta Compton on, Dre uses live musicians to replay old melodies rather than sampling them. With Ruthless Records, collaborators included guitarist Mike "Crazy Neck" Sims, multi-instrumentalist Colin Wolfe, DJ Yella and sound engineer Donovan "The Dirt Biker" Sound. Dre is receptive of new ideas from other producers, one example being his fruitful collaboration with Above the Law's producer Cold 187um while at Ruthless. Cold 187 um was at the time experimenting with 1970s P-Funk samples (Parliament, Funkadelic, Bootsy Collins, George Clinton etc.), that Dre also used. Dre has since been accused of "stealing" the concept of G-funk from Cold 187 um.
Upon leaving Ruthless and forming Death Row Records in 1991, Dre called on veteran West Coast DJ Chris "the Glove" Taylor and sound engineer Greg "Gregski" Royal, along with Colin Wolfe, to help him on future projects. His 1992 album The Chronic is thought to be one of the most well-produced hip-hop albums of all time. Musical themes included hard-hitting synthesizer solos played by Wolfe, bass-heavy compositions, background female vocals and Dre fully embracing 1970s funk samples. Dre used a minimoog synth to replay the melody from Leon Haywood's 1972 song "I Wanna Do Somethin' Freaky to You" for the Chronic's first single "Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang" which became a global hit. For his new protégé Snoop Doggy Dogg's album Doggystyle, Dre collaborated with then 19-year-old producer Daz Dillinger, who received co-production credits on songs "Serial Killa" and "For all My Niggaz & Bitches", The Dramatics bass player Tony "T. Money" Green, guitarist Ricky Rouse, keyboardists Emanuel "Porkchop" Dean and Sean "Barney Rubble" Thomas and engineer Tommy Daugherty, as well as Warren G and Sam Sneed, who are credited with bringing several samples to the studio.
The influence of The Chronic and Doggystyle on the popular music of the 1990s went not only far beyond the West Coast, but beyond hip-hop as a genre. Artists as diverse as Master P ("Bout It, Bout It"), George Michael ("Fastlove"), Mariah Carey ("Fantasy"), Adina Howard ("Freak Like Me"), Luis Miguel ("Dame"), and The Spice Girls ("Say You'll Be There") used G-funk instrumentation in their songs. Bad Boy Records producer Chucky Thompson stated in the April 2004 issue of XXL magazine that the sound of Doggystyle and The Chronic was the basis for the Notorious B.I.G.'s 1995 hit single "Big Poppa":
In 1994, starting with the Murder was the Case soundtrack, Dre attempted to push the boundaries of G-funk further into a darker sound. In songs such as "Murder was the Case" and "Natural Born Killaz", the synthesizer pitch is higher and the drum tempo is slowed down to 91 BPM (87 BPM in the remix) to create a dark and gritty atmosphere. Percussion instruments, particularly sleigh bells, are also present. Dre's frequent collaborators from this period included Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania natives Stuart "Stu-B-Doo" Bullard, a multi-instrumentalist from the Ozanam Strings Orchestra, Sam Sneed, Stephen "Bud'da" Anderson, and percussionist Carl "Butch" Small. This style of production has been influential far beyond the West Coast. The beat for the Houston-based group Geto Boys 1996 song "Still" follows the same drum pattern as "Natural Born Killaz" and Eazy E's "Wut Would U Do" (a diss to Dre) is similar to the original "Murder was the Case" instrumental. This style of production is usually accompanied by horror and occult-themed lyrics and imagery, being crucial to the creation of horrorcore.
By 1996, Dre was again looking to innovate his sound. He recruited keyboardist Camara Kambon to play the keys on "Been There, Done That", and through Bud'da and Sam Sneed he was introduced to fellow Pittsburgh native Melvin "Mel-Man" Bradford. At this time, he also switched from using the E-mu SP-1200 to the Akai MPC3000 drum kit and sampler, which he still uses today. Beginning with his 1996 compilation Dr. Dre Presents the Aftermath, Dre's production has taken a less sample-based approach, with loud, layered snare drums dominating the mix, while synthesizers are still omnipresent. In his critically acclaimed second album, 2001, live instrumentation takes the place of sampling, a famous example being "The Next Episode", in which keyboardist Camara Kambon re-played live the main melody from David McCallum's 1967 jazz-funk work "The Edge". For every song on 2001, Dre had a keyboardist, guitarist and bassist create the basic parts of the beat, while he himself programmed the drums, did the sequencing and overdubbing and added sound effects, and later mixed the songs. During this period, Dre's signature "west coast whistle" riffs are still present albeit in a lower pitch, as in "Light Speed", "Housewife", "Some L.A. Niggaz" and Eminem's "Guilty Conscience" hook. The sound of "2001" had tremendous influence on hip-hop production, redefining the West Coast's sound and expanding the G-funk of the early 1990s. To produce the album, Dre and Mel-Man relied on the talents of Scott Storch and Camara Kambon on the keys, Mike Elizondo and Colin Wolfe on bass guitar, Sean Cruse on lead guitar and sound engineers Richard "Segal" Huredia and Mauricio "Veto" Iragorri.
From the mid-2000s, Dr. Dre has taken on a more soulful production style, using more of a classical piano instead of a keyboard, and having claps replace snares, as evidenced in songs such as Snoop Dogg's "Imagine" and "Boss' Life", Busta Rhymes' "Get You Some" and "Been Through the Storm", Stat Quo's "Get Low" and "The Way It Be", Jay-Z's "Lost One", Nas' "Hustlers", and several beats on Eminem's Relapse album. Soul and R&B pianist Mark Batson, having previously worked with The Dave Matthews Band, Seal and Maroon 5 has been credited as the architect of this sound. Besides Batson, Aftermath producer and understudy of Dre's, Dawaun Parker, who has named Q-Tip and J Dilla as his primary influences, is thought to be responsible for giving Dre's newest beats an East Coast feel.
Despite an occasional hint of trap about the beats and an intriguingly warped use of autotune in his Compton song, "Darkside/Gone", his production seems to stand slightly apart from current trends in hip-hop like Eminem's song "Little Engine" with an ominous horrorcore beat — reminiscent of some of his works on Eminem's album Relapse – or the West Coast joint Lock It Up.Production equipmentDr. Dre has said that his primary instrument in the studio is the Akai MPC3000, a drum machine and sampler, and that he often uses as many as four or five to produce a single recording. He cites 1970s funk musicians such as George Clinton, Isaac Hayes and Curtis Mayfield as his primary musical influences. Unlike most rap producers, he tries to avoid samples as much as possible, preferring to have studio musicians re-play pieces of music he wants to use, because it allows him more flexibility to change the pieces in rhythm and tempo. In 2001 he told Time magazine, "I may hear something I like on an old record that may inspire me, but I'd rather use musicians to re-create the sound or elaborate on it. I can control it better."
Other equipment he uses includes the E-mu SP-1200 drum machine and other keyboards from such manufacturers as Korg, Rhodes, Wurlitzer, Moog, and Roland. Dr. Dre also stresses the importance of equalizing drums properly, telling Scratch in 2004 that he "used the same drum sounds on a couple of different songs on one album before but you'd never be able to tell the difference because of the EQ".
After founding Aftermath Entertainment in 1996, Dr. Dre took on producer Mel-Man as a co-producer, and his music took on a more synthesizer-based sound, using fewer vocal samples (as he had used on "Lil' Ghetto Boy" and "Let Me Ride" on The Chronic, for example). Mel-Man has not shared co-production credits with Dr. Dre since approximately 2002, but fellow Aftermath producer Focus has credited Mel-Man as a key architect of the signature Aftermath sound.
In 1999, Dr. Dre started working with Mike Elizondo, a bassist, guitarist, and keyboardist who has also produced, written and played on records for female singers such as Poe, Fiona Apple and Alanis Morissette, In the past few years Elizondo has since worked for many of Dr. Dre's productions. Dr. Dre also told Scratch magazine in a 2004 interview that he has been studying piano and music theory formally, and that a major goal is to accumulate enough musical theory to score movies. In the same interview he stated that he has collaborated with famed 1960s songwriter Burt Bacharach by sending him hip-hop beats to play over, and hopes to have an in-person collaboration with him in the future. Dr. Dre has also stated that Eminem is a fellow perfectionist, and attributes his success on Aftermath to his similar work ethic.Collaborators and co-producersOver the years, word of other collaborators who have contributed to Dr. Dre's work has surfaced. During his tenure at Death Row Records, it was alleged that Dr. Dre's stepbrother Warren G and Tha Dogg Pound member Daz made many uncredited contributions to songs on his solo album The Chronic and Snoop Doggy Dogg's album Doggystyle (Daz received production credits on Snoop's similar-sounding, albeit less successful album Tha Doggfather after Young left Death Row Records).
It is known that Scott Storch, who has since gone on to become a successful producer in his own right, contributed to Dr. Dre's second album 2001; Storch is credited as a songwriter on several songs and played keyboards on several tracks. In 2006 he told Rolling Stone:
Current collaborator Mike Elizondo, when speaking about his work with Young, describes their recording process as a collaborative effort involving several musicians. In 2004 he claimed to Songwriter Universe magazine that he had written the foundations of the hit Eminem song "The Real Slim Shady", stating, "I initially played a bass line on the song, and Dr. Dre, Tommy Coster Jr. and I built the track from there. Eminem then heard the track, and he wrote the rap to it."
A group of disgruntled former associates of Dr. Dre complained that they had not received their full due for work on the label in the September 2003 issue of The Source. A producer named Neff-U claimed to have produced the songs "Say What You Say" and "My Dad's Gone Crazy" on The Eminem Show, the songs "If I Can't" and "Back Down" on 50 Cent's Get Rich or Die Tryin', and the beat featured on Dr. Dre's commercial for Coors beer. Dr. Dre's prominent studio collaborators, including Scott Storch, Elizondo, Mark Batson and Dawaun Parker, have shared co-writing, instrumental, and more recently co-production credits on the songs where he is credited as the producer.
Anderson .Paak also praised Dr. Dre in a 2016 interview with Music Times, telling the publication that it was a dream come true to work with Dre.GhostwritersIt is acknowledged that most of Dr. Dre's raps are written for him by others, though he retains ultimate control over his lyrics and the themes of his songs. As Aftermath producer Mahogany told Scratch: "It's like a class room in [the booth]. He'll have three writers in there. They'll bring in something, he'll recite it, then he'll say, 'Change this line, change this word,' like he's grading papers."
As seen in the credits for tracks Young has appeared on, there are often multiple people who contribute to his songs (although often in hip-hop many people are officially credited as a writer for a song, even the producer).
In the book How to Rap, RBX explains that writing The Chronic was a "team effort" and details how he ghostwrote "Let Me Ride" for Dre. In regard to ghostwriting lyrics he says, "Dre doesn't profess to be no super-duper rap dude – Dre is a super-duper producer". As a member of N.W.A, the D.O.C. wrote lyrics for him while he stuck with producing.Personal lifeOn December 15, 1981, when Dre was 16 years old and his then-girlfriend Cassandra Joy Greene was 15 years old, the two had a son named Curtis, who was brought up by Greene and first met Dre 20 years later. Curtis performed as a rapper under the name Hood Surgeon.
Dre and Lisa Johnson had a daughter named La Tanya Danielle Young. Dre and Johnson have three daughters together.
In 1988, Dre and Jenita Porter had a son named Andre Young Jr. In 1990, Porter sued Dre, seeking $5,000 of child support per month. at his mother's Woodland Hills home.
From 1987 to 1996, Dre dated singer Michel'le, who frequently contributed vocals to Ruthless Records and Death Row Records albums. In 1991, they had a son named Marcel.
In April 1992, after a verbal dispute with his engineer, Dre was consequently shot four times in his leg.
On May 25, 1996, Dre married Nicole (née Plotzker) Threatt, who was previously married to basketball player Sedale Threatt. Forbes estimated his net worth at US$270 million in 2012. The same publication later reported that he acquired US$110 million via his various endeavors in 2012, making him the highest–paid artist of the year. Income from the 2014 sale of Beats to Apple, contributing to what Forbes termed "the biggest single-year payday of any musician in history", made Dr. Dre the world's richest musical performer of 2015. He remains one of the wealthiest musical artists.
In 2014, Dre purchased a $40 million home in the Brentwood neighborhood of Los Angeles from its previous owners, NFL player Tom Brady and supermodel Gisele Bündchen.
It was reported that Dre suffered a brain aneurysm on January 5, 2021, and that he was admitted to Cedars-Sinai Medical Center's ICU in Los Angeles, California. Hours after his admission to the hospital, Dre's home was targeted for an attempted burglary. He eventually received support from LeBron James, Martin Lawrence, LL Cool J, Missy Elliott, Snoop Dogg, Eminem, Ice Cube, 50 Cent, Ellen DeGeneres, Ciara, her husband Russell Wilson, T.I., Quincy Jones and others. In February, he was released with a following message on Instagram: "Thanks to my family, friends and fans for their interest and well wishes. I'm doing great and getting excellent care from my medical team. I will be out of the hospital and back home soon. Shout out to all the great medical professionals at Cedars. One Love!!" In March 2024, Dre revealed that during his hospitalization following the brain aneurysm, he also suffered three strokes.
In December 2021, Dre finalized his divorce from Nicole Threatt for a reported sum of $100 million of his estate.
Dre is a fan of both the Los Angeles Rams of the NFL, and the Los Angeles Lakers of the NBA.Controversies and legal issuesViolence against womenDre has been accused of multiple incidents of violence against women.
On January 27, 1991, at a music industry party at the Po Na Na Souk club in Hollywood, Dr. Dre assaulted television host Dee Barnes of the Fox television program Pump it Up!, following an episode of the show. Barnes had interviewed NWA, which was followed by an interview with Ice Cube in which Cube mocked NWA. Barnes filed a $22.7 million lawsuit in response to the incident. Subsequently, Dr. Dre was fined $2,500, given two years' probation, ordered to undergo 240 hours of community service, and given a spot on an anti-violence public service announcement on television. The civil suit was settled out of court. Barnes stated that he "began slamming her face and the right side of her body repeatedly against a wall near the stairway". Dr. Dre later commented: "People talk all this shit, but you know, somebody fucks with me, I'm gonna fuck with them. I just did it, you know. Ain't nothing you can do now by talking about it. Besides, it ain't no big thing – I just threw her through a door." Their abusive relationship is portrayed in her 2016 biopic ''Surviving Compton: Dre, Suge & Michel'le''. Dre threatened a lawsuit against Lifetime, Sony Pictures and filmmakers of Surviving Compton in a cease and desist letter, but never ultimately took action.
Interviewed by Ben Westhoff for the book Original Gangstas: the Untold Story of Dr Dre, Eazy-E, Ice Cube, Tupac Shakur, and the Birth of West Coast Rap, Lisa Johnson stated that Dre beat her many times, including while she was pregnant.
Former labelmate Tairrie B claimed that Dre assaulted her at a post-Grammy party in 1990, in response to her track "Ruthless Bitch".
During press for the 2015 film Straight Outta Compton, questions about the portrayal and behavior of Dre and other prominent figures in the rap community about violence against women – and the question about its absence in the film – were raised. The discussion about the film led to Dre addressing his past behavior in the press. In August 2015, in an interview with Rolling Stone, Dre lamented his abusive past, saying, "I made some fucking horrible mistakes in my life. I was young, fucking stupid. I would say all the allegations aren't true—some of them are. Those are some of the things that I would like to take back. It was really fucked up. But I paid for those mistakes, and there's no way in hell that I will ever make another mistake like that again."
In a statement to The New York Times on August 21, 2015, exactly two weeks after his album, Compton, was released, Dre again addressed his abusive past, stating, "25 years ago I was a young man drinking too much and in over my head with no real structure in my life. However, none of this is an excuse for what I did. I've been married for 19 years and every day I'm working to be a better man for my family, seeking guidance along the way. I'm doing everything I can so I never resemble that man again. ... I apologize to the women I've hurt. I deeply regret what I did and know that it has forever impacted all of our lives." Second divorce Dre's wife, Nicole Plotzker-Young, filed for divorce in June 2020, citing irreconcilable differences. In November 2020, she filed legal claims that Dre engaged in verbal violence and infidelity during their marriage. She also stated that he tore up their prenuptial agreement that he wanted her to sign out of anger. Dre's representative responded, calling her claims of infidelity and violence in their marriage "false".
Before being released from the Cedar-Sinai Medical Center, he was ordered to pay Plotzker-Young $2 million in temporary spousal support. Between the spring and summer of the year, Dre was ordered by the Los Angeles County judge to pay his ex-wife over $300,000 a month in spousal support. The $2 million extension request was also dismissed, due to insufficient claims.
In July 2021, Dr. Dre was ordered by the Los Angeles Superior Court Judge to pay an additional $293,306 a month to his estranged wife in spousal support starting August 1 until she decides to remarry or "further order of the Court". Then, in August, the judge denied his wife's request for a protective order, due to her being afraid of Dre after a snippet leaked on Instagram of him rapping about the divorce proceedings and his possible brain aneurysm earlier that February; in this snippet, he called his wife a "greedy bitch".
In mid-October, Dr. Dre was served more divorce papers, during his grandmother's funeral. That same month, Dre was officially deemed "single" by the judge. The financial owings in this case included expenses of Dre's Malibu, Palisades and Hollywood Hills homes, but not his stock in past ownership of Beats Electronics, prior to its sale to Apple in 2014. In December 2021, the divorce proceedings entered their final stages. On December 28, the divorce was settled with Dre keeping most of his assets and income due to the prenuptial agreement, although he would have to pay a 9-figure settlement within one year.
In October 2024, Dr. Dre was hit with a $10 million lawsuit by a psychiatrist who had served as Dre's marriage counselor during his marriage and divorce. The counselor alleged that Dre sent a "barrage" of threatening, harassing, and intimidatory messages, including homophobic rhetoric, to his counselor.
Copyright lawsuits
During the course of 2001s popularity, Dr. Dre was involved in several lawsuits. Lucasfilm Ltd., the film company behind the Star Wars film franchise, sued him over the use of the THX-trademarked "Deep Note". The Fatback Band also sued Dr. Dre over alleged infringement regarding its song "Backstrokin'" in his song "Let's Get High" from the 2001 album; Dr. Dre was ordered to pay $1.5 million to the band in 2003. French jazz musician Jacques Loussier sued Aftermath for $10 million in March 2002, claiming that the Dr. Dre-produced Eminem track "Kill You" plagiarized his composition "Pulsion". The online music file-sharing company Napster also settled a lawsuit with him and metal band Metallica in mid-2001, agreeing to block access to certain files that artists do not want to have shared on the network.
Another copyright-related lawsuit hit Dr. Dre in the fall of 2002, when Saregama, a film and music company based in Calcutta, India, sued Aftermath Entertainment over an uncredited sample of the Lata Mangeshkar song "Thoda Resham Lagta Hai" on the Aftermath-produced song "Addictive" by singer Truth Hurts. In February 2003, a judge ruled that Aftermath would have to halt sales of Truth Hurts' album Truthfully Speaking if the company would not credit Mangeshkar.
Other
On June 28, 1992, hours before midnight, a barbecue grill and an overfill of charcoal caused Dre's Calabasas mansion to set on fire. Two firefighters were treated in the hospital for minor injuries. The fire caused over $125,000 in home damages.
Dre pleaded guilty in October 1992 in a case of battery of a police officer and was convicted on two additional battery counts stemming from a brawl in the lobby of the New Orleans hotel in May 1991.
In 1993, he was convicted of battery after an altercation with a man who stood outside the front porch of his Woodland Hills home in front of the musician's girlfriend. He claimed that Dre broke his jaw as a result.
On January 10, 1994, Dre was arrested after leading police on a 90 mph pursuit through Beverly Hills in his 1987 Ferrari. It was revealed that Dr. Dre had a blood alcohol of 0.16, twice the state of California's legal limit. The conviction violated the conditions of parole following Dre's battery conviction in 1993; he pleaded no contest and was sentenced to eight months in prison in September 1994. He was ordered to pay a $1,053 fine and attend an alcohol education program.
In November 2004, at the Vibe magazine awards show in Los Angeles, Dr. Dre was attacked by a fan named Jimmy James Johnson, who was supposedly asking for an autograph. In the resulting scuffle, then-G-Unit rapper Young Buck stabbed the man. Johnson claimed that Suge Knight, president of Death Row Records, paid him $5,000 to assault Dre in order to humiliate him before he received his Lifetime Achievement Award. Knight immediately went on CBS's The Late Late Show to deny involvement and insisted that he supported Dr. Dre and wanted Johnson charged. In September 2005, Johnson was sentenced to a year in prison and ordered to stay away from Dr. Dre until 2008.
On October 30, 2015, Ruthless co-founder Jerry Heller filed suit against Dre, Ice Cube, Eazy-E's widow, Tomica Woods-Wright, director F. Gary Gray and Universal Pictures for defamation of character and copyright infringement over the biopic, Straight Outta Compton. The lawsuit states that depictions of Heller in the film, portrayed by Paul Giamatti, were wrongfully taken from an autobiography he wrote about his involvement with Ruthless and N.W.A. The case was taken to court in June 2016 where a judge criticized the filing, saying that the film was "approved to portray these facts in "colorful and hyperbolic" terms". On September 2, 2016, Jerry Heller died of a car accident, preceded by a heart attack. However, his lawsuit kept on through his legal team and members of his estate. In October 2018, the lawsuit was dropped, costing Heller's estate $35 million for punitive and $75 million for compensatory damages.
On April 4, 2016, TMZ and the New York Daily News reported that Suge Knight had accused Dre and the Los Angeles Sheriff's Department of a kill-for-hire plot in the 2014 shooting of Knight in club 1 OAK. Three months later, in July, Dre was reportedly detained by police after confronting a next-door neighbor in Malibu about a test drive. It was also alleged that he brandished a handgun on the neighbor, but no evidence would be linked and Dre was soon released.
On May 8, 2018, Dre lost a name trademark filing to a Pennsylvania gynecologist named Draion Burch, who previously filed a trademark petition in 2015 to use his nickname, Dr. Drai. Then, on June 26, Dre and Jimmy Iovine were ordered to pay $25 million to former partner and creative designer Steven Lamar, who sued the two co-founders for $100 million in unpaid royalties for designing the early Beats headphone models. The lawsuit was filed in 2015 after news broke out of Apple's acquisition of the headphone brand a year prior.
In August 2021, Dr. Dre's oldest daughter LaTanya Young spoke out about being homeless and unable to support her four children. She is currently working for UberEats and DoorDash, and she also works at warehouse jobs. She is living in debt in her SUV while her children are living with friends. Dr. Dre has allegedly stopped supporting LaTanya financially since January 2020 because she has "spoken about him in the press".
Discography
Studio albums
* The Chronic (1992)
* 2001 (1999)
* Compton (2015)
EPs
* GTA Online: The Contract (2022)
Collaborative albums
* World Class <small>(with World Class Wreckin' Cru)</small> (1985)
* Rapped in Romance <small>(with World Class Wreckin' Cru)</small> (1986)
* Straight Outta Compton <small>(with N.W.A)</small> (1989)
* Niggaz4Life <small>(with N.W.A)</small> (1991)
Awards and nominations
In March 2024, Dr. Dre received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6840 Hollywood Boulevard.
American Music Awards
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Nominated work
!Award
!Result
|-
| style"text-align:center;" rowspan"2"|1994
|Dr. Dre
|Favorite Rap/Hip-Hop New Artist
|
|-
|Dr. Dre
|Favorite Rap/Hip-Hop Artist
|
|-
| style"text-align:center;" rowspan"1"|2001
|Dr. Dre
|Favorite Rap/Hip-Hop Artist
|
|}
BET Hip Hop Awards
|-
| 2014
| rowspan="3"| Himself
| rowspan="2"| Hustler of the Year
|
|-
| 2015
|
|-
| rowspan"2"| 2016
| Producer of the Year
|
|-
| Compton
| Album of the Year
|
|}
Grammy Awards
Dr. Dre has won seven Grammy Awards. Four of them are for his production work. He is also the recipient of the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award
|-
|align=center|1990
|"We're All in the Same Gang"
|rowspan="2"| Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group
|
|-
|rowspan"2" style"text-align:center;"|1994
|"Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang" <small>(with Snoop Doggy Dogg)</small>
|
|-
|"Let Me Ride"
|rowspan="2"|Best Rap Solo Performance
|
|-
|align=center|1996
|"Keep Their Heads Ringin'"
|
|-
|align=center|1997
|"California Love" <small>(with 2Pac & Roger Troutman)</small>
|Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|1998
||"No Diggity" <small>(with Blackstreet & Queen Pen)</small>
|Best R&B Song
|
|-
| rowspan"2" style"text-align:center;"|2000
|"Still D.R.E." <small>(with Snoop Dogg)</small>
|rowspan="4"|Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group
|
|-
|"Guilty Conscience" <small>(with Eminem)</small>
|
|-
| rowspan"6" style"text-align:center;"|2001
|"Forgot About Dre" <small>(with Eminem)</small>
|
|-
|"The Next Episode" <small>(with Snoop Dogg, Kurupt & Nate Dogg)</small>
|
|-
|rowspan="2"|The Marshall Mathers LP <small>(as engineer)</small>
|Album of the Year
|
|-
|rowspan="2"|Best Rap Album
|
|-
|2001
|
|-
|rowspan="3"|Himself
|rowspan="3"|Producer of the Year, Non-Classical
|
|-
|align=center|2002
|
|-
|rowspan"3" style"text-align:center;"|2003
|
|-
|"Knoc" <small>(with Knoc-turn'al & Missy Elliott)</small>
|Best Music Video, Short Form
|
|-
|The Eminem Show <small>(as producer)</small>
|Album of the Year
|
|-
|style="text-align:center;"|2004
|"In da Club" <small>(as songwriter)</small>
|Best Rap Song
|
|-
|rowspan"2" style"text-align:center;"|2006
|Love. Angel. Music. Baby. <small>(as producer)</small>
|Album of the Year
|
|-
|"Encore" <small>(with Eminem & 50 Cent)</small>
|rowspan="2"|Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group
|
|-
|rowspan"2" style"text-align:center;"|2010
|"Crack a Bottle" <small>(with Eminem & 50 Cent)</small>
|
|-
|Relapse <small>(as engineer)</small>
|Best Rap Album
|
|-
|style="text-align:center;"|2011
|Recovery <small>(as producer)</small>
|Album of the Year
|
|-
|rowspan"2" style"text-align:center;"|2012
|rowspan="2"|"I Need a Doctor" <small>(with Eminem & Skylar Grey)</small>
|Best Rap/Sung Collaboration
|
|-
|Best Rap Song
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|2014
|good kid, m.A.A.d city <small>(as featured artist)</small>
|Album of the Year
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|2016
|Compton
|Best Rap Album
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|2017
|Straight Outta Compton
| Best Compilation Soundtrack for Visual Media
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|2020
|Ventura <small>(as engineer)</small>
|Best R&B Album
|
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|2024
|Himself <small>(as a member of N.W.A.)</small>
|Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award
|
MTV Video Music Awards
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Nominated work
!Award
!Result
|-
|align=center|1993
|"Nuthin' But a 'G' Thang"
|rowspan="4"|Best Rap Video
|
|-
|align=center|1994
|"Let Me Ride"
|
|-
|align=center|1995
|"Keep Their Heads Ringin'"
|
|-
| rowspan"2" style"text-align:center;"|1997
| rowspan="2"|"Been There, Done That"
|
|-
|Best Choreography in a Video
|
|-
| rowspan"2" style"text-align:center;"|1999
|"My Name Is"
|Best Direction
|
|-
|"Guilty Conscience"
|Breakthrough Video
|
|-
|align=center|2000
|"The Real Slim Shady"
|Best Direction in a Video
|
|-
|align=center|2000
|"Forgot About Dre"
|Best Rap Video
|
|-
|align=center|2001
|"Stan"
|Best Direction in a Video
|
|-
|align=center|2009
|"Nuthin' But a 'G' Thang"
|Best Video (That Should Have Won a Moonman)
|
|}
Primetime Emmy Awards
|-
| 2022
| The Pepsi Super Bowl LVI Halftime Show
| Outstanding Variety Special (Live)
|
|}
Filmography
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Films
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Notes
|-
| 1992
| Niggaz4Life: The Only Home Video
| Himself
| Documentary
|-
| 1996
| Set It Off
| Black Sam
| Minor role
|-
| 1999
| Whiteboyz
| Don Flip Crew #1
| Minor role
|-
| 2000
| Up in Smoke Tour
| Himself
| Concert film
|-
| 2001
| Training Day
| Paul
| Minor role
|-
| 2001
|The Wash
| Sean
| Main role
|-
| 2012
| Something from Nothing: The Art of Rap
| Himself
| Documentary
|-
| 2015
| Unity
| Narrator
| Documentary
|-
| 2017
| The Defiant Ones
| Himself
| Documentary
|-
| 2023
| Dear Mama
| Himself
| Docuseries
|}
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Video games
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Notes
|-
| 2005
| 50 Cent: Bulletproof
| Grizz
| Voice role and likeness
|-
|2020
|Grand Theft Auto Online: The Cayo Perico Heist
| rowspan="2" |Himself
|Voice role and likeness; cameo
|-
|2021
|Grand Theft Auto Online: The Contract
|Voice role and likeness; update also features new music created by Dre for the game
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Biographical portrayals in film
|-
! Year !! Title !! Portrayed by !! Notes
|-
| | 2015 || Straight Outta Compton || Corey Hawkins || Biographical film about N.W.A
|-
| | 2016 || ''Surviving Compton: Dre, Suge & Michel'le'' || Chris Hamilton || Biographical film about Michel'le
|-
| | 2017 || All Eyez on Me || Harold Moore || Biographical film about Tupac Shakur
|}
Tours
* The Chronic Tour (1993)
* Up in Smoke Tour (2000)
References
Works cited
*
*
*
*
External links
*
*
}}
Category:1965 births
Category:Living people
Category:20th-century American businesspeople
Category:20th-century American male musicians
Category:20th-century American musicians
Category:21st-century American businesspeople
Category:21st-century American male musicians
Category:21st-century American rappers
Category:21st-century African-American businesspeople
Category:African-American film producers
Category:African-American male actors
Category:African-American male rappers
Category:21st-century American male rappers
Category:20th-century American male rappers
Category:African-American record producers
Category:African-American television producers
Category:Aftermath Entertainment artists
Category:American businesspeople convicted of crimes
Category:American chairpersons of corporations
Category:American hip-hop record producers
Category:American music industry executives
Category:American music publishers (people)
Category:American music video directors
Category:American people convicted of assault
Category:American retail chief executives
Category:Businesspeople from Los Angeles
Category:Cannabis music
Category:Centennial High School (Compton, California) alumni
Category:Death Row Records artists
Category:Film producers from California
Category:Gangsta rappers
Category:G-funk artists
Category:Grammy Award winners for rap music
Category:John C. Fremont High School alumni
Category:Male actors from Los Angeles
Category:Musicians from Compton, California
Category:N.W.A members
Category:People convicted of battery
Category:Primetime Emmy Award winners
Category:Priority Records artists
Category:Prisoners and detainees of California
Category:Rappers from Los Angeles
Category:Record collectors
Category:Record producers from California
Category:Ruthless Records artists
Category:Television producers from California
Category:West Coast hip-hop musicians
Category:American drink industry businesspeople
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Dre
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8085
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Delicate Arch
|
| coords_ref The arch is the most widely recognized landmark in Arches National Park and is depicted on Utah license plates and a postage stamp commemorating Utah's centennial anniversary of admission to the Union in 1896. The Olympic torch relay for the 2002 Winter Olympics passed through the arch.History
at sunset, February 2011]]
Because of its distinctive shape, the arch was known as "the Chaps" and "the Schoolmarm's Bloomers" by local cowboys. Many other names have been applied to this arch including "Bloomers Arch", "Marys Bloomers", "Old Maids Bloomers", "Pants Crotch", "Salt Wash Arch", and "School Marms Pants".
This arch played no part in the original designation of the area as a national monument (Arches National Monument) in 1929 and was not included within the original boundaries; it was added when the monument was enlarged in 1938.
In the 1950s, the NPS investigated the possibility of applying a clear plastic coating to the arch to protect it from further erosion and eventual destruction. The idea was ultimately abandoned as impractical and contrary to NPS principles. Fatali was placed on probation and fined $10,900 in restitution to the NPS for the cost of cleanup efforts.
In 2017, the United Utah Party was founded, and chose Delicate Arch as its official party logo.
Geology
Delicate Arch is formed of Entrada Sandstone. The original sandstone fin was gradually worn away by weathering and erosion, leaving the arch. Other arches in the park were formed the same way but, due to placement and less dramatic shape, are not as famous.EcologyDuring the summer, white-throated swifts (Aeronautes saxatalis) nest in the top of the arch.
Climbing
In May 2006, climber Dean Potter performed as many as six free solo ascents of the arch. Climbing Delicate Arch was not explicitly forbidden under the rules in force at the time, which only stated that routes "may be closed" on any named arch; however, most climbers accepted that the named arch formations should not be climbed. The NPS has since closed the loophole by disallowing climbs on any named arch within the park year-round. Slacklining and the placement of new fixed anchors on new climbs are also prohibited.
Controversy ensued when photographs taken after Potter's climb appeared to show damage caused by a climbing technique called top roping. Potter stated on several occasions that he never damaged the arch, and no photos exist of Potter using a top rope setup on the arch. Previous climbers may have top-roped the arch, leaving the existing rope scars. as well as four cams in a horizontal crack of harder rock at the summit. He used the rope and cams for protection while rehearsing his free solo route and to rappel back down after the free solos. Two fellow climbers also ascended via fixed ropes, one of whom recorded video of Potter from the top.
See also
References
External links
* [https://www.nps.gov/arch/planyourvisit/delicate-arch.htm Arches National Park Delicate Arch page]
* [http://www.nps.gov/arch/planyourvisit/longtrails.htm Arches National Park Trails Page]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090609000118/http://www.roundus.com/listing/1061/ Panorama Under Arch] (archived 9 June 2009)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100628224430/http://www.onnetworks.com/videos/beautiful-places-in-hd/arches-national-park-delicate-arch?autoplay=true%2F Beautiful Places episode of Delicate Arch] (archived 28 June 2010)
* [http://www.3d-exposure.com/panos1/delicate-arch-1.html Panoramic View of Delicate Arch at Sunset]
Category:Natural arches of Grand County, Utah
Category:Arches National Park
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delicate_Arch
|
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8086
|
Deed poll
|
A deed poll (plural: deeds poll) is a legal document binding on a single person or several persons acting jointly to express an intention or create an obligation. It is a deed, and not a contract, because it binds only one party.
Etymology
The term "deed", also known in this context as a "specialty", is common to signed written undertakings not supported by consideration: the seal (even if not a literal wax seal but only a notional one referred to by the execution formula, "signed, sealed and delivered", or even merely "executed as a deed") is deemed to be the consideration necessary to support the obligation. "Poll" is an archaic legal term referring to documents with straight edges; these distinguished a deed binding only one person from one affecting more than a single person (an "indenture", so named during the time when such agreements would be written out repeatedly on a single sheet, then the copies separated by being irregularly torn or cut, i.e. "indented", so that each party had a document with corresponding tears, to discourage forgery).
Use for changing name
The most common use is a name change through a deed of change of name (often referred to simply as a deed poll). Deeds poll are used for this purpose in countries and regions including in the United Kingdom (except in Scotland), Ireland, Hong Kong, and Singapore. In the UK, a deed poll can also be used to change a child's name, as long as everyone with parental responsibility for the child consents to it and the child does not object to it. The child's parents execute the deed poll on the child's behalf. In some other jurisdictions, a person may simply start using a new name without any formal legal process. The usual requirements are that the new name must be used exclusively and that the change must not be made with the intent to defraud. In English law, a person must notify every creditor of a change of name by deed poll.
In Australia, prior to 1 November 2000, name change was accomplished by deed poll but now is done by completing a Change of Name form.
Other uses
Another common use is to partition land. This form of deed poll is commonly used in Hong Kong.
A deed poll may also be used (in England and Wales) for clergy of the Church of England to relinquish their holy orders.
Bonds and powers of attorney are examples of deeds poll. A will is not a deed poll, not being made under seal, and being subject to separate statutory requirements.
References
External links
Change your name by deed poll - UK Government advice
Enrolment of Deeds and other Documents at the UK Ministry of Justice website
Category:English law
Category:Human names
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deed_poll
|
2025-04-05T18:28:27.546140
|
8088
|
Documentary film
|
right|thumb|This 16 mm Bolex "H16" reflex camera uses spring-wound type technology and has been an entry-level camera used in multiple film schools.
A documentary film (often described simply as a documentary) is a non-fictional motion picture intended to "document reality, primarily for instruction, education or maintaining a historical record". The American author and media analyst Bill Nichols has characterized the documentary in terms of "a filmmaking practice, a cinematic tradition, and mode of audience reception [that remains] a practice without clear boundaries".
Research into information gathering, as a behavior, and the sharing of knowledge, as a concept, has noted how documentary movies were preceded by the notable practice of documentary photography. This has involved the use of singular photographs to detail the complex attributes of historical events and continues to a certain degree to this day, with an example being the conflict-related photography achieved by popular figures such as Mathew Brady during the American Civil War. Documentary movies evolved from the creation of singular images in order to convey particular types of information in depth, using film as a medium.
Early documentary films, originally called "actuality films", briefly lasted for one minute or less in most cases. While faithfully depicting true events, these releases possessed no narrative structure per se and were of limited interest. Over time, documentaries have evolved to become longer in length and to include more categories of information. Some examples are explicitly educational, while others serve as observational works; docufiction movies notably include aspects of dramatic storytelling that are clearly fictional. Documentaries are informative at times, and certain types are often used within schools as a resource to teach various principles. Documentary filmmakers have a responsibility to be truthful to their vision of the world without intentionally misrepresenting a topic.
Social media organizations such as Dailymotion and YouTube, with many of these platforms receiving popular interest, have provided an avenue for the growth of documentaries as a particular film genre. Such platforms have increased the distribution area and ease-of-accessibility given the ability of online video sharing to spread to multiple audiences at once as well as to work past certain socio-political hurdles such as censorship.
Definition
thumb|The cover of Bolesław Matuszewski's 1898 book Une nouvelle source de l'histoire (A New Source of History), the first publication about documentary function of cinematography
Polish writer and filmmaker Bolesław Matuszewski was among those who identified the mode of documentary film. He wrote two of the earliest texts on cinema, Une nouvelle source de l'histoire ("A New Source of History") and La photographie animée ("Animated photography"). Both were published in 1898 in French and were among the earliest written works to consider the historical and documentary value of the film. Matuszewski is also among the first filmmakers to propose the creation of a Film Archive to collect and keep safe visual materials.
The word "documentary" was coined by Scottish documentary filmmaker John Grierson in his review of Robert Flaherty's film Moana (1926), published in the New York Sun on 8 February 1926, written by "The Moviegoer" (a pen name for Grierson).
Grierson's principles of documentary were that cinema's potential for observing life could be exploited in a new art form; that the "original" actor and "original" scene are better guides than their fiction counterparts for interpreting the modern world; and that materials "thus taken from the raw" can be more real than the acted article. In this regard, Grierson's definition of documentary as "creative treatment of actuality" has gained some acceptance; however, this position is at variance with Soviet film-maker Dziga Vertov's credos of provocation to present "life as it is" (that is, life filmed surreptitiously), and "life caught unawares" (life provoked or surprised by the camera).
The American film critic Pare Lorentz defines a documentary film as "a factual film which is dramatic." Others further state that a documentary stands out from the other types of non-fiction films for providing an opinion, and a specific message, along with the facts it presents. Scholar Betsy McLane asserted that documentaries are for filmmakers to convey their views about historical events, people, and places which they find significant. Therefore, the advantage of documentaries lies in introducing new perspectives which may not be prevalent in traditional media such as written publications and school curricula.
Documentary practice is the complex process of creating documentary projects. It refers to what people do with media devices, content, form, and production strategies to address the creative, ethical, and conceptual problems and choices that arise as they make documentaries.
Documentary filmmaking can be used as a form of journalism, advocacy, or personal expression.
History
Pre-1900
Early film (pre-1900) was dominated by the novelty of showing an event. Single-shot moments were captured on film, such as a train entering a station, a boat docking, or factory workers leaving work. These short films were called "actuality" films; the term "documentary" was not coined until 1926. Many of the first films, such as those made by Auguste and Louis Lumière, were a minute or less in length, due to technological limitations. Examples can be viewed on YouTube.
Films showing many people (for example, leaving a factory) were often made for commercial reasons: the people being filmed were eager to see, for payment, the film showing them. One notable film clocked in at over an hour and a half, The Corbett-Fitzsimmons Fight. Using pioneering film-looping technology, Enoch J. Rector presented the entirety of a famous 1897 prize-fight on cinema screens across the United States.
In May 1896, Bolesław Matuszewski recorded on film a few surgical operations in Warsaw and Saint Petersburg hospitals. In 1898, French surgeon Eugène-Louis Doyen invited Matuszewski and Clément Maurice to record his surgical operations. They started in Paris a series of surgical films sometime before July 1898. Until 1906, the year of his last film, Doyen recorded more than 60 operations. Doyen said that his first films taught him how to correct professional errors he had been unaware of. For scientific purposes, after 1906, Doyen combined 15 of his films into three compilations, two of which survive, the six-film series Extirpation des tumeurs encapsulées (1906), and the four-film Les Opérations sur la cavité crânienne (1911). These and five other of Doyen's films survive.
thumb|right|Frame from one of Gheorghe Marinescu's science films (1899)
Between July 1898 and 1901, the Romanian professor Gheorghe Marinescu made several science films in his neurology clinic in Bucharest: Walking Troubles of Organic Hemiplegy (1898), The Walking Troubles of Organic Paraplegies (1899), A Case of Hysteric Hemiplegy Healed Through Hypnosis (1899), The Walking Troubles of Progressive Locomotion Ataxy (1900), and Illnesses of the Muscles (1901). All these short films have been preserved. The professor called his works "studies with the help of the cinematograph," and published the results, along with several consecutive frames, in issues of La Semaine Médicale magazine from Paris, between 1899 and 1902. In 1924, Auguste Lumière recognized the merits of Marinescu's science films: "I've seen your scientific reports about the usage of the cinematograph in studies of nervous illnesses, when I was still receiving La Semaine Médicale, but back then I had other concerns, which left me no spare time to begin biological studies. I must say I forgot those works and I am thankful to you that you reminded them to me. Unfortunately, not many scientists have followed your way."
1900–1920
thumb|upright=1.15|Geoffrey Malins with an aeroscope camera during World War I
Travelogue films were very popular in the early part of the 20th century. They were often referred to by distributors as "scenics". Scenics were among the most popular sort of films at the time. An important early film which moved beyond the concept of the scenic was In the Land of the Head Hunters (1914), which embraced primitivism and exoticism in a staged story presented as truthful re-enactments of the life of Native Americans.
Contemplation is a separate area. Pathé was the best-known global manufacturer of such films in the early 20th century. A vivid example is Moscow Clad in Snow (1909).
Biographical documentaries appeared during this time, such as the feature Eminescu-Veronica-Creangă (1914) on the relationship between the writers Mihai Eminescu, Veronica Micle and Ion Creangă (all deceased at the time of the production), released by the Bucharest chapter of Pathé.
Early color motion picture processes such as Kinemacolor (known for the feature With Our King and Queen Through India (1912)) and Prizma Color (known for Everywhere With Prizma (1919) and the five-reel feature Bali the Unknown (1921)) used travelogues to promote the new color processes. In contrast, Technicolor concentrated primarily on getting their process adopted by Hollywood studios for fiction feature films.
Also during this period, Frank Hurley's feature documentary film, South (1919) about the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition was released. The film documented the failed Antarctic expedition led by Ernest Shackleton in 1914.
1920s
Romanticism
thumb|Nanook of the North poster
With Robert J. Flaherty's Nanook of the North in 1922, documentary film embraced romanticism. Flaherty filmed a number of heavily staged romantic documentary films during this time period, often showing how his subjects would have lived 100 years earlier and not how they lived right then. For instance, in Nanook of the North, Flaherty did not allow his subjects to shoot a walrus with a nearby shotgun, but had them use a harpoon instead. Some of Flaherty's staging, such as building a roofless igloo for interior shots, was done to accommodate the filming technology of the time.
Paramount Pictures tried to repeat the success of Flaherty's Nanook and Moana with two romanticized documentaries, Grass (1925) and Chang (1927), both directed by Merian C. Cooper and Ernest Schoedsack.
City symphony
The "city symphony" sub film genre consisted of avant-garde films during the 1920s and 1930s. These films were particularly influenced by modern art, namely Cubism, Constructivism, and Impressionism. According to art historian and author Scott MacDonald, city symphony films can be described as, "An intersection between documentary and avant-garde film: an avant-doc"; however, A.L. Rees suggests regarding them as avant-garde films. that Berlin, represented what a documentary should not be); Alberto Cavalcanti's, Rien que les heures; and Dziga Vertov's Man with a Movie Camera. These films tend to feature people as products of their environment, and lean towards the avant-garde.
Kino-Pravda
Dziga Vertov was central to the Soviet Kino-Pravda (literally, "cinematic truth") newsreel series of the 1920s. Vertov believed the camerawith its varied lenses, shot-counter shot editing, time-lapse, ability to slow motion, stop motion and fast-motioncould render reality more accurately than the human eye, and created a film philosophy from it.
Newsreel tradition
The newsreel tradition is important in documentary film. Newsreels at this time were sometimes staged but were usually re-enactments of events that had already happened, not attempts to steer events as they were in the process of happening. For instance, much of the battle footage from the early 20th century was staged; the cameramen would usually arrive on site after a major battle and re-enact scenes to film them.
1930s–1940s
The propagandist tradition consists of films made with the explicit purpose of persuading an audience of a point. One of the most celebrated and controversial propaganda films is Leni Riefenstahl's film Triumph of the Will (1935), which chronicled the 1934 Nazi Party Congress and was commissioned by Adolf Hitler. Leftist filmmakers Joris Ivens and Henri Storck directed Borinage (1931) about the Belgian coal mining region. Luis Buñuel directed a "surrealist" documentary Las Hurdes (1933).
Pare Lorentz's The Plow That Broke the Plains (1936) and The River (1938) and Willard Van Dyke's The City (1939) are notable New Deal productions, each presenting complex combinations of social and ecological awareness, government propaganda, and leftist viewpoints. Frank Capra's Why We Fight (1942–1944) series was a newsreel series in the United States, commissioned by the government to convince the U.S. public that it was time to go to war. Constance Bennett and her husband Henri de la Falaise produced two feature-length documentaries, Legong: Dance of the Virgins (1935) filmed in Bali, and Kilou the Killer Tiger (1936) filmed in Indochina.
In Canada, the Film Board, set up by John Grierson, was set up for the same propaganda reasons. It also created newsreels that were seen by their national governments as legitimate counter-propaganda to the psychological warfare of Nazi Germany orchestrated by Joseph Goebbels.
thumb|Conference of "World Union of documentary films" in 1948 Warsaw featured famous directors of the era: Basil Wright (on the left), Elmar Klos, Joris Ivens (2nd from the right), and Jerzy Toeplitz.
In Britain, a number of different filmmakers came together under John Grierson. They became known as the Documentary Film Movement. Grierson, Alberto Cavalcanti, Harry Watt, Basil Wright, and Humphrey Jennings amongst others succeeded in blending propaganda, information, and education with a more poetic aesthetic approach to documentary. Examples of their work include Drifters (John Grierson), Song of Ceylon (Basil Wright), Fires Were Started, and A Diary for Timothy (Humphrey Jennings). Their work involved poets such as W. H. Auden, composers such as Benjamin Britten, and writers such as J. B. Priestley. Among the best known films of the movement are Night Mail and Coal Face.
Calling Mr. Smith (1943) is an anti-Nazi color film created by Stefan Themerson which is both a documentary and an avant-garde film against war. It was one of the first anti-Nazi films in history.
1950s–1970s
thumb|Lennart Meri (1929–2006), the second President of the Republic of Estonia, directed documentaries several years before his presidency. His film The Winds of the Milky Way won a silver medal at the New York Film Festival in 1977.
Cinéma-vérité
Cinéma vérité (or the closely related direct cinema) was dependent on some technical advances to exist: light, quiet and reliable cameras, and portable sync sound.
Cinéma vérité and similar documentary traditions can thus be seen, in a broader perspective, as a reaction against studio-based film production constraints. Shooting on location, with smaller crews, would also happen in the French New Wave, the filmmakers taking advantage of advances in technology allowing smaller, handheld cameras and synchronized sound to film events on location as they unfolded.
Although the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there are important differences between cinéma vérité (Jean Rouch) and the North American "direct cinema", pioneered by, among others, Canadians Michel Brault, Pierre Perrault and Allan King, and Americans Robert Drew, Richard Leacock, Frederick Wiseman and Albert and David Maysles.
The directors of the movement take different viewpoints on their degree of involvement with their subjects. Kopple and Pennebaker, for instance, choose non-involvement (or at least no overt involvement), and Perrault, Rouch, Koenig, and Kroitor favor direct involvement or even provocation when they deem it necessary.
The films Chronicle of a Summer (Jean Rouch), Dont Look Back (D. A. Pennebaker), Grey Gardens (Albert and David Maysles), Titicut Follies (Frederick Wiseman), Primary and Crisis: Behind a Presidential Commitment (both produced by Robert Drew), Harlan County, USA (directed by Barbara Kopple), Lonely Boy (Wolf Koenig and Roman Kroitor) are all frequently deemed cinéma vérité films.
The fundamentals of the style include following a person during a crisis with a moving, often handheld, camera to capture more personal reactions. There are no sit-down interviews, and the shooting ratio (the amount of film shot to the finished product) is very high, often reaching 80 to one. From there, editors find and sculpt the work into a film. The editors of the movementsuch as Werner Nold, Charlotte Zwerin, Muffie Meyer, Susan Froemke, and Ellen Hovdeare often overlooked, but their input to the films was so vital that they were often given co-director credits.
Famous cinéma vérité/direct cinema films include Les Raquetteurs, Showman, Salesman, Near Death, and The Children Were Watching.
Political weapons
In the 1960s and 1970s, documentary film was often regarded as a political weapon against neocolonialism and capitalism in general, especially in Latin America, but also in a changing society. (The Hour of the Furnaces, from 1968), directed by Octavio Getino and Fernando Solanas, influenced a whole generation of filmmakers. Among the many political documentaries produced in the early 1970s was "Chile: A Special Report", public television's first in-depth expository look at the September 1973 overthrow of the Salvador Allende government in Chile by military leaders under Augusto Pinochet, produced by documentarians Ari Martinez and José Garcia.
A June 2020 article in The New York Times reviewed the political documentary And She Could Be Next, directed by Grace Lee and Marjan Safinia. The Times described the documentary not only as focusing on women in politics, but more specifically on women of color, their communities, and the significant changes they have wrought upon America.
Modern documentaries
Box office analysts have noted that the documentary film genre has become increasingly successful in theatrical release with films such as Fahrenheit 9/11, Super Size Me, Food, Inc., Earth, March of the Penguins, and An Inconvenient Truth among the most prominent examples. Compared to dramatic narrative films, documentaries typically have far lower budgets which makes them attractive to film companies because even a limited theatrical release can be highly profitable.
The nature of documentary films has expanded in the past 30 years from the cinéma vérité style introduced in the 1960s in which the use of portable camera and sound equipment allowed an intimate relationship between filmmaker and subject. The line blurs between documentary and narrative and some works are very personal, such as Marlon Riggs's Tongues Untied (1989) and Black Is...Black Ain't (1995), which mix expressive, poetic, and rhetorical elements and stresses subjectivities rather than historical materials.
Historical documentaries, such as the landmark 14-hour Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years (1986Part 1 and 1989Part 2) by Henry Hampton, 4 Little Girls (1997) by Spike Lee, The Civil War by Ken Burns, and UNESCO-awarded independent film on slavery 500 Years Later, express not only a distinctive voice but also a perspective and point of views. Some films such as The Thin Blue Line by Errol Morris incorporate stylized re-enactments, and Michael Moore's Roger & Me place far more interpretive control with the director. The commercial success of these documentaries may derive from this narrative shift in the documentary form, leading some critics to question whether such films can truly be called documentaries; critics sometimes refer to these works as "mondo films" or "docu-ganda." However, directorial manipulation of documentary subjects has been noted since the work of Flaherty, and may be endemic to the form due to problematic ontological foundations.
Documentary filmmakers are increasingly using social impact campaigns with their films. Social impact campaigns seek to leverage media projects by converting public awareness of social issues and causes into engagement and action, largely by offering the audience a way to get involved. Examples of such documentaries include Kony 2012, Salam Neighbor, Gasland, Living on One Dollar, and Girl Rising.
Although documentaries are financially more viable with the increasing popularity of the genre and the advent of the DVD, funding for documentary film production remains elusive. Within the past decade, the largest exhibition opportunities have emerged from within the broadcast market, making filmmakers beholden to the tastes and influences of the broadcasters who have become their largest funding source.
Modern documentaries have some overlap with television forms, with the development of "reality television" that occasionally verges on the documentary but more often veers to the fictional or staged. The "making-of" documentary shows how a movie or a computer game was produced. Usually made for promotional purposes, it is closer to an advertisement than a classic documentary.
Modern lightweight digital video cameras and computer-based editing have greatly aided documentary makers, as has the dramatic drop in equipment prices. The first film to take full advantage of this change was Martin Kunert and Eric Manes' Voices of Iraq, where 150 DV cameras were sent to Iraq during the war and passed out to Iraqis to record themselves.
Documentaries without words
Films in the documentary form without words have been made. Listen to Britain, directed by Humphrey Jennings and Stuart McAllister in 1942, is a wordless meditation on wartime Britain. From 1982, the Qatsi trilogy and the similar Baraka could be described as visual tone poems, with music related to the images, but no spoken content. Koyaanisqatsi (part of the Qatsi trilogy) consists primarily of slow motion and time-lapse photography of cities and many natural landscapes across the United States. Baraka tries to capture the great pulse of humanity as it flocks and swarms in daily activity and religious ceremonies.
Bodysong was made in 2003 and won a British Independent Film Award for "Best British Documentary."
The 2004 film Genesis shows animal and plant life in states of expansion, decay, sex, and death, with some, but little, narration.
Narration styles
Voice-over narrator
The traditional style for narration is to have a dedicated narrator read a script which is dubbed onto the audio track. The narrator never appears on camera and may not necessarily have knowledge of the subject matter or involvement in the writing of the script.
Silent narration
This style of narration uses title screens to visually narrate the documentary. The screens are held for about 5–10 seconds to allow adequate time for the viewer to read them. They are similar to the ones shown at the end of movies based on true stories, but they are shown throughout, typically between scenes.
Hosted narrator
In this style, there is a host who appears on camera, conducts interviews, and who also does voice-overs.
Other forms
Hybrid documentary
The release of The Thin Blue Line (1988) directed by Errol Morris introduced possibilities for emerging forms of the hybrid documentary. Indeed, it was disqualified for an Academy Award because of the stylized recreations. Traditional documentary filmmaking typically removes signs of fictionalization to distinguish itself from fictional film genres. Audiences have recently become more distrustful of the media's traditional fact production, making them more receptive to experimental ways of telling facts. The hybrid documentary implements truth games to challenge traditional fact production. Although it is fact-based, the hybrid documentary is not explicit about what should be understood, creating an open dialogue between subject and audience. Clio Barnard's The Arbor (2010), Joshua Oppenheimer's The Act of Killing (2012), Mads Brügger's The Ambassador, and Alma Har'el's Bombay Beach (2011) are a few notable examples. by Pierre Bismuth to describe his 2016 film Where is Rocky II?
DVD documentary
A DVD documentary is a documentary film of indeterminate length that has been produced with the sole intent of releasing it for direct sale to the public on DVD, which is different from a documentary being made and released first on television or on a cinema screen (a.k.a. theatrical release) and subsequently on DVD for public consumption.
This form of documentary release is becoming more popular and accepted as costs and difficulty with finding TV or theatrical release slots increases. It is also commonly used for more "specialist" documentaries, which might not have general interest to a wider TV audience. Examples are military, cultural arts, transport, sports, animals, etc.
Compilation films
Compilation films were pioneered in 1927 by Esfir Schub with The Fall of the Romanov Dynasty. More recent examples include Point of Order! (1964), directed by Emile de Antonio about the McCarthy hearings. Similarly, The Last Cigarette combines the testimony of various tobacco company executives before the U.S. Congress with archival propaganda extolling the virtues of smoking.
Poetic documentaries, which first appeared in the 1920s, were a sort of reaction against both the content and the rapidly crystallizing grammar of the early fiction film. The poetic mode moved away from continuity editing and instead organized images of the material world by means of associations and patterns, both in terms of time and space. Well-rounded characters"lifelike people"were absent; instead, people appeared in these films as entities, just like any other, that are found in the material world. The films were fragmentary, impressionistic, lyrical. Their disruption of the coherence of time and spacea coherence favored by the fiction films of the daycan also be seen as an element of the modernist counter-model of cinematic narrative. The "real world"Nichols calls it the "historical world"was broken up into fragments and aesthetically reconstituted using film form. Examples of this style include Joris Ivens' Rain (1928), which records a passing summer shower over Amsterdam; László Moholy-Nagy's Play of Light: Black, White, Grey (1930), in which he films one of his own kinetic sculptures, emphasizing not the sculpture itself but the play of light around it; Oskar Fischinger's abstract animated films; Francis Thompson's N.Y., N.Y. (1957), a city symphony film; and Chris Marker's Sans Soleil (1982).
Expository documentaries speak directly to the viewer, often in the form of an authoritative commentary employing voiceover or titles, proposing a strong argument and point of view. These films are rhetorical, and try to persuade the viewer. (They may use a rich and sonorous male voice.) The (voice-of-God) commentary often sounds "objective" and omniscient. Images are often not paramount; they exist to advance the argument. The rhetoric insistently presses upon us to read the images in a certain fashion. Historical documentaries in this mode deliver an unproblematic and "objective" account and interpretation of past events.
Examples: TV shows and films like Biography, America's Most Wanted, many science and nature documentaries, Ken Burns' The Civil War (1990), Robert Hughes' The Shock of the New (1980), John Berger's Ways of Seeing (1972), Frank Capra's wartime Why We Fight series, and Pare Lorentz's The Plow That Broke the Plains (1936).
Observational
thumb|Film team at Port of Dar es Salaam with two ferries
Observational documentaries attempt to spontaneously observe their subjects with minimal intervention. Filmmakers who worked in this subgenre often saw the poetic mode as too abstract and the expository mode as too didactic. The first observational docs date back to the 1960s; the technological developments which made them possible include mobile lightweight cameras and portable sound recording equipment for synchronized sound. Often, this mode of film eschewed voice-over commentary, post-synchronized dialogue and music, or re-enactments. The films aimed for immediacy, intimacy, and revelation of individual human character in ordinary life situations.
Types
Participatory documentaries believe that it is impossible for the act of filmmaking to not influence or alter the events being filmed. What these films do is emulate the approach of the anthropologist: participant-observation. Not only is the filmmaker part of the film, we also get a sense of how situations in the film are affected or altered by their presence. Nichols: "The filmmaker steps out from behind the cloak of voice-over commentary, steps away from poetic meditation, steps down from a fly-on-the-wall perch, and becomes a social actor (almost) like any other. (Almost like any other because the filmmaker retains the camera, and with it, a certain degree of potential power and control over events.)" The encounter between filmmaker and subject becomes a critical element of the film. Rouch and Morin named the approach cinéma vérité, translating Dziga Vertov's kinopravda into French; the "truth" refers to the truth of the encounter rather than some absolute truth.
Reflexive documentaries do not see themselves as a transparent window on the world; instead, they draw attention to their own constructedness, and the fact that they are representations. How does the world get represented by documentary films? This question is central to this subgenre of films. They prompt us to "question the authenticity of documentary in general." It is the most self-conscious of all the modes, and is highly skeptical of "realism". It may use Brechtian alienation strategies to jar us, in order to "defamiliarize" what we are seeing and how we are seeing it.
Performative documentaries stress subjective experience and emotional response to the world. They are strongly personal, unconventional, perhaps poetic and/or experimental, and might include hypothetical enactments of events designed to make us experience what it might be like for us to possess a certain specific perspective on the world that is not our own, e.g. that of black, gay men in Marlon Riggs's Tongues Untied (1989) or Jenny Livingston's Paris Is Burning (1991). This subgenre might also lend itself to certain groups (e.g. women, ethnic minorities, gays and lesbians, etc.) to "speak about themselves". Often, a battery of techniques, many borrowed from fiction or avant-garde films, are used. Performative docs often link up personal accounts or experiences with larger political or historical realities.
Educational films
Documentaries are shown in schools around the world in order to educate students. Used to introduce various topics to children, they are often used with a school lesson or shown many times to reinforce an idea.
Translation
There are several challenges associated with translation of documentaries. The main two are working conditions and problems with terminology.
Working conditions
Documentary translators very often have to meet tight deadlines. Normally, the translator has between five and seven days to hand over the translation of a 90-minute programme. Dubbing studios typically give translators a week to translate a documentary, but in order to earn a good salary, translators have to deliver their translations in a much shorter period, usually when the studio decides to deliver the final programme to the client sooner or when the broadcasting channel sets a tight deadline, e.g. on documentaries discussing the latest news.
Another problem is the lack of postproduction script or the poor quality of the transcription. A correct transcription is essential for a translator to do their work properly, however many times the script is not even given to the translator, which is a major impediment since documentaries are characterised by "the abundance of terminological units and very specific proper names". When the script is given to the translator, it is usually poorly transcribed or outright incorrect making the translation unnecessarily difficult and demanding because all of the proper names and specific terminology have to be correct in a documentary programme in order for it to be a reliable source of information, hence the translator has to check every term on their own. Such mistakes in proper names are for instance: "Jungle Reinhard instead of Django Reinhart, Jorn Asten instead of Jane Austen, and Magnus Axle instead of Aldous Huxley".
This poses a real challenge for the translators because they have to render the meaning, i.e. find an equivalent, of a very specific, scientific term in the target language and frequently the narrator uses a more general name instead of a specific term and the translator has to rely on the image presented in the programme to understand which term is being discussed in order to transpose it in the target language accordingly. Additionally, translators of minorised languages often have to face another problem: some terms may not even exist in the target language. In such cases, they have to create new terminology or consult specialists to find proper solutions. Also, sometimes the official nomenclature differs from the terminology used by actual specialists, which leaves the translator to decide between using the official vocabulary that can be found in the dictionary, or rather opting for spontaneous expressions used by real experts in real life situations.
See also
Actuality film
Citizen media
Concert film
Dance film
Docudrama
Ethnofiction
Ethnographic film
List of documentary films
List of documentary film festivals
List of documentary television channels
List of directors and producers of documentaries
Mockumentary
Mondo film
Nature documentary
Outline of film
Participatory video
Political cinema
Public-access television
Reality film
Sponsored film
Visual anthropology
Women's cinema
Some documentary film awards
Grierson Awards
Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature
Joris Ivens Award, International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam (IDFA), (named after Joris Ivens)
Cinéma du Réel prizes, including the Grand Prix and Prix du premier film Loridan-Ivens / First Film Loridan-Ivens Award (formerly Joris Ivens Award), among others
Filmmaker Award, Margaret Mead Film Festival
Grand Prize, Visions du Réel
References
Sources and bibliography
Aitken, Ian (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Documentary Film. New York: Routledge, 2005. .
Barnouw, Erik. Documentary: A History of the Non-Fiction Film, 2nd rev. ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. . Still a useful introduction.
Ron Burnett. "Reflections on the Documentary Cinema"
Burton, Julianne (ed.). The Social Documentary in Latin America. Pittsburgh, Penn.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990. .
Dawson, Jonathan. "Dziga Vertov".
Ellis, Jack C., and Betsy A. McLane. "A New History of Documentary Film." New York: Continuum International, 2005. , .
Godmilow, Jill: Kill the Documentary. A Letter to Filmmakers, Students and Scholars, Foreword by Bill Nichols, Columbia UP, New York 2022
Goldsmith, David A. The Documentary Makers: Interviews with 15 of the Best in the Business. Hove, East Sussex: RotoVision, 2003. .
Klotman, Phyllis R. and Culter, Janet K.(eds.). Struggles for Representation: African American Documentary Film and Video Bloomington and Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University Press, 1999. .
Leach, Jim, and Jeannette Sloniowski (eds.). Candid Eyes: Essays on Canadian Documentaries. Toronto; Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 2003. , .
Nichols, Bill. Introduction to Documentary, Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 2001. , .
Nichols, Bill. Representing Reality: Issues and Concepts in Documentary. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1991. , .
Nornes, Markus. Forest of Pressure: Ogawa Shinsuke and Postwar Japanese Documentary. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007. , .
Nornes, Markus. Japanese Documentary Film: The Meiji Era through Hiroshima. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003. , .
Rotha, Paul, Documentary diary; An Informal History of the British Documentary Film, 1928–1939. New York: Hill and Wang, 1973. .
Saunders, Dave. Direct Cinema: Observational Documentary and the Politics of the Sixties. London: Wallflower Press, 2007. , .
Saunders, Dave. Documentary: The Routledge Film Guidebook. London: Routledge, 2010.
Tobias, Michael. The Search for Reality: The Art of Documentary Filmmaking. Studio City, CA: Michael Wiese Productions 1997.
Walker, Janet, and Diane Waldeman (eds.). Feminism and Documentary. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999. , .
Wyver, John. The Moving Image: An International History of Film, Television & Radio. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd. in association with the British Film Institute, 1989. .
Murdoch.edu , Documentaryreading list
Ethnographic film
Emilie de Brigard, "The History of Ethnographic Film," in Principles of Visual Anthropology, ed. Paul Hockings. Berlin and New York City : Mouton de Gruyter, 1995, pp. 13–43.
Leslie Devereaux, "Cultures, Disciplines, Cinemas," in Fields of Vision. Essays in Film Studies, Visual Anthropology and Photography, ed. Leslie Devereaux & Roger Hillman. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995, pp. 329–339.
Faye Ginsburg, Lila Abu-Lughod and Brian Larkin (eds.), Media Worlds: Anthropology on New Terrain. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2002. .
Anna Grimshaw, The Ethnographer's Eye: Ways of Seeing in Modern Anthropology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001. .
Karl G. Heider, Ethnographic Film. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994.
Luc de Heusch, Cinéma et Sciences Sociales, Paris: UNESCO, 1962. Published in English as The Cinema and Social Science. A Survey of Ethnographic and Sociological Films. UNESCO, 1962.
Fredric Jameson, Signatures of the Visible. New York & London: Routledge, 1990.
Pierre-L. Jordan, Premier Contact-Premier Regard, Marseille: Musées de Marseille. Images en Manoeuvres Editions, 1992.
André Leroi-Gourhan, "Cinéma et Sciences Humaines. Le Film Ethnologique Existe-t-il?," Revue de Géographie Humaine et d'Ethnologie 3 (1948), pp. 42–50.
David MacDougall, Transcultural Cinema. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998. .
David MacDougall, "Whose Story Is It?," in Ethnographic Film Aesthetics and Narrative Traditions, ed. Peter I. Crawford and Jan K. Simonsen. Aarhus, Intervention Press, 1992, pp. 25–42.
Fatimah Tobing Rony, The Third Eye: Race, Cinema and Ethnographic Spectacle. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996. .
Georges Sadoul, Histoire Générale du Cinéma. Vol. 1, L'Invention du Cinéma 1832–1897. Paris: Denöel, 1977, pp. 73–110.
Pierre Sorlin, Sociologie du Cinéma, Paris: Aubier Montaigne, 1977, pp. 7–74.
Charles Warren, "Introduction, with a Brief History of Nonfiction Film," in Beyond Document. Essays on Nonfiction Film, ed. Charles Warren. Hanover and London: Wesleyan University Press, 1996, pp. 1–22.
Ismail Xavier, "Cinema: Revelação e Engano", in O Olhar , ed. Adauto Novaes. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1993, pp. 367–384.
External links
Category:Film genres
Category:Investigative journalism
Category:Types of journalism
Category:Television genres
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentary_film
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Day of the Tentacle
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| publisher LucasArts
| director =
| producer =
| designer =
| artist = Peter Chan
| writer =
| composer =
| engine = SCUMM
| platforms =
| released |Mac OS, MS-DOSOS X, PS4, Vita, Win iOS, LinuxXbox One}}
| genre = Graphic adventure
| modes = Single-player
}}
Day of the Tentacle, also known as Maniac Mansion II: Day of the Tentacle, is a 1993 graphic adventure game developed and published by LucasArts. It is the sequel to the 1987 game Maniac Mansion. The plot follows Bernard Bernoulli and his friends Hoagie and Laverne as they attempt to stop the evil Purple Tentacle - a sentient, disembodied tentacle - from taking over the world. The player takes control of the trio and solves puzzles while using time travel to explore different periods of history.
Dave Grossman and Tim Schafer co-led the game's development, their first time in such a role. The pair carried over a limited number of elements from Maniac Mansion and forwent the character selection aspect to simplify development. Inspirations included Chuck Jones cartoons and the history of the United States. Day of the Tentacle was the eighth LucasArts game to use the SCUMM engine.
The game was released simultaneously on floppy disk and CD-ROM to critical acclaim and commercial success. Critics focused on its cartoon-style visuals and comedic elements. Day of the Tentacle has featured regularly in lists of "top" games published more than two decades after its release, and has been referenced in popular culture. A remastered version of Day of the Tentacle was developed by Schafer's current studio, Double Fine Productions, and released in March 2016, for OS X, PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, and Windows, with an iOS and Linux port released in July the same year, and then later for Xbox One in October 2020.
Gameplay
Day of the Tentacle follows the point-and-click two-dimensional adventure game formula, first established by the original Maniac Mansion. Players direct the controllable characters around the game world by clicking with the computer mouse. To interact with the game world, players choose from a set of nine commands arrayed on the screen (such as "pick up", "use", or "talk to") and then on an object in the world. This was the last SCUMM game to use the original interface of having the bottom of the screen being taken up by a verb selection and inventory; starting with the next game to use the SCUMM engine, Sam & Max Hit the Road, the engine was modified to scroll through a more concise list of verbs with the right mouse button and having the inventory on a separate screen.
Day of the Tentacle uses time travel extensively; early in the game, the three main protagonists are separated across time by the effects of a faulty time machine. The player, after completing certain puzzles, can then freely switch between these characters, interacting with the game's world in separate time periods. Certain small inventory items can be shared by placing the item into the "Chron-o-Johns", modified portable toilets that instantly transport objects to one of the other time periods, while other items are shared by simply leaving the item in a past time period to be picked up by a character in a future period. Changes made to a past time period will affect a future one, and many of the game's puzzles are based on the effect of time travel, the aging of certain items, and alterations of the time stream. For example, one puzzle requires the player, while in the future era where Purple Tentacle has succeeded, to send a medical chart of a Tentacle back to the past, having it used as the design of the American flag, then collecting one such flag in the future to be used as a Tentacle disguise to allow that character to roam freely.
The whole original Maniac Mansion game can be played on a computer resembling a Commodore 64 inside the Day of the Tentacle game; this practice has since been repeated by other game developers, but at the time of ''Day of the Tentacle's release, it was unprecedented.
Plot
Five years after the events of Maniac Mansion'', Purple Tentacle—a mutant monster and lab assistant created by mad scientist Dr. Fred Edison—drinks toxic sludge from a river behind Dr. Fred's laboratory. The sludge causes him to grow a pair of flipper-like arms, develop vastly increased intelligence, and have a thirst for global domination. Dr. Fred plans to resolve the issue by killing Purple Tentacle and his harmless, friendly brother Green Tentacle, but Green Tentacle sends a plea of help to his old friend, the nerd Bernard Bernoulli. Bernard travels to the Edison family motel with his two housemates, deranged medical student Laverne and roadie Hoagie, and frees the tentacles. Purple Tentacle escapes to resume his quest to take over the world.
interface below the scene. Time travel and interaction with cartoon versions of figures from American colonial history, such as John Hancock, Thomas Jefferson and George Washington, are key to gameplay.]]
Since Purple Tentacle's plans are flawless and unstoppable, Dr. Fred decides to use his Chron-o-John time machines to send Bernard, Laverne, and Hoagie to the day before to turn off his Sludge-o-Matic machine, thereby preventing Purple Tentacle's exposure to the sludge. However, because Dr. Fred used an imitation diamond rather than a real diamond as a power source for the time machine, the Chron-o-Johns break down in operation. Laverne is sent 200 years in the future, where humanity has been enslaved and Purple Tentacle rules the world from the Edison mansion, while Hoagie is dropped 200 years in the past, where the motel is being used by the Founding Fathers as a retreat to write the United States Constitution. Bernard is returned to the present. To salvage Dr. Fred's plan, Bernard must acquire a replacement diamond for the time machine, while both Hoagie and Laverne must restore power to their respective Chron-o-John pods by plugging them in. To overcome the lack of electricity in the past, Hoagie recruits the help of Benjamin Franklin and Dr. Fred's ancestor, Red Edison, to build a superbattery to power his pod, while Laverne evades capture by the tentacles long enough to run an extension cord to her unit. The three send small objects back and forth in time through the Chron-o-Johns and make changes to history to help the others complete their tasks.
Eventually, Bernard uses Dr. Fred's family fortune of royalties from the use of their likeness in Maniac Mansion to purchase a real diamond, while his friends manage to power their Chron-o-Johns. Soon, the three are reunited in the present. Purple Tentacle arrives, hijacks a Chron-o-John, and takes it to the previous day to prevent them from turning off the sludge machine; he is pursued by Green Tentacle in another pod. With only one Chron-o-John pod left, Bernard, Hoagie, and Laverne use it to pursue the tentacles to the previous day, while Dr. Fred uselessly tries to warn them of using the pod together, referencing the film The Fly. Upon arriving, the trio exit the pod only to discover that they have been turned into a three-headed monster, their bodies merging into one during the transfer. Meanwhile, Purple Tentacle has used the time machine to bring countless versions of himself from different moments in time to the same day to prevent the Sludge-o-Matic from being deactivated. Bernard and his friends defeat the Purple Tentacles guarding the Sludge-o-Matic, turn off the machine, and prevent the whole series of events from ever happening. Returning to the present, Dr. Fred discovers that the three have not been turned into a monster at all but have just gotten stuck in the same set of clothes; they are then ordered by Dr. Fred to get out of his house. The game ends with the credits rolling over a tentacle-shaped American flag, one of the more significant results of their tampering in history.
Development
Following a string of successful adventure games, LucasArts assigned Dave Grossman and Tim Schafer to lead development of a new game. The two had previously assisted Ron Gilbert with the creation of The Secret of Monkey Island and ''Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge'', and the studio felt that Grossman and Schafer were ready to manage a project. The company believed that the pair's humor matched well with that of Maniac Mansion and suggested working on a sequel. The two developers agreed and commenced production. Gilbert and Gary Winnick, the creators of Maniac Mansion, collaborated with Grossman and Schafer on the initial planning and writing. The total budget for the game was about $600,000, according to Schafer. Creative design In planning the plot, the four designers considered a number of concepts, eventually choosing an idea of Gilbert's about time travel that they believed was the most interesting. The four discussed what time periods to focus on, settling on the Revolutionary War and the future. The Revolutionary War offered opportunities to craft many puzzles around that period, such as changing the Constitution to affect the future. Grossman noted the appeal of the need to make wide-sweeping changes such as the Constitution just to achieve a small personal goal, believing this captured the essence of adventure games. Grossman and Schafer decided to carry over previous characters that they felt were the most entertaining. The two considered the Edison family "essential" and chose Bernard because of his "unqualified nerdiness". Schafer and Grossman planned to use a character selection system similar to the first game but felt that it would have complicated the design process and increased production costs. Believing that it added little to the gameplay, they removed it early in the process and reduced the number of player characters from six to three. The smaller number of characters reduced the strain on the game's engine in terms of scripting and animation. Peter Chan designed backgrounds, spending around two days to progress from concept sketch to final art for each background. Denny Delk and Nick Jameson were among those hired, and provided voice work for around five characters each. The voice work in Day of the Tentacle was widely praised for its quality and professionalism in comparison to Sierra's talkie games of the period which suffered from poor audio quality and limited voice acting (some of which consisted of Sierra employees rather than professional talent).
The game's music was composed by Peter McConnell, Michael Land, and Clint Bajakian. The three had worked together to share the duties equally of composing the music for Monkey Island 2 and Fate of Atlantis, and continued this approach for Day of the Tentacle.
| MC 93/100
| award1Pub = PC Gamer US
| award1 = #46, The Best Games of All Time
| award2Pub = Computer Gaming World
| award2 = Adventure Game of the Year, June 1994<br>#34, 150 Best Games of All Time
| award3Pub = Adventure Gamers
| award3 = #1, Top 20 Adventure Games of All Time
| award4Pub = IGN
| award4 = #60, Top 100 Games (2005)<br>#84, Top 100 Games (2007)<br>#82, Top 100 Videogame Villains (Purple Tentacle)
| award7Pub = PC Gamer UK
| award7 = #30, The Top 100
}}
Day of the Tentacle was a moderate commercial success; according to Edge, it sold roughly 80,000 copies by 2009. Tim Schafer saw this as an improvement over his earlier projects, the Monkey Island games, which had been commercial flops. The game was critically acclaimed. Charles Ardai of Computer Gaming World wrote in September 1993: "Calling Day of the Tentacle a sequel to Maniac Mansion ... is a little like calling the space shuttle a sequel to the slingshot". He enjoyed the game's humor and interface, and praised the designers for removing "dead end" scenarios and player character death. Ardai lauded the voice acting, writing that it "would have done the late Mel Blanc proud", and compared the game's humor, animation, and camera angles to "Looney Toons gems from the 40s and 50s". He concluded: "I expect that this game will keep entertaining people for quite some time to come". In April 1994 the magazine said of the CD version that Sanders's Bernard was among "many other inspired performances", concluding that "Chuck Jones would be proud". In May 1994 the magazine said of one multimedia kit bundling the CD version that "it packs more value into the kit than the entire software packages of some of its competitors". Sandy Petersen of Dragon stated that its graphics "are in a stupendous cartoony style", while praising its humor and describing its sound and music as "excellent". Although the reviewer considered it "one of the best" graphic adventure games, he noted that, like LucasArts' earlier Loom, it was extremely short; he wrote that he "felt cheated somehow when I finished the game". He ended the review, "Go, Lucasfilm! Do this again, but do make the next game longer!".
Phil LaRose of The Advocate called it "light-years ahead of the original", and believed that its "improved controls, sound and graphics are an evolutionary leap to a more enjoyable gaming experience". He praised the interface, and summarized the game as "another of the excellent LucasArts programs that place a higher premium on the quality of entertainment and less on the technical knowledge needed to make it run". The Boston Heralds Geoff Smith noted that "the animation of the cartoonlike characters is of TV quality", and praised the removal of dead ends and character death. He ended: "It's full of lunacy, but for anyone who likes light-hearted adventure games, it's well worth trying". Vox Day of The Blade called its visuals "well done" and compared them to those of The Ren & Stimpy Show. The writer praised the game's humor, and said that "both the music and sound effects are hilarious"; he cited the voice performance of Richard Sanders as a high point. He summarized the game as "both a good adventure and a funny cartoon".
Lim Choon Wee of the New Straits Times highly praised the game's humor, which he called "brilliantly funny". The writer commented that the game's puzzles relied on "trial and error" with "no underlying logic", but opined that the game "remains fun" despite this issue, and concluded that Day of the Tentacle was "definitely the comedy game of the year". Daniel Baum of The Jerusalem Post called it "one of the funniest, most entertaining and best-programmed computer games I have ever seen", and lauded its animation. He wrote that the game provided "a more polished impression" than either The Secret of Monkey Island or ''Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge''. The writer claimed that its high system requirements were its only drawback, and believed that a Sound Blaster card was required to fully appreciate the game. In a retrospective review, Adventure Gamers' Chris Remo wrote: "If someone were to ask for a few examples of games that exemplify the best of the graphic adventure genre, Day of the Tentacle would certainly be near the top".
Day of the Tentacle has been featured regularly in lists of "top" games. In 1994, PC Gamer US named Day of the Tentacle the 46th best computer game ever. In June 1994 it and Gabriel Knight: Sins of the Fathers won Computer Gaming Worlds Adventure Game of the Year award. The editors wrote that "Day of the Tentacles fluid animation sequences underscore a strong script and solid game play ... story won out over technological innovation in this genre". In 1996, the magazine ranked it as the 34th best game of all time, writing: "DOTT completely blew away its ancestor, Maniac Mansion, with its smooth animated sequences, nifty plot and great voiceovers". Adventure Gamers included the game as the top entry on its 20 Greatest Adventure Games of All Time List in 2004, and placed it sixth on its Top 100 All-Time Adventure Games in 2011. The game has appeared on several IGN lists. The website rated it number 60 and 84 on its top 100 games list in 2005 and 2007, respectively. IGN named Day of the Tentacle as part of their top 10 LucasArts adventure games in 2009, and ranked the Purple Tentacle 82nd in a list of top 100 videogame villains in 2010. ComputerAndVideoGames.com ranked it at number 30 in 2008, and GameSpot also listed Day of the Tentacle as one of the greatest games of all time. In describing what he considered "the most rewarding moment" of his career, Grossman stated that the game's writing and use of spoken and subtitled dialog assisted a learning-disabled child in learning how to read.
In 2018, a fan-made sequel, Return of the Tentacle, was released free by a team from Germany. The game imitates the art style of the Remastered edition and features full voice acting. Remasters Special Edition According to Kotaku, a remastered version of Day of the Tentacle was in the works at LucasArts Singapore before the sale of LucasArts to Disney in 2012. Though never officially approved, the game used a pseudo-3D art style and was nearly 80% complete, according to one person close to the project, but was shelved in the days before the closure of LucasArts. Remastered A remastered version of Day of the Tentacle was developed by Schafer and his studio, Double Fine Productions. The remaster was released on March 22, 2016, for OS X, PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, and Windows, with a Linux version released at July 11 together with a mobile port for iOS. The PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita versions are cross-buy and also feature cross-save. An Xbox One port came in October 2020. The remastered game was released as a free PlayStation Plus title for the month of January 2017.
Schafer credited both LucasArts and Disney for help in creating the remaster, which follows from a similar remastering of Grim Fandango, as well by Double Fine, in January 2015. Schafer said when they originally were about to secure the rights to Grim Fandango from LucasArts to make the remaster, they did not originally have plans to redo the other LucasArts adventure games, but with the passionate response they got on the news of the Grim Fandango remaster, they decided to continue these efforts. Schafer described getting the rights to Day of the Tentacle a "miracle" though aided by the fact that many of the executives in the legal rights chain had fond memories of playing these games and helped to secure the rights. 2 Player Productions, which has worked before with Double Fine to document their game development process, also created a mini-documentary for Day of the Tentacle Remastered, which included a visit to the Skywalker Ranch, where LucasArts games were originally developed, where much of the original concept art and digital files for the game and other LucasArts adventure games were archived.
Day of the Tentacle Remastered retains its two-dimensional cartoon-style art, redrawn at a higher resolution for modern computers.
Day of the Tentacle Remastered has received positive reviews, with the PC version having an aggregate review score of 87/100 tallied by Metacritic. Reviewers generally praised the game as having not lost its charm since its initial release, but found some aspects of the remastering to be lackluster. Richard Corbett for Eurogamer found the game "every bit as well crafted now as it was in 1993", but found the processes used to provide high-definition graphics from the original 16-bit graphics to making some of the required shortcuts taken in 1993 for graphics, such as background dithering and low animation framerates, more obvious on modern hardware. IGNs Jared Petty also found the remastered to still be enjoyable, and found the improvement on the graphics to be "glorious", but worried that the lack of a hint system, as was added in The Secret of Monkey Island remastered version, would put off new players to the game. Bob Mackey for USgamer found that while past remastered adventure games have highlighted how much has changed in gamers' expectations since the heyday of adventure games in the 1990s, Day of the Tentacle Remastered "rises above these issues to become absolutely timeless".
Notes
References
External links
*
Category:1993 video games
Category:Cultural depictions of Benjamin Franklin
Category:Cultural depictions of George Washington
Category:Cultural depictions of John Hancock
Category:Cultural depictions of Thomas Jefferson
Category:DOS games
Category:LucasArts games
Category:Classic Mac OS games
Category:Point-and-click adventure games
Category:Science fiction video games
Category:SCUMM games
Category:ScummVM-supported games
Category:Video game sequels
Category:Video games about extraterrestrial life
Category:Video games about time travel
Category:Video games developed in the United States
Category:Video games featuring female protagonists
Category:Video games scored by Clint Bajakian
Category:Video games scored by Michael Land
Category:Video games scored by Peter McConnell
Category:Video games set in the United States
Category:Video games with commentaries
Category:Xbox One games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day_of_the_Tentacle
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Douglas Adams
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| birth_place = Cambridge, England
| death_date
| death_place = Montecito, California, U.S.
| resting_place = Highgate Cemetery, London, England
| occupation =
| alma_mater = St John's College, Cambridge
| genre = Science fiction, comedy, satire
| notablework = ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy''
| signature = Douglas Adams Unterschrift (cropped).jpg
| awards Inkpot Award (1983)
| spouse =
| children = 1
| relatives = Frank Wedekind (great-grandfather)
| website =
}}
<!-- There is no 'ë' in Noel. Any citations have themselves been taken from an earlier, incorrect edit of Wikipedia; see talk page for details -->
Douglas Noel Adams (11 March 1952 – 11 May 2001) was an English author, humorist, and screenwriter, best known as the creator of ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. Originally a 1978 BBC radio comedy, The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' developed into a "trilogy" of six (or five, according to the author) books which sold more than 15 million copies in his lifetime. It was further developed into a television series, several stage plays, comics, a video game, and a 2005 feature film. Adams's contribution to UK radio is commemorated in The Radio Academy's Hall of Fame.
Adams also wrote ''Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency (1987) and The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul (1988), and co-wrote The Meaning of Liff (1983), The Deeper Meaning of Liff (1990) and Last Chance to See (1990). He wrote two stories for the television series Doctor Who, including the unaired serial Shada, co-wrote City of Death (1979), and served as script editor for its 17th season. He co-wrote the sketch "Patient Abuse" for the final episode of Monty Python's Flying Circus. A posthumous collection of his selected works, including the first publication of his final (unfinished) novel, was published as The Salmon of Doubt'' in 2002.
Adams was a self-proclaimed "radical atheist", an advocate for environmentalism and conservation, and a lover of fast cars, technological innovation, and the Apple Macintosh.Early lifeAdams was born in Cambridge, England, on 11 March 1952 to Christopher Douglas Adams (1927–1985), a management consultant and computer salesman, former probation officer and lecturer on probationary group therapy techniques, and nurse Janet (1927–2016), née Donovan. A few months after his birth, the family moved to the East End of London, where his sister, Susan, was born three years later. His parents divorced in 1957; Douglas, Susan and their mother moved then to an RSPCA animal shelter in Brentwood, Essex, run by his maternal grandparents. Each parent remarried, giving Adams four half-siblings. A great-grandfather was the German playwright Frank Wedekind.EducationAdams attended Primrose Hill Primary School in Brentwood. At the age of nine, he passed the entrance exam for Brentwood School. He attended the prep school from 1959 to 1964, then the main school until December 1970. Adams was tall by the age of 12, and stopped growing at . His form master, Frank Halford, said that Adams's height had made him stand out and that he had been self-conscious about it. His ability to write stories made him well-known in the school. Adams became the only student ever to be awarded a ten out of ten by Halford for creative writing – something he remembered for the rest of his life, particularly when facing writer's block.
On the strength of an essay on religious poetry that discussed the Beatles and William Blake, Adams was awarded an Exhibition in English at St John's College, Cambridge (where his father had likewise been a student), going up in 1971. He wanted to join the Footlights, an invitation-only student comedy club that has acted as a hothouse for comic talent. He was not elected immediately as he had hoped, and started to write and perform in revues with Will Adams (no relation) and Martin Smith; they formed a group called "Adams-Smith-Adams". He became a member of the Footlights by 1973. Despite doing very little work – he recalled having completed three essays in three years – he graduated in 1974 with a 2:2 in English literature.CareerWritingAfter leaving university, Adams moved back to London, determined to break into TV and radio as a writer. An edited version of the Footlights Revue appeared on BBC2 television in 1974. A version of the Revue performed live in London's West End led to Adams being discovered by Monty Python's Graham Chapman. The two formed a brief writing partnership, earning Adams a writing credit in episode 45 of Monty Python for a sketch called "Patient Abuse". The pair also co-wrote the "Marilyn Monroe" sketch that appeared on the soundtrack album of Monty Python and the Holy Grail. Adams is one of only two people other than the original Python members to receive a Monty Python writing credit (the other being Neil Innes).
'' appearance, in surgeon's garb]]
Adams had two brief appearances in the fourth series of ''Monty Python's Flying Circus''. At the beginning of episode 42, "The Light Entertainment War", Adams is in a surgeon's mask (as Dr. Emile Koning, according to on-screen captions), pulling on gloves, while Michael Palin narrates a sketch that introduces one person after another but never gets started. At the beginning of episode 44, "Mr. Neutron", Adams is dressed in a pepper-pot outfit and loads a missile onto a cart driven by Terry Jones, who is calling for scrap metal ("Any old iron..."). The two episodes were broadcast in November 1974. Adams and Chapman also attempted non-Python projects, including Out of the Trees.
At this point, Adams's career stalled; his writing style was unsuited to the then-current style of radio and TV comedy.
During this time, Adams continued to write and submit sketches, though few were accepted. In 1976, his career had a brief improvement when he wrote and performed ''Unpleasantness at Brodie's Close'' at the Edinburgh Fringe festival. By Christmas, work had dried up again, and a depressed Adams moved to live with his mother.
Some of Adams's early radio work included sketches for The Burkiss Way in 1977 and The News Huddlines. He also wrote, again with Chapman, the 20 February 1977 episode of Doctor on the Go, a sequel to the Doctor in the House television comedy series. After the first radio series of ''The Hitchhiker's Guide became successful, Adams was made a BBC radio producer, working on Week Ending and a pantomime called Black Cinderella Two Goes East. He left after six months to become the script editor for Doctor Who.
In 1979, Adams and John Lloyd wrote scripts for two half-hour episodes of Doctor Snuggles: "The Remarkable Fidgety River" and "The Great Disappearing Mystery" (episodes eight and twelve). John Lloyd was also co-author of two episodes from the original Hitchhiker radio series ("Fit the Fifth" and "Fit the Sixth", also known as "Episode Five" and "Episode Six"), as well as The Meaning of Liff and The Deeper Meaning of Liff.Work on Doctor Who
Adams sent the script for the HHGG pilot radio programme to the Doctor Who production office in 1978, and was commissioned to write The Pirate Planet. He had also previously attempted to submit a potential film script, called Doctor Who and the Krikkitmen, which later became his novel Life, the Universe and Everything (which in turn became the third Hitchhiker's Guide radio series). Adams then went on to serve as script editor on the show for its 17th season in 1979. Altogether, he wrote three Doctor Who serials starring Tom Baker as the Fourth Doctor:
* The Pirate Planet (the second serial in the Key to Time arc, in season 16)
* City of Death (with producer Graham Williams, from an original storyline by writer David Fisher. It was transmitted under the pseudonym "David Agnew")
* Shada (only partly filmed; not televised due to industry disputes, but was later completed using animation for the unfinished scenes and broadcast as "Doctor Who: The Lost Episode" on BBC America on 19 July 2018)
The episodes authored by Adams are some of the few that were not originally novelised, as Adams would not allow anyone else to write them and asked for a higher price than the publishers were willing to pay. Shada was adapted as a novel by Gareth Roberts in 2012 and City of Death and The Pirate Planet by James Goss in 2015 and 2017 respectively.
Elements of Shada and City of Death'' were reused in Adams's later novel ''Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency, in particular, the character of Professor Chronotis. Big Finish Productions eventually remade Shada as an audio play starring Paul McGann as the Doctor. Accompanied by partly animated illustrations, it was webcast on the BBC website in 2003, and subsequently released as a two-CD set later that year. An omnibus edition of this version was broadcast on the digital radio station BBC7 on 10 December 2005.
In the Doctor Who 2012 Christmas episode "The Snowmen", writer Steven Moffat was inspired by a storyline that Adams pitched called The Doctor Retires.
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' was a concept for a science-fiction comedy radio series pitched by Adams and radio producer Simon Brett to BBC Radio 4 in 1977. Adams came up with an outline for a pilot episode, as well as a few other stories (reprinted in Neil Gaiman's book ''Don't Panic: The Official Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Companion) that could be used in the series.
2005 in Innsbruck, Austria, where Adams conceived The Hitchhiker's Guide''. In the novels, a towel is the most useful thing a space traveller can have. The annual Towel Day (25 May) was first celebrated in 2001, two weeks after Adams's death.]]
According to Adams, the idea for the title occurred to him in 1971 while he lay drunk in a field in Innsbruck, Austria, gazing at the stars. He was carrying a copy of the ''Hitch-hiker's Guide to Europe, and it occurred to him that "somebody ought to write a Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy''".
Despite the original outline, Adams was said to make up the stories as he wrote. He turned to John Lloyd for help with the final two episodes of the first series. Lloyd contributed bits from an unpublished science fiction book of his own, called GiGax. Very little of Lloyd's material survived in later adaptations of ''Hitchhiker's, such as the novels and the TV series. The TV series was based on the first six radio episodes, and sections contributed by Lloyd were largely re-written.
BBC Radio 4 broadcast the first radio series weekly in the UK starting 8 March 1978, lasting until April. The series was distributed in the United States by National Public Radio. Following the success of the first series, another episode was recorded and broadcast, which was commonly known as the Christmas Episode. A second series of five episodes was broadcast one per night, during the week of 21–25 January 1980.
While working on the radio series (and with simultaneous projects such as The Pirate Planet) Adams found difficulty in keeping to writing deadlines; the problem became worse as he proceeded to publish novels. He was never a prolific writer and usually had to be forced by others to do any writing. This included being locked in a hotel suite with his editor for three weeks to ensure that So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish was completed. Adams was quoted as saying, "I love deadlines. I love the whooshing noise they make as they go by." Despite the difficulty with deadlines, he wrote five novels in the series, published in 1979, 1980, 1982, 1984, and 1992.
The books formed the basis for other adaptations, such as three-part comic book adaptations for each of the first three books, an interactive text-adventure computer game, and a photo-illustrated edition, published in 1994. This latter edition featured a 42 Puzzle designed by Adams, which was later incorporated into paperback covers of the first four Hitchhiker's novels (the paperback for the fifth re-used the artwork from the hardback edition).
In 1980, Adams began attempts to turn the first Hitchhiker's novel into a film, making several trips to Los Angeles, and working with Hollywood studios and potential producers. The next year, the radio series became the basis for a BBC television mini-series broadcast in six parts. When he died in 2001 in California, he had been trying again to get the film project started with Disney, which had bought the rights in 1998. The screenplay was rewritten by Karey Kirkpatrick and the Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy film was released in 2005.
Radio producer Dirk Maggs had consulted with Adams, first in 1993, and later in 1997 and 2000 about creating a third radio series, based on the third novel in the Hitchhiker's'' series. They also discussed the possibilities of radio adaptations of the final two novels in the five-book "trilogy". As with the film, this project was realised only after Adams's death. The third series, The Tertiary Phase, was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in September 2004 and was subsequently released on audio CD. With the aid of a recording of his reading of Life, the Universe and Everything and editing, Adams can be heard playing the part of Agrajag posthumously. So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish and Mostly Harmless made up the fourth and fifth radio series, respectively (on radio they were titled The Quandary Phase and The Quintessential Phase) and these were broadcast in May and June 2005, and also subsequently released on Audio CD. The last episode in the last series (with a new, "more upbeat" ending) concluded with, "The very final episode of ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy by Douglas Adams is affectionately dedicated to its author."
Dirk Gently'' series
Between Adams's first trip to Madagascar with Mark Carwardine in 1985, and their series of travels that formed the basis for the radio series and non-fiction book Last Chance to See, Adams wrote two other novels with a new cast of characters. ''Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency'' was published in 1987, and was described by its author as "a kind of ghost-horror-detective-time-travel-romantic-comedy-epic, mainly concerned with mud, music and quantum mechanics".
A sequel, The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul, was published a year later. It was Adams's first original work since So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish. After the book tour, Adams set off on his round-the-world excursion, which supplied him with the material for Last Chance to See. The Salmon of Doubt was incomplete when published posthumously.
Music
Adams played the guitar left-handed and had a collection of 24 left-handed guitars when he died (having received his first guitar in 1964). He also studied piano in the 1960s. Pink Floyd and Procol Harum had important influence on his work. During his segment on music discussion programme Private Passions, Adams remarked that he "would have loved to have been a rock musician".
Pink Floyd
Adams's official biography shares its name with the song "Wish You Were Here" by Pink Floyd. The opening section of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" was featured in a section of the third episode of the original 1978 ''Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' radio series (broadcast only, cut from commercial releases). Adams was friends with Pink Floyd guitarist David Gilmour and, on Adams's 42nd birthday, he was invited to make a guest appearance at Pink Floyd's concert of 28 October 1994 at Earls Court in London, playing guitar on the songs "Brain Damage" and "Eclipse". Adams chose the name for Pink Floyd's 1994 album, The Division Bell, by picking the words from the lyrics to one of its tracks, "High Hopes". Gilmour also performed at Adams's memorial service in 2001, and what would have been Adams's 60th birthday party in 2012.
Computer games and projects
Adams created an interactive fiction version of HHGG with Steve Meretzky from Infocom in 1984. In 1986 he participated in a week-long brainstorming session with the Lucasfilm Games team for the game Labyrinth. Later he was also involved in creating Bureaucracy as a parody of events in his own life.
Adams was a founder-director and Chief Fantasist of The Digital Village, a digital media and Internet company with which he created Starship Titanic, a Codie award-winning and BAFTA-nominated adventure game, which was published in 1998 by Simon & Schuster. Terry Jones wrote the accompanying book, entitled ''Douglas Adams' Starship Titanic, since Adams was too busy with the computer game to do both. In April 1999, Adams initiated the h2g2 collaborative writing project, an experimental attempt at making The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy a reality, and at harnessing the collective brainpower of the internet community. It was hosted by BBC Online from 2001 to 2011. which featured Tom Baker as a "software agent" (similar to the assistant pictured in Apple's Knowledge Navigator video of future concepts from 1987), and interviews with Ted Nelson, the co-inventor of hypertext and the person who coined the term. Adams was an early adopter and advocate of hypertext.Personal beliefs and activismAtheism and views on religion
Adams described himself as a "radical atheist", adding "radical" for emphasis so he would not be asked if he meant agnostic. He told American Atheists that this conveyed the fact that he really meant it. He imagined a sentient puddle who wakes up one morning and thinks, "This is an interesting world I find myself in – an interesting hole I find myself in – fits me rather neatly, doesn't it? In fact it fits me staggeringly well, must have been made to have me in it!" to express his disbelief in the fine-tuned universe argument for God.
He remained fascinated by religion because of its effect on human affairs. "I love to keep poking and prodding at it. I've thought about it so much over the years that that fascination is bound to spill over into my writing."
The evolutionary biologist and atheist Richard Dawkins invited Adams to participate in his 1991 Royal Institution Christmas Lectures, where Dawkins calls Adams from the audience to read a passage from The Restaurant at the End of the Universe which satirises the absurdity of the thought that any one species would exist on Earth merely to serve as a meal to another species, such as humans. Dawkins also uses Adams's influence to exemplify arguments for non-belief in his 2006 book The God Delusion. Dawkins dedicated the book to Adams, whom he jokingly called "possibly [my] only convert" to atheism and wrote on his death that "Science has lost a friend, literature has lost a luminary, the mountain gorilla and the black rhino have lost a gallant defender."Environmental activism
Adams was also an environmental activist who campaigned on behalf of endangered species. This activism included the production of the non-fiction radio series Last Chance to See, in which he and naturalist Mark Carwardine visited rare species such as the kākāpō and baiji, and the publication of a tie-in book of the same name. In 1992, this was made into a CD-ROM combination of audiobook, e-book and picture slide show.
Adams and Mark Carwardine contributed the 'Meeting a Gorilla' passage from Last Chance to See to the book The Great Ape Project. This book, edited by Paola Cavalieri and Peter Singer, launched a wider-scale project in 1993, which calls for the extension of moral equality to include all great apes, human and non-human.
In 1994, Adams participated in a climb of Mount Kilimanjaro while wearing a rhino suit for the British charity organisation Save the Rhino International. Puppeteer William Todd-Jones, who had originally worn the suit in the London Marathon to raise money and bring awareness to the group, also participated in the climb wearing a rhino suit; Adams wore the suit while travelling to the mountain before the climb began. About £100,000 was raised through that event, benefiting schools in Kenya and a black rhinoceros preservation programme in Tanzania. Adams was also an active supporter of the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund.
Since 2003, Save the Rhino has held an annual Douglas Adams Memorial Lecture around the time of his birthday to raise money for environmental campaigns.Technology and innovationAdams bought his first word processor in 1982, having considered one as early as 1979. His first purchase was a Nexu. In 1983, when he and Jane Belson went to Los Angeles, he bought a DEC Rainbow. Upon their return to England, Adams bought an Apricot, then a BBC Micro and a Tandy 1000. In Last Chance to See, Adams mentions his Cambridge Z88, which he had taken to Zaire on a quest to find the northern white rhinoceros.
Adams's posthumously published work, The Salmon of Doubt, features several articles by him on the subject of technology, including reprints of articles that originally ran in MacUser, and in The Independent on Sunday. In these, Adams claims that one of the first computers he ever saw was a Commodore PET, and that he had "adored" his Apple Macintosh ("or rather my family of however many Macintoshes it is that I've recklessly accumulated over the years") since he first saw one at Infocom's offices in Boston in 1984.
Adams was a Macintosh user from the time they first came out in 1984 until his death in 2001. He was the first person to buy a Mac in Europe, the second being Stephen Fry. Adams was also an "Apple Master", celebrities whom Apple made into spokespeople for its products (others included John Cleese and Gregory Hines). Adams's contributions included a rock video that he created using the first version of iMovie with footage featuring his daughter Polly. The video was available on Adams's .Mac homepage. Adams installed and started using the first release of Mac OS X in the weeks leading up to his death. His last post to his own forum was in praise of Mac OS X and the possibilities of its Cocoa programming framework. He said it was "awesome...", which was also the last word he wrote on his site.
Adams used email to correspond with Steve Meretzky in the early 1980s, during their collaboration on Infocom's version of ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. Challenges to the authenticity of his messages later led Adams to set up a message forum on his own website to avoid the issue. In 1996, Adams was a keynote speaker at the Microsoft Professional Developers Conference (PDC) where he described the personal computer as being a modelling device. The video of his keynote speech is archived on Channel 9.
Adams was also a keynote speaker for the April 2001 Embedded Systems Conference in San Francisco, one of the major technical conferences on embedded system engineering.
Although there is no explicit admission to this effect, it is not uncommon to find claims in the media that the various Deep Thought, Deep Blue, and DeepMind are named after the Deep Thought supercomputer imagined by Adams.
Personal life
Adams moved to Upper Street, Islington in 1981 and to Duncan Terrace, a few minutes walk away, in the late 1980s. and a broken engagement, they married on 25 November 1991.
Adams and Belson had one daughter together, Polly Jane Rocket Adams, born on 22 June 1994 shortly after Adams turned 42. In 1999, the family moved from London to Santa Barbara, California, where they lived until his death. Following the funeral, Jane Belson and Polly Adams returned to London. Belson died on 7 September 2011 of cancer, aged 59. Death and legacy
, North London]]
Adams died of a heart attack due to undiagnosed coronary artery disease on 11 May 2001, aged 49, after resting from his regular workout at a private gym in Montecito, California. His funeral was held on 16 May in Santa Barbara. His ashes were placed in Highgate Cemetery in north London in June 2002. A memorial service was held on 17 September 2001 at St Martin-in-the-Fields church, Trafalgar Square, London. This became the first church service broadcast live on the web by the BBC.
Two days before Adams died, the Minor Planet Center announced the naming of asteroid 18610 Arthurdent, named after The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' protagonist. In 2005, the asteroid 25924 Douglasadams was named in his memory.
In May 2002, The Salmon of Doubt was published, containing many short stories, essays and letters as well as eulogies from Richard Dawkins, Stephen Fry (in the UK edition), Christopher Cerf (in the US edition), and Terry Jones (in the US paperback edition). It also includes eleven chapters of his unfinished novel, The Salmon of Doubt, which was originally intended to become a new Dirk Gently novel but might have later become the sixth Hitchhiker novel.
Other events after Adams's death included a webcast production of Shada, allowing the complete story to be told, radio dramatisations of the final three books in the ''Hitchhiker's series and the completion of the film adaptation of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy''. The film, released in 2005, posthumously credits Adams as a producer and several design elements – including a head-shaped planet seen near the end of the film – incorporated Adams's features.
A 12-part radio series based on the Dirk Gently novels was announced in 2007.
BBC Radio 4 also commissioned a third Dirk Gently radio series based on the incomplete chapters of The Salmon of Doubt and written by Kim Fuller; but this was dropped in favour of a BBC-TV series based on the two completed novels. A sixth Hitchhiker novel, And Another Thing..., by Artemis Fowl author Eoin Colfer, was released on 12 October 2009 (the 30th anniversary of the first book), published with the support of Adams's estate. A BBC Radio 4 Book at Bedtime adaptation and an audio book soon followed.
On 25 May 2001, two weeks after Adams's death, his fans organised a tribute known as Towel Day, which has been observed every year since then.
An Apple Macintosh SE/30 once owned by Adams can be seen on display at The Centre for Computing History in Cambridge.
In 2018, John Lloyd presented an hour-long episode of the BBC Radio Four documentary Archive on 4 discussing Adams's private papers, which are held at St John's College, Cambridge. The episode is available online.
Travessa Douglas Adams, a street at in São José, Santa Catarina, Brazil, is named in Adams's honour.
In March 2021, Unbound announced a crowdfunder for 42: the wildly improbable ideas of Douglas Adams, on the 20th anniversary of his death, a book based on Adams's papers, edited by Kevin Jon Davies.
The annual Douglas Adams Memorial Lectures began in 2003.
Awards and nominations
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="text-align:center;"
! style"background:#B0C4DE;" scopecol| Year
! style"background:#B0C4DE;" scopecol| Award
! style"background:#B0C4DE;" scopecol| Work
! style"background:#B0C4DE;" scopecol| Category
! style"background:#B0C4DE;" scopecol| Result
! style"background:#B0C4DE;" scopecol| Reference
|-
|1979
|scope=row| Hugo Award
|''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy <small>(shared with Geoffrey Perkins)</small>
|Best Dramatic Presentation
|
|
|}
Bibliography
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! Year
! Title
! ISBN
|-
| 1979
| The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
|
|-
| 1980
| The Restaurant at the End of the Universe
|
|-
| 1982
| Life, the Universe and Everything
|
|-
| 1984
| So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish
|
|-
| 1992
| Mostly Harmless
|
|}
Dirk Gently
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! Year
! Title
! ISBN
! Notes
|-
| 1987
| Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency
|
|
|-
| 1988
| The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul
|
|
|-
| 2002
| The Salmon of Doubt
|
| Unfinished novel, posthumous publication
Includes short stories, essays, and interviews by Adams
|}
Short stories
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! Year
! Title
! Published In
! Notes
|-
| 1975
| "The Private Life of Genghis Khan"
| rowspan="4" | The Utterly Utterly Merry Comic Relief Christmas Book
| Co-written with Graham Chapman, based upon their sketch of the same name
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1986
| A Christmas Fairly Story
| Co-written with Terry Jones
|-
| Supplement to The Meaning of Liff
| Co-written with John Lloyd and Stephen Fry
|-
| "Young Zaphod Plays It Safe"
| rowspan="3" | Set in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
|-
| 1996
| rowspan="2" | "Young Zaphod Plays It Safe" (revised version)
|The Wizards of Odd
|-
| 2002
| The Salmon of Doubt
|}
Non-fiction
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! Year
! Title
! ISBN
! Notes
|-
| 1990
| Last Chance to See
|
| Co-written with Mark Carwardine
|}
Other works
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! Year
! Title
! Notes
|-
| 1980
| A Liar's Autobiography: Volume VI
| Co-written with Graham Chapman, David Sherlock, Alex Martin, and David A. Yallop
|-
| 1983
| The Meaning of Liff
| Co-written with John Lloyd
|-
| 1985
| The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy: The Original Radio Scripts
| With a foreword by Geoffrey Perkins
|-
| 1986
| The Utterly Utterly Merry Comic Relief Christmas Book
| As editor with Peter Fincham. Also contributor, see above
|-
| 1990
| The Deeper Meaning of Liff
| Co-written with John Lloyd
|-
| 1997
| Douglas Adams's Starship Titanic: A Novel''
| By Terry Jones, based on Adams' game Starship Titanic
|-
| 1999
| h2g2
| As creator.
Open source, online, comic encyclopaedia
|}
Filmography
Film
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! Year
! Title
! Notes
|-
| 2005
| ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
| Posthumous, co-written with Karey Kirkpatrick
|}
Television
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#ccc; text-align:center;"
! Year
! Title
! Notes
! Broadcaster
|-
| 1974
| Monty Python's Flying Circus
| "Party Political Broadcast on Behalf of the Liberal Party": Patient Abuse sketch (1974)
| BBC Two
|-
| 1976
| Out of the Trees
| Pilot, co-written with Graham Chapman and Bernard McKenna
| BBC Two
|-
| 1977
| Doctor on the Go
| "For Your Own Good" (1977)
| ITV
|-
| 1978–1979, 1983
| Doctor Who
|
4 stories with 13 episodes
* "The Pirate Planet" (1978, 4 episodes)
* "Destiny of the Daleks" (1979, 4 episodes) (co-written with Terry Nation, uncredited)
* "City of Death" (co-written with Graham Williams, 1979, credited as "David Agnew", 4 episodes)
* "The Five Doctors" (1983) (clips from his partly-filmed-but-unaired script for 1980s "Shada")
He was also script editor throughout season 17
| BBC One
|-
| 1979
| Doctor Snuggles
| 2 episodes; "The Great Disappearing Mystery" and "The Remarkable Fidgety River"
| ITV
|-
| 1979
| Not the Nine O'Clock News
| Unknown episodes
| BBC Two
|-
| 1981
| The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
| Also creator, adapted from his radio series and novel of the same name
| BBC Two
|-
| 1990
| Hyperland
| Documentary
| BBC Two
|-
| 2018
| Doctor Who: The Lost Episode
| Posthumous release, adapted from the unaired "Shada" episode
| BBC America
|}
Radio
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! Year
! Title
! Notes
|-
| 1978–1984
| The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy''
| Referred to as The Primary and Secondary Phases of the series. Subsequent episodes were produced following Adams' death
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2000
| The Internet: The Last Battleground of the 20th century
|
|-
| ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Future
|
|}
Video games
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! Year
! Title
|-
| 1984
| The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
|-
| 1987
| Bureaucracy
|-
| 1998
| Starship Titanic''
|}
See also
* List of animal rights advocates
References
Sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
Articles
* Herbert, R. (1980). "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (Book Review)". Library Journal, 105(16), 1982.
* Adams, J., & Brown, R. (1981). "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (Book Review)". School Library Journal, 27(5), 74.
* Nickerson, S. L. (1982). "The Restaurant at the End of the Universe (Book)". Library Journal, 107(4), 476.
* Nickerson, S. L. (1982). "Life, the Universe, and Everything (Book)". Library Journal, 107(18), 2007.
* Morner, C. (1982). "The Restaurant at the End of the Universe (Book Review)". School Library Journal, 28(8), 87.
* Morner, C. (1983). "Life, the Universe and Everything (Book Review)". School Library Journal, 29(6), 93.
* Shorb, B. (1985). "So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish (Book)". School Library Journal, 31(6), 90.
* "The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul (Book)" (1989). Atlantic (02769077), 263(4), 99.
* Hoffert, B., & Quinn, J. (1990). "Last Chance To See (Book)". Library Journal, 115(16), 77.
* Reed, S. S., & Cook, I. I. (1991). "Dances with ". People, 35(19), 79.
* "Last Chance to See (Book)" (1991). Science News, 139(8), 126.
* Field, M. M., & Steinberg, S. S. (1991). "Douglas Adams". Publishers Weekly, 238(6), 62.
* Dieter, W. (1991). "Last Chance to See (Book)". Smithsonian, 22(3), 140.
* Dykhuis, R. (1991). "Last Chance To See (Book)". Library Journal, 116(1), 140.
* Beatty, J. (1991). "Good Show (Book)". Atlantic (02769077), 267(3), 131.
* "A guide to the future" (1992). ''Maclean's, 106(44), 51.
* Zinsser, J. (1993). "Audio reviews: Fiction". Publishers Weekly, 240(9), 24.
* Taylor, B., & Annichiarico, M. (1993). Audio reviews. Library Journal, 118(2), 132.
* Good reads (1995). NetGuide, 2(4), 109.
* Stone, B. (1998). The unsinkable starship. Newsweek, 131(15), 78.
* Gaslin, G. (2001). Galaxy Quest. Entertainment Weekly (599), 79.
* "So long, and thanks for all the fish" (2001). The Economist, 359(8222), 79.
* Geier, T., & Raftery, B. M. (2001). "Legacy". Entertainment Weekly (597), 11.
* "Passages" (2001). Maclean's'', 114(21), 13.
* "Don't panic! Douglas Adams to keynote Embedded show" (2001). Embedded Systems Programming, 14(3), 10.
* Ehrenman, G. (2001). "World Wide Weird". InternetWeek, (862), 15.
* Zaleski, J. (2002). "The Salmon of Doubt (Book)". Publishers Weekly, 249(15), 43.
* Mort, J. (2002). "The Salmon of Doubt (Book)". Booklist, 98(16), 1386.
* Lewis, D. L. (2002). "Last Time Round The Galaxy". Quadrant Magazine, 46(9), 84.
* Burns, A. (2002). "The Salmon of Doubt (Book)". Library Journal, 127(15), 111.
* Burns, A., & Rhodes, B. (2002). "The Restaurant at the End of the Universe (Book)". Library Journal, 127(19), 118.
* Kaveney, R. (2002). "A cheerful whale". TLS (5173), 23.
* Pearl, N., & Welch, R. (2003). "The Hitchhiker's Guide To The Galaxy (Book)". Library Journal, 128(11), 124.
* "Preying on composite materials" (2003). R&D Magazine, 45(6), 44.
* Webb, N. (2003). "The Berkeley Hotel hostage". The Bookseller (5069), 25.
* "The author who toured the universe" (2003). The Bookseller (5060), 35.
* Osmond, A. (2005). "Only human". Sight & Sound, 15(5), 12–15.
* "Culture vulture" (2005). Times Educational Supplement, (4640), 19.
* Maughan, S. (2005). "Audio Bestsellers/Fiction". Publishers Weekly, 252(30), 17.
* "Hitchhiker At The Science Museum" (2005). In Britain, 14(10), 9.
* Rea, A. (2005). The Adams asteroids. New Scientist, 185(2488), 31.
* "Most Improbable Adventure" (2005). Popular Mechanics, 182(5), 32.
* "The Hitchhiker's Guide To The Galaxy: The Tertiary Phase" (2005). Publishers Weekly, 252(14), 21.
* Bartelt, K. R. (2005). "Wish You Were Here: The Official Biography of Douglas Adams". Library Journal, 130(4), 86.
* Larsen, D. (2005). "I was a teenage android". New Zealand Listener, 198(3390), 37–38.
* Tanner, J. C. (2005). "Simplicity: it's hard". Telecom Asia, 16(6), 6.
* Nielsen Bookscan Charts (2005). The Bookseller, (5175), 18–21.
* "Buena Vista launches regional site to push Hitchhiker's movie" (2005). New Media Age, 9.
* "Shynola bring Beckland to life" (2005). Creative Review, 25(3), 24–26.
* Carwardine, M. (15 September 2007). "The baiji: So long and thanks for all the fish". New Scientist. pp. 50–53.
* Czarniawska, B. (2008). "Accounting and gender across times and places: An excursion into fiction". Accounting, Organizations & Society, 33(1), 33–47.
* Pope, M. (2008). "Life, the Universe, Religion and Science". Issues (82), 31–34.
* Bearne, S. (2008). "BBC builds site to trail Last Chance To See TV series". New Media Age, 08.
* "Arrow to reissue Adams" (2008). The Bookseller (5352), 14.
* Page, B. (2008). "Colfer is new Hitchhiker". The Bookseller (5350), 7.
* "I've got a perfect puzzle for you" (2009). The Bookseller (5404), 42.
* "Mostly Harmless..." (2009). The Bookseller (5374), 46.
* "Penguin and PanMac hitch a ride together" (2009). The Bookseller (5373), 6.
* "Adams, Douglas". Britannica Biographies [serial online]. October 2010;:1
* "Douglas (Noël) Adams (1952–2001)". Hutchinson's Biography Database [serial online]. July 2011;:1
* "My life in books" (2011). Times Educational Supplement (4940), 27.
Other
* , established by him, and still operated by The Digital Village
*
* [http://www.biota.org/people/douglasadams/ Douglas Adams speech at Digital Biota 2 (1998)] [http://www.biota.org/podcast/#DNA (The audio of the speech)]
* [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jun/09/douglasadams Guardian Books "Author Page"], with profile and links to further articles.
* [http://www.vintagemacworld.com/iifx.html Douglas Adams & his Computer] article about his Mac IIfx
* BBC2 Omnibus tribute to Adams, presented by Kirsty Wark, 4 August 2001
* Mueller, Rick and Greengrass, Joel (2002). Life, The Universe and Douglas Adams, documentary.
* Simpson, M. J. (2001). ''The Pocket Essential Hitchhiker's Guide. . Updated April 2005,
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00fpvbm Special edition of BBC Bookclub'' featuring Douglas Adams], first broadcast 2 January 2000 on BBC Radio 4
* External links
*
*
*
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cq181uAbdVQ Interview with Douglas Adams], A DISCUSSION WITH National Authors on Tour TV Series, Episode No. 33 (1992)
Category:1952 births
Category:2001 deaths
Category:20th-century atheists
Category:20th-century English novelists
Category:20th-century English screenwriters
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Category:21st-century English novelists
Category:Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
Category:Apple Inc. people
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Category:British child writers
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Category:Comedians from Cambridgeshire
Category:Deaths from coronary artery disease
Category:English atheists
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Category:English male comedians
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Category:English video game designers
Category:Infocom
Category:Inkpot Award winners
Category:Interactive fiction writers
Category:Monty Python
Category:British non-fiction environmental writers
Category:People educated at Brentwood School, Essex
Category:Science Fiction Hall of Fame inductees
Category:Usenet people
Category:British video game writers
Category:Writers from Cambridge
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Adams
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Drum and bass
|
| cultural_origins = Early-to-mid 1990s, United Kingdom
| derivatives =
| subgenres =
| fusiongenres =
| regional_scenes = Sambass
| other_topics =
}}
Drum and bass (commonly abbreviated as DnB, D&B, or '''D'n'B''') is a genre of electronic dance music characterised by fast breakbeats (typically 165–185 beats per minute) with heavy bass and sub-bass lines, samples, and synthesizers. The genre grew out of the UK's jungle scene in the 1990s. , a trailblazer in the early days of Jungle music, seen here during a performance in Switzerland in 2015.]]
The popularity of drum and bass at its commercial peak ran parallel to several other UK dance styles. A major influence was the original Jamaican dub and reggae sound that influenced jungle's bass-heavy sound. Another feature of the style is the complex syncopation of the drum tracks' breakbeat. Drum and bass subgenres include breakcore, ragga jungle, hardstep, darkstep, techstep, neurofunk, ambient drum and bass, liquid funk (also known as liquid drum and bass), jump up, drumfunk, sambass, and drill 'n' bass. Drum and bass has influenced other genres such as big beat, dubstep, trip hop and has been influenced by hip hop, house, ambient music, techno, jazz, rock and pop.
Drum and bass is dominated by a relatively small group of record labels. Major international music labels had shown very little interest in the drum and bass scene until BMG Rights Management acquired RAM in February 2016. Since then, the genre has seen a significant growth in exposure. Whilst the origin of drum and bass music is in the UK, the genre has evolved considerably with many other prominent fanbases located all over the world.
performs at Listen at Club Alchemy in New Haven, Connecticut, on 3 September 2006.]]
History
20th century
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, a growing nightclub and overnight outdoor event culture gave birth to new genres in the rave scene including breakbeat hardcore, darkcore, and hardcore jungle, which combined sampled syncopated beats, or breakbeats, and other samples from a wide range of different musical genres and, occasionally, samples of music, dialogue and effects from films and television programmes. From as early as 1991, tracks were beginning to strip away some of the heavier sampling and "hardcore noises" and create more bassline and breakbeat led tracks. Some tracks increasingly took their influence from reggae and this style would become known as hardcore jungle (later to become simply jungle), whilst darkcore (with producers such as Goldie, Doc Scott, 4hero, and 2 Bad Mice) were experimenting with sounds and creating a blueprint for drum and bass, especially noticeable by late 1993.
By 1994, jungle had begun to gain mainstream popularity, and fans of the music (often referred to as junglists) became a more recognisable part of youth subculture. The genre further developed, incorporating and fusing elements from a wide range of existing musical genres, including the raggamuffin sound, dancehall, MC chants, dub basslines, and increasingly complex, heavily edited breakbeat percussion. Despite the affiliation with the ecstasy-fuelled rave scene, jungle also inherited associations with violence and criminal activity, both from the gang culture that had affected the UK's hip-hop scene and as a consequence of jungle's often aggressive or menacing sound and themes of violence (usually reflected in the choice of samples). However, this developed in tandem with the often positive reputation of the music as part of the wider rave scene and dancehall-based Jamaican music culture prevalent in London. By 1995, whether as a reaction to, or independently of this cultural schism, some jungle producers began to move away from the ragga-influenced style and create what would become collectively labelled, for convenience, as drum and bass.
As the genre became generally more polished and sophisticated technically, it began to expand its reach from pirate radio to commercial stations and gain widespread acceptance (circa 1995–1997). It also began to split into recognisable subgenres such as hardstep, jump up, ragga, techstep, and what was known at the time as intelligent. As more melodic and often jazz-influenced subgenres of drum and bass called atmospheric or intelligent (Blame and Blu Mar Ten) and jazzstep (4Hero, Roni Size) gained mainstream appeal, additional subgenres emerged including techstep in 1996, drawing influence from techno.
21st century
The emergence of related styles such as liquid funk in the 2000s brought a wave of new artists (Carlito & Addiction, Solid State/DJ Dextrous, Subject 13 and Fellowship being amongst the early pioneers to champion the sound) incorporating new ideas and techniques, supporting continual evolution of the genre.
As of 2014, drum and bass makes frequent appearances in mainstream media and popular culture including in television, as well as being a major reference point for subsequent genres such as grime and dubstep, and producing successful artists including Chase & Status, Netsky, Metrik, and Pendulum.
In 2021, Pitchfork noted a "rising zoomer affinity" for the genre in the 2020s.
Purple Sneakers described a "drum n' bass Renaissance" occurring at the time of the publication of their articles in 2023.
Musical features
Drum and bass incorporates a number of scenes and styles, from the highly electronic, industrial sounds of techstep to the use of conventional, acoustic instrumentation that characterise the more jazz-influenced end of the spectrum.
Influences
A very obvious and strong influence on jungle and drum and bass, thanks to the British African-Caribbean sound system scene, is the original Jamaican dub and reggae sound, with pioneers like King Tubby, Peter Tosh, Sly & Robbie, Bill Laswell, Lee Perry, Mad Professor, Roots Radics, Bob Marley and Buju Banton heavily influencing the music. This influence has lessened with time, but is still evident, with many tracks containing ragga vocals.
As a musical style built around funk or syncopated rock and roll breaks, James Brown, Al Green, Marvin Gaye, Ella Fitzgerald, Gladys Knight & the Pips, Billie Holiday, Aretha Franklin, Otis Redding, the Supremes, the Commodores, Jerry Lee Lewis, and even Michael Jackson acted as funk influences on the music. Jazz pioneer Miles Davis has been named as a possible influence. Blues artists such as Lead Belly, Robert Johnson, Charlie Patton, Muddy Waters and B. B. King have also been cited by producers as inspirations. Even modern avant-garde composers such as Henryk Gorecki have received mention. One of the most influential tracks in drum and bass history was "Amen Brother" by The Winstons, which contains a drum solo that has since become known as the "Amen break", which, after being extensively used in early hip hop music, went on to become the basis for the rhythms used in drum and bass.
By the late 1980s and early 1990s, the tradition of breakbeat use in hip hop production had influenced the sound of breakbeat hardcore, which in turn led to the emergence of jungle, drum and bass, and other genres that shared the same use of broken beats. Drum and bass shares many musical characteristics with hip-hop, though it is nowadays mostly stripped of lyrics. Grandmaster Flash, Roger Troutman, Afrika Bambaata, Run DMC, Mac Dre, Public Enemy, Schooly D, N.W.A, Kid Frost, Wu-Tang Clan, Dr. Dre, Mos Def, Beastie Boys and the Pharcyde are very often directly sampled, regardless of their general influence.
Clearly, drum and bass has been influenced by other music genres, though influences from sources external to the electronic dance music scene perhaps lessened following the shifts from jungle to drum and bass, and through to so-called "intelligent drum and bass" and techstep. It still remains a fusion music style.
Some tracks are illegally remixed and released on white label records (technically bootleg), often to acclaim. For example, DJ Zinc's remix of Fugees' "Ready or Not", also known as "Fugee Or Not", was eventually released with the Fugees' permission after talk of legal action, though ironically, the Fugees' version infringed Enya's copyright to an earlier song. Early pioneers often used Akai samplers and sequencers on the Atari ST to create their tracks.Synthesis
, produced 1980–1984, had a bass drum sound which became very important in drum and bass.]]
Of equal importance is the TR-808 kick drum, an artificially down-pitched or elongated bass drum sound sampled from Roland's classic TR-808 drum machine, and a sound which has been subject to an enormous amount of experimentation over the years.
Rhythm composition
Many drum and bass tracks have featured more than one sampled breakbeat in them and a technique of switching between two breaks after each bar developed. A more recent commonly used break is the "Tramen", which combines the Amen break, a James Brown funk breakbeat ("Tighten Up" or "Samurai" break) and an Alex Reece drum and bass breakbeat.
The relatively fast drum beat forms a canvas on which a producer can create tracks to appeal to almost any taste and often will form only a background to the other elements of the music. Syncopated breakbeats remain the most distinctive element as without these a high-tempo 4/4 dance track could be classified as techno or gabber.
The complex syncopation of the drum tracks' breakbeat is another facet of production on which producers can spend a very large amount of time. The Amen break is generally acknowledged to have been the most-used (and often considered the most powerful) break in drum and bass.DropMany mixing points begin or end with a "drop". The drop is the point in a track where a switch of rhythm or bassline occurs and usually follows a recognisable build section and breakdown. Sometimes, the drop is used to switch between tracks, layering components of different tracks, as the two records may be simply ambient breakdowns at this point. Some DJs prefer to combine breakbeats, a more difficult exercise. Some drops are so popular that the DJ will "rewind" or "reload" or "lift up" the record by spinning it back and restarting it at the build. The drop is often a key point from the point of view of the dance floor, since the drum breaks often fade out to leave an ambient intro playing. When the beats re-commence they are often more complex and accompanied by a heavier bassline, encouraging the crowd to begin dancing.Live performance
in 2009 at Pirate Station, the world's largest drum and bass festival at that time, in Moscow]]
Drum and bass exhibits a full frequency response which can sometimes only be fully appreciated on sound systems which can handle very low frequencies, including sub-bass frequencies that are often felt more than heard. As befits its name, the bass element of the music is particularly pronounced, with the comparatively sparse arrangements of drum and bass tracks allowing room for basslines that are deeper than most other forms of dance music. Drum and bass tracks are meticulously designed to create a hard-hitting emotional impact, with the drums complementing the bass to deliver a pulsating, powerful experience. Consequently, drum and bass parties are often advertised as featuring uncommonly loud and bass-heavy sound systems.
However, there are many albums specifically designed for personal listening. The DJ mix is a particularly popular form of release, with a popular DJ or producer mixing live, or on a computer, a variety of tracks for personal listening. Additionally, there are many albums containing unmixed tracks, suited for home or car listening.
DJ performance
Although this practice has declined in popularity, DJs are often accompanied by one or more MCs, drawing on the genre's roots in hip hop and reggae/ragga.
MCs do not generally receive the same level of recognition as producer/DJs, and some events are specifically marketed as being MC-free. There are relatively few well-known drum and bass MCs, mainly based in London and Bristol, including Stevie Hyper D (deceased), the Ragga Twins, Dynamite MC, MC Skibadee (deceased) and MC Tali.Live instrument performance
performing live in 2010]]
Many musicians have adapted drum and bass to live performances, which feature instruments such as drums (acoustic or electronic), samplers, synthesizers, turntables, bass (either upright or electric) and guitars (acoustic or electric). Samplers have also been used live by assigning samples to a specific drum pad or key on drum pads or synthesizers. MCs are frequently featured in live performances.
Subgenres
Smaller scenes within the drum and bass community have developed and the scene as a whole has become much more fractured into specific subgenres, which have been grouped into "light" (influenced by ambient, jazz, and world music) and "heavy" (influenced by industrial music, sci-fi, and anxiety) styles, including:
Mainstream drum and bass
* Jump-up, appearing in the mid-1990s, employs heavy and energetic drum and bass,
* Drumstep or halftime is a combination of drum and bass and dubstep, where the beat structure is half time, while the remaining elements still adhere to the usual sub-bass and tempo of drum and bass.
*'''Drill 'n' bass (also known as fungle and spunk jazz''') consists of very complex and chopped up rhythms, rapid and irregularly syncopated basslines and often ambient elements similar to earlier subgenres of IDM (like ambient techno). The subgenre was developed by names like Squarepusher, Luke Vibert (known as Plug) and Aphex Twin. Light drum and bass * Intelligent drum & bass or intelligent jungle is a smoother style, influenced by ambient music, chillout, jazz and soul music. It was pioneered by such artists as Omni Trio, Peshay, William Orbit, Seba, Blu Mar Ten, Deep Blue, Photek, LTJ Bukem and the label Moving Shadow.
* Jazzstep, jazzy jungle, jazz & bass or drum & jazz demonstrates heavy influence by jazz and trip hop. It uses typical jazz scales, rhythms and instrumentation.
Heavy drum and bass
* Darkstep is characterised by fast drums and a general dark mood, drawing influences from dark ambient, industrial and hardcore music.
* Techstep is characterised by sci-fi soundscapes and samples from science fiction culture. Pioneered by artists such as Bad Company UK, Ed Rush, Optical, Dom & Roland, and the label Moving Shadow.
* Neurofunk or neuro is the progression from techstep incorporating more elements from jazz and funk.
* Hardstep is a harder style which uses gritty basslines and heavy yet simple electronic melodies. Darkcore, a direct influence on drum and bass, was combined with influences of drum and bass itself leading to the creation of darkstep. There is considerable crossover from the extreme edges of drum and bass, breakcore, darkcore, digital hardcore and raggacore with fluid boundaries.
Intelligent dance music (IDM) is a form of art music based on DnB and other electronic dance musics, exploring their boundaries using ideas from science, technology, contemporary classical music and progressive rock, often creating un-danceable, art gallery style music.
Ghettotech, a club music genre from Detroit, contains synth and basslines similar to drum and bass.
Industry
Record labels
Drum and bass is dominated by a small group of record labels. These are mainly run by DJ-producers.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+List of DnB record labels and their owners
!Label
!Owner(s)
|-
|Hospital Records
|London Elektricity
|-
|RAM Records
|Andy C, Scott Bourne
|-
|Metalheadz
|Goldie
|-
|Creative Source Records
|Fabio, Sarah Sandy
|-
|King of the Jungle Records
|DJ Dextrous
|-
|Subverseive Recordings
|DJ Dextrous
|-
|State of the Art Recordings
|DJ Dextrous
|-
|Critical Music
|Kasra
|-
|Shogun Audio
|DJ Friction
|-
|Breakbeat Kaos
|DJ Fresh
|-
|Virus Recordings
|Ed Rush, Optical
|-
|Pascal
|DJ Hype
|-
|NoCopyrightSounds
|Billy Woodford
|-
|Liquicity
|Maduk, Maris Goudzwaard
|}
Prior to 2016, the major international music labels such as Sony Music and Universal had shown very little interest in the drum and bass scene, with the exception of some notable signings, including Pendulum's In Silico LP to Warner. Roni Size's label played a big, if not the biggest, part in the creation of drum and bass with their dark, baseline sounds. V Recordings also played a large part of the development of drum and bass.
BMG Rights Management acquired Ram Records in February 2016,
Now defunct labels include—DJ Zinc's True Playaz (known as Real Playaz as of 2006); Rob Playford's Moving Shadow, running from 1990 until 2007, which played a pivotal role in the 1990s drum and bass scene, releasing records by artists such as Omni Trio.
Formats and distribution
Purchasing
Originally drum and bass was mostly sold in 12-inch vinyl single format. With the emergence of drum and bass into mainstream music markets, more albums, compilations and DJ mixes started to be sold on CDs. As digital music became more popular, websites focused on electronic music, such as Beatport, began to sell drum and bass in digital format.
Distributors (wholesale)
The bulk of drum and bass vinyl records and CDs are distributed globally and regionally by a relatively small number of companies such as SRD (Southern Record Distributors), ST Holdings, & Nu Urban Music Limited.
As of 11 September 2012, Nu Urban ceased trading and RSM Tenon were instructed to assist in convening statutory meetings of members and creditors to appoint a liquidator. This left many labels short on sales, as Nu Urban were one of the main distributors for the vinyl market in the drum and bass scene.
Regional scenes
Anglosphere
Despite its roots in the UK, which is still treated as the "home" of drum and bass, the style has firmly established itself around the world. There are strong scenes in other English-speaking countries including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United States.
Media presence
Today, drum and bass is widely promoted using different methods such as video sharing services like YouTube and Dailymotion, blogs, radio, and television, the latter being the most uncommon method. More recently, music networking websites such as SoundCloud and Mixcloud have become powerful tools for artist recognition, providing a vast platform that enables quick responses to new tracks. Record labels have adopted the use of podcasts. Prior to the rise of the internet, drum and bass was commonly broadcast over pirate radio.
Radio
The three highest-profile radio stations playing drum and bass shows are BBC Radio 1 with The Drum and Bass Show – formerly with Friction, who was replaced with René LaVice in 2017, simulcast in the US and Canada on Sirius XM, and DJ Hype on Kiss 100 in London. Fabio and Grooverider previously held a long-standing drum and bass show on Radio 1. Radio 1 also had the One in the Jungle show.
The BBC's Black music station BBC Radio 1Xtra used to feature the genre heavily, with DJ Bailey (show axed as of 29 August 2012) and Crissy Criss (show axed as of August 2014) as its advocates. The network also organises a week-long tour of the UK each year called Xtra Bass. London pirate radio stations have been instrumental in the development of drum and bass, with stations such as Kool FM (which continues to broadcast today having done so since 1991), Origin FM, Don FM (the only drum and bass pirate to have gained a temporary legal licence), Renegade Radio 107.2FM, Rude FM, Wax FM and Eruption among the most influential.
As of 2015, despite higher profile stations such as 1Xtra scaling back their drum and bass specialist coverage, the genre has made its way into UK top 10 charts with drum and bass inspired tracks from artists such as Rudimental and Sigma. Earlier in August 2014, before Crissy Criss' show was axed, the BBC held a whole prime time evening event dedicated to showcasing drum and bass by allowing four major labels to participate.
As of November 2014, six drum & bass songs had reached the no.1 spot on the UK's top 40 chart, since the genre was first being played on the radio, around 1993. The first of these was in 2012. The fact that all six of these songs reached number 1 in only two years shows the increase in popularity and commercialisation of the genre in recent years. The artists who produced these songs are Sigma, Rudimental and DJ Fresh (all had two No.1 hits).
Internet radio
Internet radio stations, acting in the same light as pirate stations, have also been an instrumental part in promoting drum and bass music; the majority of them funded by listener and artist donations.
Drum and bass was supported by Ministry of Sound radio from the early 2000s until 2014 and later featuring Tuesday shows from labels such as Metalheadz, Fabio & Grooverider, DJ Marky, Viper Recordings, Shogun Audio and Hospital Records. From September 2015, Ministry abruptly dropped all non-mainstream genres to focus on mainstream EDM, causing disappointment amongst the fans of the D&B community.
North American radio
In Toronto since 1994, The Prophecy on 89.5 CIUT-FM with Marcus Visionary, DJ Prime and Mr. Brown, is North America's longest running jungle radio show.
Album 88.5 (Atlanta) and C89.5fm (Seattle) have shows showcasing drum and bass.
Seattle also has a long-standing electronica show known as Expansions on 90.3 FM KEXP. The rotating DJs include Kid Hops, whose shows are made up mostly of drum and bass. In Columbus, Ohio WCBE 90.5 has a two-hour electronic only showcase, All Mixed Up, Saturday nights at 10 pm. At the same time, WUFM 88.7 plays its Electronic Playground.
Tulsa, Oklahoma's rock station, 104.5 The Edge, has a two-hour show starting at 10 pm Saturday nights called Edge Essential Mix, mixed by DJ Demko, showcasing electronic and drum and bass style. While the aforementioned shows in Ohio rarely play drum and bass, the latter plays the genre with some frequency.
In Tucson, Arizona, 91.3 FM KXCI has a two-hour electronic show known as Digital Empire, Friday nights at 10 pm (MST). Resident DJ Trinidad showcases various styles of electronica, with the main focus being drum and bass, jungle and dubstep.
In Augusta, Georgia, Zarbizarre of the Cereal Killaz hosts a show called FreQuency on WHHD on Friday nights from 11 pm until 1 am, showcasing drum and bass during the second hour of the show.
Magazines
The best-known drum and bass publication was Kmag magazine (formerly called Knowledge Magazine) before it went completely online in August 2009. Although it is still live, after 20 years Kmag ceased updating their site at the end of 2016. Kmag has announced a book to celebrate their 25th anniversary to be published in December 2019. Kmag's publishing arm, Vision, published Brian Belle-Fortune's All Crews: Journeys Through Jungle Drum & Bass Culture in 2004.
Other publications include the longest-running drum and bass magazine worldwide, ATM Magazine, and Austrian-based Resident. London-based DJ magazine has also been running a widely respected drum and bass reviews page since 1994, written by Alex Constantinides, which many followers refer to when seeking out new releases to investigate. In 2012 he stopped writing the reviews, and they are now contributed by Whisky Kicks.
Mainstream acceptance
The earliest mainstream drum and bass releases include Goldie's album Timeless from 1995. Other early examples include the Mercury Music Prize-winning album New Forms (1997) from Reprazent; 4hero's Mercury-nominated Two Pages from 1998; and then, in the 2000s, Pendulum's Hold Your Colour in 2005 (the best-selling drum and bass album).
In 2012, drum and bass achieved its first UK No. 1 single, "Hot Right Now", by DJ Fresh, which was one of the fastest-selling singles of 2012 at the time of release, launching the career of Rita Ora in the process.
Numerous video games (such as Hudson Soft's Bomberman Hero, Hi-Rez Studios' Tribes: Ascend, Electronic Arts' Need for Speed: Undercover, Rockstar Games' Grand Theft Auto series, and Sony's Wipeout series from Pure onward) have contained drum and bass tracks. Microsoft Studios' Forza Horizon 2, 3, 4 and 5 feature a Hospital Records radio channel dedicated to the genre.
The genre has some popularity in film soundtracks. Hive's "Ultrasonic Sound" appeared on The Matrixs soundtrack, and the E-Z Rollers' song "Walk This Land" appeared in the film Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels. Ganja Kru's "Super Sharp Shooter" can be heard in the 2006 film Johnny Was.
The Channel 4 show Skins uses the genre in some episodes, notably in the first series' third episode, "Jal", where Shy FX and UK Apache's "Original Nuttah" was played in Fazer's club.
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<!-- -->See also
* Dogs on Acid
* List of electronic music genres
* List of jungle and drum and bass artists
* List of jungle and drum and bass emcees
References
Further reading
* [http://www.allcrew.uk All Crews: Journeys Through Jungle / Drum and Bass Culture] (2005) by Brian Belle-Fortune (), nonfiction
* "Roots 'n Future" in Energy Flash (1998) by Simon Reynolds, Picador (), nonfiction (British edition)
* Generation Ecstasy: Into the World of Techno and Rave Culture (1998) by Simon Reynolds, Routledge. (), nonfiction (American edition)
* Rumble in the Jungle: The Invisible History of Drum and Bass (2002) by Steven Quinn, in: Transformations, No 3 (2002), nonfiction () [http://www.transformationsjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Transformations03_Quinn.pdf PDF file]
* State of Bass: Jungle – The Story So Far (1997) by Martin James, Boxtree (), nonfiction
* ''The Rough Guide to Drum 'n' Bass (1999) by Peter Shapiro and Alexix Maryon (), nonfiction
* King Rat'' (1998) by China Miéville (), fiction
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* [https://www.bassblog.pro bassblog.pro] – drum and bass mixes, since 2009
* [https://t.me/bassblogpro t.me/bassblogpro] – drum and bass mixes on Telegram
* [http://dnblyrics.com DnbLyrics.com] – the biggest collection of drum and bass lyrics
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/1xtra/events/xtrabass06/interact/timeline.shtml?id=1 History of drum & bass] – a BBC timeline with track listings, quotes and samples
Category:1990s in British music
Category:1990s in music
Category:2000s in British music
Category:2000s in music
Category:2010s in British music
Category:2010s in music
Category:Breakbeat
Category:Electronic dance music genres
Category:English styles of music
Category:Music in London
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drum_and_bass
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2025-04-05T18:28:27.776318
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Donald Knuth
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| birth_place = Milwaukee, Wisconsin, U.S.
| spouse = Nancy Jill Carter
| children = 2
| field =
| work_institutions = Stanford University<br/>University of Oslo
| education =
| doctoral_advisor Marshall Hall, Jr.
| doctoral_students = }}
| website =
}}
Donald Ervin Knuth (
Knuth is the author of the multi-volume work The Art of Computer Programming. He contributed to the development of the rigorous analysis of the computational complexity of algorithms and systematized formal mathematical techniques for it. In the process, he also popularized the asymptotic notation. In addition to fundamental contributions in several branches of theoretical computer science, Knuth is the creator of the TeX computer typesetting system, the related METAFONT font definition language and rendering system, and the Computer Modern family of typefaces.
As a writer and scholar, Knuth created the WEB and CWEB computer programming systems designed to encourage and facilitate literate programming, and designed the MIX/MMIX instruction set architectures. He strongly opposes the granting of software patents, and has expressed his opinion to the United States Patent and Trademark Office and European Patent Organisation.
Biography
Early life
Donald Knuth was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to Ervin Henry Knuth and Louise Marie Bohning. He describes his heritage as "Midwestern Lutheran German". His father owned a small printing business and taught bookkeeping. While a student at Milwaukee Lutheran High School, Knuth thought of ingenious ways to solve problems. For example, in eighth grade, he entered a contest to find the number of words that the letters in "Ziegler's Giant Bar" could be rearranged to create; the judges had identified 2,500 such words. With time gained away from school due to a fake stomachache, Knuth used an unabridged dictionary and determined whether each dictionary entry could be formed using the letters in the phrase. Using this algorithm, he identified over 4,500 words, winning the contest. As prizes, the school received a new television and enough candy bars for all of his schoolmates to eat.
Education
Knuth received a scholarship in physics to the Case Institute of Technology (now part of Case Western Reserve University) in Cleveland, Ohio, enrolling in 1956. He also joined the Beta Nu Chapter of the Theta Chi fraternity. While studying physics at Case, Knuth was introduced to the IBM 650, an early commercial computer. After reading the computer's manual, Knuth decided to rewrite the assembly and compiler code for the machine used in his school because he believed he could do it better.
In 1958, Knuth created a program to help his school's basketball team win its games. He assigned "values" to players in order to gauge their probability of scoring points, a novel approach that Newsweek and CBS Evening News later reported on. He then switched from physics to mathematics, and received two degrees from Case in 1960:
In 1963, with mathematician Marshall Hall as his adviser,
Early work
In 1963, after receiving his PhD, Knuth joined Caltech's faculty as an assistant professor.
Knuth had a long association with Burroughs as a consultant from 1960 to 1968 until his move into more academic work at Stanford in 1969.
In 1962, Knuth accepted a commission from Addison-Wesley to write a book on computer programming language compilers. While working on this project, he decided that he could not adequately treat the topic without first developing a fundamental theory of computer programming, which became The Art of Computer Programming. He originally planned to publish this as a single book, but as he developed his outline for the book, he concluded that he required six volumes, and then seven, to thoroughly cover the subject. He published the first volume in 1968.
Just before publishing the first volume of The Art of Computer Programming, Knuth left Caltech to accept employment with the Institute for Defense Analyses' Communications Research Division, then situated on the Princeton campus, which was performing mathematical research in cryptography to support the National Security Agency.
In 1967, Knuth attended a Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics conference and someone asked what he did. At the time, computer science was partitioned into numerical analysis, artificial intelligence, and programming languages. Based on his study and The Art of Computer Programming book, Knuth decided the next time someone asked he would say, "Analysis of algorithms".
In 1969, Knuth left his position at Princeton to join the Stanford University faculty, where he became Fletcher Jones Professor of Computer Science in 1977. He became Professor of The Art of Computer Programming in 1990, and has been emeritus since 1993.
Writings
Knuth is a writer as well as a computer scientist.
The Art of Computer Programming (TAOCP)
is also the author of 3:16 Bible Texts Illuminated, in which he examines the Bible by a process of systematic sampling, namely an analysis of chapter 3, verse 16 of each book. Each verse is accompanied by a rendering in calligraphic art, contributed by a group of calligraphers led by Hermann Zapf. Knuth was invited to give a set of lectures at MIT on the views on religion and computer science behind his 3:16 project, resulting in another book, Things a Computer Scientist Rarely Talks About, where he published the lectures God and Computer Science.
Opinion on software patents
Knuth strongly opposes granting software patents to trivial solutions that should be obvious, but has expressed more nuanced views for nontrivial solutions such as the interior-point method of linear programming. He has expressed his disagreement directly to both the United States Patent and Trademark Office and European Patent Organisation.
Programming
Digital typesetting
In the 1970s, the publishers of TAOCP abandoned Monotype in favor of phototypesetting. Knuth became so frustrated with the inability of the latter system to approach the quality of the previous volumes, which were typeset using the older system, that he took time out to work on digital typesetting and created TeX and Metafont.
Literate programming
While developing TeX, Knuth created a new methodology of programming, which he called literate programming, because he believed that programmers should think of programs as works of literature:
Knuth embodied the idea of literate programming in the WEB system. The same WEB source is used to weave a TeX file, and to tangle a Pascal source file. These in their turn produce a readable description of the program and an executable binary respectively. A later iteration of the system, CWEB, replaces Pascal with C, C++, and Java.
Knuth used WEB to program TeX and METAFONT, and published both programs as books, both originally published the same year: TeX: The Program (1986); and METAFONT: The Program (1986). Around the same time, LaTeX, the now-widely adopted macro package based on TeX, was first developed by Leslie Lamport, who later published its first user manual in 1986.Personal lifeDonald Knuth married Nancy Jill Carter on 24 June 1961, while he was a graduate student at the California Institute of Technology. They have two children: John Martin Knuth and Jennifer Sierra Knuth.
Knuth gives informal lectures a few times a year at Stanford University, which he calls "Computer Musings". He was a visiting professor at the Oxford University Department of Computer Science in the United Kingdom until 2017 and an Honorary Fellow of Magdalen College.
Knuth is an organist and a composer. He and his father served as organists for Lutheran congregations. Knuth and his wife have a 16-rank organ in their home. In 2016 he completed a piece for organ, Fantasia Apocalyptica, which he calls a "translation of the Greek text of the Revelation of Saint John the Divine into music". It was premièred in Sweden on January 10, 2018.
Chinese name
Knuth's Chinese name is Gao Dena ().
Humor
]]
Knuth used to pay a finder's fee of $2.56 for any typographical errors or mistakes discovered in his books, because "256 pennies is one hexadecimal dollar", and $0.32 for "valuable suggestions". According to an article in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Technology Review, these Knuth reward checks are "among computerdom's most prized trophies". Knuth had to stop sending real checks in 2008 due to bank fraud, and now gives each error finder a "certificate of deposit" from a publicly listed balance in his fictitious "Bank of San Serriffe".
He once warned a correspondent, "Beware of bugs in the above code; I have only proved it correct, not tried it."
To demonstrate the concept of recursion, Knuth intentionally referred "Circular definition" and "Definition, circular" to each other in the index of The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 1.
The preface of Concrete Mathematics has the following paragraph:
At the TUG 2010 Conference, Knuth announced a satirical XML-based successor to TeX, titled "iTeX" (, spoken while ringing a bell), which would support features such as arbitrarily scaled irrational units, 3D printing, input from seismographs and heart monitors, animation, and stereophonic sound.
Awards and honors
In 1971, Knuth received the first ACM Grace Murray Hopper Award.
In 1990, he was awarded the one-of-a-kind academic title Professor of The Art of Computer Programming; the title has since been revised to Professor Emeritus of The Art of Computer Programming.
Knuth was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1975. He was also elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 1981 for organizing vast subject areas of computer science so that they are accessible to all segments of the computing community. In 1992, he became an associate of the French Academy of Sciences. Also that year, he retired from regular research and teaching at Stanford University in order to finish The Art of Computer Programming. He was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 2003. He is a member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters. In 2012, he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society and a member of the American Philosophical Society. Other awards and honors include:
* First ACM Grace Murray Hopper Award, 1971 and 1993
* Josiah Willard Gibbs Lecturer, 1978
* National Medal of Science, 1979
* Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement, 1985
* Franklin Medal, 1988
* Kyoto Prize, 1996
* Asteroid 21656 Knuth, named in his honor in May 2001
* BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award in the category of Information and Communication Technologies, 2010
* Turing Lecture, 2011
* Stanford University School of Engineering Hero Award, 2011
* Flajolet Lecture Prize, 2014
Publications
A short list of his publications include:
The Art of Computer Programming:
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Computers and Typesetting (all books are hardcover unless otherwise noted):
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# , xii+361pp.
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# , xviii+566pp.
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Books of collected papers:
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# Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Design of Algorithms (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information—CSLI Lecture Notes, no. 191), 2010. (cloth), (paperback)
# Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Fun and Games (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information—CSLI Lecture Notes, no. 192), 2011. (cloth), (paperback)
# Donald E. Knuth, Companion to the Papers of Donald Knuth (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information—CSLI Lecture Notes, no. 202), 2011. (cloth), (paperback)
Other books:
# xiv+657 pp.
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# Donald E. Knuth, The Stanford GraphBase: A Platform for Combinatorial Computing (New York, ACM Press) 1993. second paperback printing 2009.
# Donald E. Knuth, 3:16 Bible Texts Illuminated (Madison, Wisconsin: A-R Editions), 1990.
# Donald E. Knuth, Things a Computer Scientist Rarely Talks About (Center for the Study of Language and Information—CSLI Lecture Notes no 136), 2001.
# Donald E. Knuth, MMIXware: A RISC Computer for the Third Millennium (Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag— Lecture Notes in Computer Science, no. 1750), 1999. viii+550pp.
# Donald E. Knuth and Silvio Levy, The CWEB System of Structured Documentation (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley), 1993. iv+227pp. . Third printing 2001 with hypertext support, ii + 237 pp.
# Donald E. Knuth, Tracy L. Larrabee, and Paul M. Roberts, Mathematical Writing (Washington, D.C.: Mathematical Association of America), 1989. ii+115pp
# Daniel H. Greene and Donald E. Knuth, Mathematics for the Analysis of Algorithms (Boston: Birkhäuser), 1990. viii+132pp.
# Donald E. Knuth, , 1976. 106pp.
# Donald E. Knuth, Stable Marriage and Its Relation to Other Combinatorial Problems: An Introduction to the Mathematical Analysis of Algorithms.
# Donald E. Knuth, Axioms and Hulls (Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag—Lecture Notes in Computer Science, no. 606), 1992. ix+109pp.
See also
* Asymptotic notation
* Attribute grammar
* CC system
* Dancing Links
* Knuth -yllion
* Knuth–Bendix completion algorithm
* Knuth Prize
* Knuth shuffle
* Knuth's Algorithm X
* Knuth's Simpath algorithm
* Knuth's up-arrow notation
* Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm
* Davis–Knuth dragon
* Bender–Knuth involution
* Trabb Pardo–Knuth algorithm
* Fisher–Yates shuffle
* Robinson–Schensted–Knuth correspondence
* Man or boy test
* Plactic monoid
* Quater-imaginary base
* TeX
* Termial
* The Complexity of Songs
* Uniform binary search
* List of pioneers in computer science
* List of science and religion scholars
References
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Bibliography
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* |access-dateMay 18, 2006 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060925022700/http://www.stanfordalumni.org/news/magazine/2006/mayjun/features/knuth.html |archive-dateSeptember 25, 2006 |url-status=dead }}
External links
* [https://cs.stanford.edu/~knuth/ Donald Knuth's home page] at Stanford University.
* Knuth discusses software patenting, structured programming, collaboration and his development of TeX.
*
*
*
*
*
* [https://www.informs.org/content/view/full/268483 Biography of Donald Knuth] from the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20191211014433/http://scpd.stanford.edu/free-stuff/engineering-archives/donald-e-knuth-lectures Donald Ervin Knuth – Stanford Lectures (Archive)]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2BdBfsXbST8 Interview with Donald Knuth] by Lex Fridman
* Siobhan Roberts, [https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/17/science/donald-knuth-computers-algorithms-programming.html The Yoda of Silicon Valley]. The New York Times, 17 December 2018.
}}
Category:American computer scientists
Category:American computer programmers
Category:Mathematics popularizers
Category:American people of German descent
Category:American technology writers
Category:1938 births
Category:Living people
Category:Combinatorialists
Category:Free software programmers
Category:Programming language designers
Category:Scientists from California
Category:Writers from Milwaukee
Category:Turing Award laureates
Category:Grace Murray Hopper Award laureates
Category:National Medal of Science laureates
Category:1994 fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Category:Fellows of the American Mathematical Society
Category:Fellows of the British Computer Society
Category:Fellows of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics
Category:Kyoto laureates in Advanced Technology
Category:Donegall Lecturers of Mathematics at Trinity College Dublin
Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Category:Foreign members of the Royal Society
Category:Foreign members of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Category:Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters
Category:Members of the Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford
Category:Stanford University School of Engineering faculty
Category:Stanford University Department of Computer Science faculty
Category:California Institute of Technology alumni
Category:Case Western Reserve University alumni
Category:Scientists from Milwaukee
Category:American Lutherans
Category:American typographers and type designers
Category:Writers from Palo Alto, California
Category:20th-century American mathematicians
Category:21st-century American mathematicians
Category:20th-century American scientists
Category:21st-century American scientists
Category:American computer science educators
Category:Mad (magazine) people
Category:Burroughs Corporation people
Category:American organists
Category:American composers
Category:Academic staff of the University of Oslo
Category:Recipients of Franklin Medal
Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society
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Dairy product
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Dairy products or milk products, also known as lacticinia, are food products made from (or containing) milk. The most common dairy animals are cow, water buffalo, nanny goat, and ewe. Dairy products include common grocery store food around the world such as yogurt, cheese, milk and butter. A facility that produces dairy products is a dairy. Dairy products are consumed worldwide to varying degrees.
Lactose levels
For those with some degree of lactose intolerance, considering the amount of lactose in dairy products can be important to health.
{| class="wikitable"
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!Dairy product
!Amount of lactose
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|Milk
|Highest
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|Butter
|Minimal (made from milk fat)
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|Hard cheese
|Very low
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|Soft cheese
|More than hard cheese
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Intolerance and health research
Dairy products may upset the digestive system in individuals with lactose intolerance or a milk allergy. People who experience lactose intolerance usually avoid milk and other lactose-containing dairy products, which may cause mild side effects, such as abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea, gas, and nausea. The AICR, WCRF, CCA and Prostate Cancer UK have stated that there is limited but suggestive evidence that dairy products increase risk of prostate cancer. The American Cancer Society (ACS) have stated that because dairy products "may lower the risk of some cancers and possibly increase the risk of others, the ACS does not make specific recommendations on dairy food consumption for cancer prevention."
It has been suggested that consumption of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) in dairy products could increase cancer risk, particularly prostate cancer. However, a 2018 review by the Committee on Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the Environment (COC) concluded that there is "insufficient evidence to draw any firm conclusions as to whether exposure to dietary IGF-1 is associated with an increased incidence of cancer in consumers".
A 2019 review concluded that higher-quality research was needed to characterise valid associations between dairy consumption and risk of and/or cancer-related mortality. A 2021 umbrella review found strong evidence that consumption of dairy products decreases risk of colorectal cancer. Fermented dairy is associated with significantly decreased bladder cancer and colorectal cancer risk. A 2023 review found no association between consumption of dairy products and breast cancer.
The British Dietetic Association have described the idea that milk promotes hormone related cancerous tumour growth as a myth, stating "no link between dairy containing diets and risk of cancer or promoting cancer growth as a result of hormones". In 2024, Cancer Research UK stated "there is no reliable evidence that casein or hormones in dairy causes cancer in people".
Cardiovascular disease
The American Medical Association (AMA) recommends that people replace full-fat dairy products with nonfat and low-fat dairy products. In 2017, the AMA stated that there is no high-quality clinical evidence that cheese consumption lowers the risk of cardiovascular disease. In 2021, they stated that "taken together, replacing full-fat dairy products with nonfat and low-fat dairy products and other sources of unsaturated fat shifts the composition of dietary patterns toward higher unsaturated to saturated fat ratios that are associated with better cardiovascular health". Their position paper stated that "the evidence overall suggests dairy products can be included in a heart-healthy eating pattern and choosing reduced-fat dairy over full-fat dairy reduces risk for some, but not all, cardiovascular risk factors".
In 2019 the National Heart Foundation of Australia published a position statement on full fat dairy products, "Based on current evidence, there is not enough evidence to recommend full fat over reduced fat products or reduced fat over full fat products for the general population. For people with elevated cholesterol and those with existing coronary heart disease, reduced fat products are recommended." The position statement also noted that the "evidence for milk, yoghurt and cheese does not extend to butter, cream, ice-cream and dairy-based desserts; these products should be avoided in a heart healthy eating pattern".OtherConsumption of dairy products such as low-fat and whole milk have been associated with an increased acne risk, however, there is no conclusive evidence. Fermented and low-fat dairy products are associated with a decreased risk of diabetes. Consumption of dairy products are also associated with a decreased risk of gout.
A 2023 review found that higher intake of dairy products is significantly associated with a lower risk of inflammatory bowel disease.
Avoidance on principle
Some groups avoid dairy products for non-health-related reasons. Some religions restrict or do not allow the consumption of dairy products. For example, some scholars of Jainism advocate not consuming any dairy products because dairy is perceived to involve violence against cows. Orthodox Judaism requires that meat and dairy products not be served at the same meal, served or cooked in the same utensils, or stored together, as prescribed in Deuteronomy 14:21.
Veganism is the avoidance of all animal products, including dairy products, most often due to the ethics regarding how dairy products are produced. The ethical reasons for avoiding meat and dairy products include how dairy is produced, how the animals are handled, and the environmental effect of dairy production. According to a report of the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization in 2010 the dairy sector accounted for 4 percent of global human-made greenhouse gas emissions.
Growing awareness of dairy products' environmental impact, specifically greenhouse gas emissions, has led to many people reducing or avoiding dairy. In the EU, dairy is responsible for 27% of all diet related emissions, on average, while plant-based milks cause 2.5–4.5 times fewer emissions. See also
* List of dairy products
* List of dairy product companies in the United States
* Dairy industry in the United States
* Dairy industry in the United Kingdom
* Swiss cheeses and dairy products
References and notes
Notes
References
Further reading
* Fuquay, John W. ed. Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences (2nd Edition, 4 vol 2011), comprehensive coverage.
*Rankin, H. F. (1922) Imbucase: the Story of the B. C. I. C. of the Ministry of Food. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Press (B.C.I.C.=Butter and Cheese Imports Committee).
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| birth_place = Warren, Ohio, U.S.
| years_active = 1983–present
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| children = 4, including Violet Grohl
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David Eric Grohl (; born January 14, 1969) is an American musician. He founded the rock band Foo Fighters, of which he is the lead singer, guitarist, and principal songwriter. From 1990 to 1994, he was the drummer of the grunge band Nirvana.
In 1986, at age 17, Grohl joined the punk rock band Scream, replacing drummer Kent Stax. After Scream broke up in 1990, Grohl became the drummer for Nirvana. He first appeared on the band's second album, Nevermind (1991). After the 1994 suicide of Kurt Cobain, Nirvana disbanded and Grohl formed Foo Fighters as a one-man project. After he released the album Foo Fighters in 1995, he assembled a full band to tour and record under the Foo Fighters name. They have since released 11 studio albums.
Grohl is also the drummer and co-founder of the rock supergroup Them Crooked Vultures, and has recorded and toured with Queens of the Stone Age and Tenacious D. He has organized side projects Late!, which released the album Pocketwatch, and Probot. Grohl began directing Foo Fighters music videos in 1997. He released his debut documentary, Sound City, in 2013, then the 2014 documentary miniseries Sonic Highways and the 2021 documentary film What Drives Us. In 2021, Grohl released an autobiography, The Storyteller: Tales of Life and Music. In 2022, he and the Foo Fighters starred as themselves in the comedy horror film Studio 666.
In 2016, Rolling Stone ranked Grohl the 27th-best drummer of all time.Early lifeGrohl was born in Warren, Ohio, on January 14, 1969, the son of teacher Virginia Jean (née Hanlon) and newswriter James Harper Grohl. He is of German, Slovak (on his father's side), Irish, and English (on his mother's side) descent. His father, James, was a journalist and the special assistant to U.S. Senator Robert Taft Jr. James was described as "a talented political observer who possessed the ability to call every major election with uncanny accuracy". When he was a child, Grohl's family moved to Springfield, Virginia. When he was seven, his parents divorced, and he was subsequently raised by his mother. At the age of 12, he began learning to play guitar. He grew tired of lessons and instead taught himself, eventually playing in bands with friends. He said, "I was going in the direction of faster, louder, darker while my sister, Lisa, three years older, was getting seriously into new wave territory. We'd meet in the middle sometimes with Bowie and Siouxsie and the Banshees."
At 13, Grohl and his sister spent the summer at their cousin Tracey's house in Evanston, Illinois. Tracey introduced them to punk rock by taking the pair to shows by a variety of punk bands. His first concert was Naked Raygun at The Cubby Bear in Chicago in 1982. Grohl recalled, "From then on we were totally punk. We went home and bought Maximumrocknroll and tried to figure it all out." When Freak Baby fired its bass player and reshuffled its lineup, Grohl switched to drums. The reconstituted band renamed itself Mission Impossible. Rush drummer Neil Peart was an early influence: "When I got 2112 when I was eight years old, it fucking changed the direction of my life. I heard the drums. It made me want to become a drummer." During his developing years as a drummer, Grohl cited John Bonham as his greatest influence, and eventually had Bonham's three-rings symbol tattooed on his right shoulder. Mission Impossible rebranded themselves Fast before breaking up, after which Grohl joined the hardcore punk band Dain Bramage in December 1985. In March 1987, Dain Bramage ended when Grohl quit without warning to join Scream, having produced the I Scream Not Coming Down LP. Many of Grohl's early influences were at the 9:30 Club, a music venue in Washington, D.C. In April 2010, he said, "I went to the 9:30 Club hundreds of times. I was always so excited to get there, and I was always bummed when it closed. I spent my teenage years at the club and saw some shows that changed my life."
Career
Scream (1986–1990)
As a teenager in Washington, D.C., Grohl briefly contemplated joining Gwar, a shock rock band that was seeking a drummer. At age 17, he auditioned for the local band Scream after the departure of the drummer, Kent Stax. Grohl lied about his age, claiming he was older. To his surprise, the band asked him to join, so he dropped out of high school in his junior year. He said: "I was 17 and extremely anxious to see the world, so I did it."
Over the next four years, Grohl toured extensively with Scream, recording a live album (their show of May 4, 1990, in Alzey, Germany, being released by Tobby Holzinger as Your Choice Live Series Vol.10) and two studio albums, No More Censorship and Fumble, for which Grohl wrote and sang "Gods Look Down". During a Toronto stop on their 1987 tour, Grohl played drums for Iggy Pop at a CD release party held at El Mocambo. In 1990, Scream unexpectedly disbanded mid-tour following the departure of their bassist, Skeeter Thompson. In October 2010, Grohl told Q, "I remember being in the same room with them and thinking, 'What? ''That's'' Nirvana? Are you kidding?' Because on their record cover they looked like psycho lumberjacks... I was like, 'What, that little dude and that big motherfucker? You're kidding me.'" Following the breakup of Scream, Grohl called Osborne for advice. Osborne informed him that Nirvana was seeking a drummer, and gave Grohl the phone numbers of Cobain and Novoselic, who invited Grohl to Seattle to audition. Grohl soon joined.
Nirvana had already recorded several demos for the followup to their 1989 debut album, Bleach, and had spent time recording with the producer Butch Vig in Wisconsin. Initially, the plan was to release the album on Sub Pop, but Nirvana received a great deal of interest based on the demos. Grohl spent the initial months with Nirvana traveling to various labels to discuss record deals, and signed with DGC Records. Nevermind (1991) exceeded all expectations and became a worldwide commercial success. At the same time, Grohl was compiling and recording his own material, which he released on a cassette, Pocketwatch in 1992, on the indie label Simple Machines. Grohl released the cassette under the pseudonym "Late!"
In the later years with Nirvana, Grohl's songwriting contributions to the band increased. In Grohl's initial months in Olympia, Washington, Cobain overheard him working on the song "Color Pictures of a Marigold", and the two subsequently worked on it together. Grohl later recorded the song for the Pocketwatch cassette. Grohl said in a 2014 episode of Foo Fighters: Sonic Highways that Cobain reacted by kissing him upon first hearing a demo of "Alone + Easy Target" that Grohl had recently recorded.
During the sessions for In Utero, Nirvana rerecorded "Color Pictures of a Marigold" and released it as a B-side on the "Heart-Shaped Box" single, retitled "Marigold". Grohl also contributed the riff for "Scentless Apprentice". Cobain said in a 1993 interview with MTV that he initially thought the riff was "kind of boneheaded", but was gratified at how the song developed, a process captured in part in a demo on the Nirvana box set With the Lights Out. Cobain said that he was excited at the possibility of having Novoselic and Grohl contribute more to the band's songwriting.
Prior to Nirvana's 1994 European tour, the band scheduled session time at Robert Lang Studios in Seattle to work on demos. For most of the three-day session, Cobain was absent, so Novoselic and Grohl worked on demos of their own songs. They completed several of Grohl's songs, including the future Foo Fighters songs "Exhausted", "Big Me", "February Stars", and "Butterflies". Cobain arrived on the third day, and the band recorded a demo of "You Know You're Right". It was Nirvana's final studio recording before the suicide of Cobain on April 5, 1994. On April 10, 2014, Grohl was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Nirvana. Foo Fighters (1994–present) Initial post-Nirvana activityFollowing Cobain's death, Grohl went into isolation and retreated for several months, unsure of what to do next, and moved to County Kerry, Ireland. In a 2022 interview, Grohl said:
In October 1994, he scheduled studio time at Robert Lang Studios and quickly recorded a fifteen-track demo. With the exception of a single guitar part on "X-Static" played by Greg Dulli of the Afghan Whigs, Grohl performed all of the instruments himself.
Grohl wondered if his future might be in drumming for other bands. In November, Grohl took a brief turn with Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, including a performance on Saturday Night Live. He declined an invitation to become Petty's permanent drummer. Grohl was also rumored as a possible replacement for Pearl Jam drummer Dave Abbruzzese and performed with the band for a song or two at three shows during Pearl Jam's March 1995 Australian tour. However, by then, Pearl Jam had already settled on ex-Red Hot Chili Peppers drummer Jack Irons, and Grohl had other solo plans.
1994–1996
After his demo received interest from major labels, Grohl was signed by Gary Gersh, Nirvana's A&R rep-turned-president of Capitol Records. Grohl did not want the effort to be considered the start of a solo career, so he recruited other band members: former Germs and touring Nirvana guitarist Pat Smear and two members of the recently disbanded Sunny Day Real Estate: William Goldsmith (drums) and Nate Mendel (bass). He and Novoselic decided against Novoselic joining; Grohl said it would have felt "really natural" for them to work together again, but would have been uncomfortable for the other band members and placed more pressure on Grohl. Grohl's demo was remixed by Rob Schnapf and Tom Rothrock and released in July 1995 as Foo Fighters' self-titled debut album. During a break between tours, the band entered the studio and recorded a cover of Gary Numan's "Down in the Park". In February 1996, Grohl and his then-wife Jennifer Youngblood made a brief cameo appearance on The X-Files third-season episode "Pusher".
After touring for the self-titled album for more than a year, Grohl returned home and began work on the soundtrack to the 1997 movie Touch. Grohl performed all of the instruments and vocals himself, save for vocals from Veruca Salt singer Louise Post on the title track, keyboards by Barrett Jones (who also co-produced the record) on one track, and vocals and guitar by X's John Doe on "This Loving Thing (Lynn's Song)". Grohl completed the recording in two weeks, and immediately joined Foo Fighters to work on their follow-up.
During the initial sessions for Foo Fighters' second album, tension emerged between Grohl and drummer Goldsmith. Goldsmith said, "Dave had me do 96 takes of one song, and I had to do 13 hours' worth of takes on another one...It just seemed that everything I did wasn't good enough for him, or anyone else". Goldsmith also believed that Capitol and producer Gil Norton wanted Grohl to drum on the album. With the album seemingly complete, Grohl headed home to Virginia with a copy of the rough mixes and found himself unhappy with the results. He wrote and recorded a few new songs, "Walking After You" and the hit single "Everlong", alone at a studio in Washington, D.C. Inspired by the session, Grohl opted to move the band, without Goldsmith's knowledge, Grohl later expressed regret, and said, "There were a lot of reasons it didn't work out, but there was also a part of me that was like, you know, I don't know if I'm finished playing the drums yet".
The album was released in May 1997 as The Colour and the Shape. It produced several singles, including "Everlong", "My Hero", and "Monkey Wrench", and cemented Foo Fighters as a staple of rock radio.
The following September, Smear left the band, citing a need to settle down after a lifetime of touring. It was recorded following the departure from Capitol and their former president Gary Gersh. Grohl described the recording experience as "intoxicating at times" because the band members were left completely to their own devices. He added, "One of the advantages of finishing the record before we had a new label was that it was purely our creation. It was complete and not open to outside tampering."
In 2000, the band recruited Queen guitarist Brian May to add some guitar flourish to a cover of Pink Floyd's "Have a Cigar", a song which Foo Fighters previously recorded as a B-side. The friendship between the two bands resulted in Grohl and Taylor Hawkins being asked to induct Queen into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2001. Grohl and Hawkins joined May and Queen drummer Roger Taylor to perform "Tie Your Mother Down", with Grohl<!-- Grohl sang at the 2001 induction – Hawkins did not sing the song until later performances. --> standing in on vocals for Freddie Mercury. May later contributed guitar work for the song "Tired of You" on the ensuing Foo Fighters album, as well as on an unreleased Foo Fighters song called "Knucklehead".
Near the end of 2001, Foo Fighters returned to the studio to work on their fourth album. After four months in the studio, with the sessions finished, Grohl accepted an invitation to join Queens of the Stone Age and helped them to record their 2002 album Songs for the Deaf. (Grohl can be seen drumming for the band in the video for the song "No One Knows".) After a brief tour through North America, Britain and Japan with the band
2010–2014
Foo Fighters' seventh studio album, Wasting Light, was released on April 12, 2011. It became the band's first album to reach No. 1 in the United States. Despite rumors of a hiatus, Grohl confirmed in January 2013 that the band had completed writing material for their follow-up to Wasting Light.
Grohl and members of Foo Fighters sometimes perform as a cover band "Chevy Metal", as they did in May 2015 at "Conejo Valley Days", a county fair in Thousand Oaks, California.
On November 10, 2014, Foo Fighters released their eighth studio album, Sonic Highways, which reached number two in the United States. The album features eight songs, each inspired by a different U.S. city's musical history and culture researched by Grohl himself.
2015–present
On June 12, 2015, while playing a show in Gothenburg, Sweden, Grohl fell off the stage, breaking his leg. He left temporarily and returned with a cast to finish the concert. Afterward, the band canceled the remainder of its European tour. To avoid having to cancel the band's upcoming North American tour, Grohl designed a large "elevated throne" which would allow him to perform on stage with a broken leg. The throne was unveiled at a concert in Washington, D.C., on July 4, where Grohl used the stage's video screens to show the crowd video of him falling from the stage in Gothenburg as well as X-rays of his broken leg. Beginning with the show on July 4, Foo Fighters began selling new tour merchandise rebranding the band's North American tour as the Broken Leg Tour. He lent it again in 2021 to Darin Wall, of the Seattle metal band Greyhawk, after Wall was shot in the leg. On November 3, Foo Fighters performed in Cesena, where Grohl invited some "Rockin' 1000" members onto the stage to perform with the band.
On September 15, 2017, Foo Fighters released their ninth studio album Concrete and Gold, which became the band's second album to debut at number one on the Billboard 200. The tenth Foo Fighters studio album, Medicine at Midnight, was released on February 5, 2021, following delays due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It debuted at number three on the Billboard 200. The eleventh Foo Fighters studio album But Here We Are was released on June 2, 2023. The album is dedicated to Hawkins and Grohl's mother, Virginia, both of whom died in 2022.Other work Musical projects and contributions
Grohl frequently participates in music projects apart from his main bands. In 1992, he played drums on Buzz Osborne's Kiss-styled solo-EP King Buzzo; he was credited as "Dale Nixon", a pseudonym that Greg Ginn adopted to play bass on Black Flag's My War. He also released the music cassette Pocketwatch under the pseudonym Late! on the now-defunct indie label Simple Machines.
In 1993, Grohl was recruited to help recreate the music of the Beatles' early years for the movie Backbeat. In 1993–94, he played drums in the Backbeat Band, an alternative rock supergroup that also included Greg Dulli of the Afghan Whigs, indie producer Don Fleming, Mike Mills of R.E.M., Thurston Moore of Sonic Youth, and Dave Pirner of Soul Asylum.
In 1994, Grohl played drums on two tracks for Mike Watt's Ball-Hog or Tugboat?. In early 1995, Grohl and Foo Fighters played their first US tour: the Ring Spiel Tour, opening for Watt and also playing, alongside Eddie Vedder, in Watt's supporting band.
In January 1997, Grohl played a few songs with David Bowie for Bowie's 50th birthday concert at Madison Square Garden.
In the early 2000s, Grohl spent time in his basement studio writing and recording several songs for Probot, a heavy metal music project, recruiting his favorite metal vocalists from the 1980s, including Lemmy of Motörhead, Conrad Lant from Venom, King Diamond, Scott Weinrich, Snake of Voivod and Max Cavalera of Sepultura. Probot released an album in 2004.
In 2003, Grohl stepped behind the kit to perform on Killing Joke's second self titled album, Killing Joke (2003 album). This surprised some fans of Nirvana, which had been accused of plagiarizing the opening riff of "Come as You Are" from Killing Joke's 1984 song "Eighties". However, the controversy failed to create a lasting rift between the bands. Foo Fighters covered Killing Joke's "Requiem" during the late 1990s, and were joined by Killing Joke singer Jaz Coleman for a performance of the song at a show in New Zealand in 2003. Also in 2003, at the 45th Annual Grammy Awards, Grohl performed in an ad hoc supergroup with Bruce Springsteen, Elvis Costello, and Steven Van Zandt in tribute to the recently deceased singer/guitarist Joe Strummer.
Grohl lent his drumming skills to other artists during the early 2000s. In 2000, he played drums and sang on a track, "Goodbye Lament", for Tony Iommi's album Iommi. In 2001, Grohl performed on Tenacious D's debut album, and appeared in the video for lead single "Tribute" as a demon. He later appeared in the duo's 2006 movie Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny as the devil in the song "Beelzeboss", and performed on its soundtrack. He also performed drums for their 2012 album Rize of the Fenix. In 2002, Grohl helped Chan Marshall of Cat Power on the album You Are Free and played with Queens of the Stone Age on their album Songs for the Deaf. Grohl also toured with the band in support of the album, delaying work on the Foo Fighters' album One by One. In 2004, Grohl drummed on six tracks for Nine Inch Nails' 2005 album With Teeth and played percussion on one more, later returning to play drums on 'The Idea of You' from their 2016 EP Not the Actual Events. He also drummed on the song "Bad Boyfriend" on Garbage's 2005 album Bleed Like Me. Most recently, he recorded all the drums on Juliette and the Licks's 2006 album Four on the Floor and the song "For Us" from Pete Yorn's 2006 album Nightcrawler. Beyond drumming, Grohl contributed guitar to a cover of Neil Young's "I've Been Waiting For You" on David Bowie's 2002 album Heathen.
In June 2008, Grohl was Paul McCartney's special guest for a concert at the Anfield football stadium in Liverpool, in one of the central events of the English city's year as European Capital of Culture. Grohl joined McCartney's band singing backup vocals and playing guitar on "Band on the Run" and drums on "Back in the U.S.S.R." and "I Saw Her Standing There". Grohl also performed with McCartney at the 51st Annual Grammy Awards, again playing drums on "I Saw Her Standing There". Grohl also helped pay tribute to McCartney at the 2010 Kennedy Center Honors along with No Doubt, Norah Jones, Steven Tyler, James Taylor, and Mavis Staples. He sang a duet version of "Maybe I'm Amazed" with Norah Jones on December 5, 2010.
Grohl played drums on the tracks "Run with the Wolves" and "Stand Up" on the Prodigy's 2009 album Invaders Must Die.
In July 2009, Grohl along with Josh Homme and John Paul Jones formed a supergroup, Them Crooked Vultures. The trio performed their first show together on August 9, 2009, at Metro in Chicago. The band played their first UK gig on August 26, 2009, with a surprise appearance at Brixton Academy in London, supporting the Arctic Monkeys. The band released their debut album Them Crooked Vultures on November 16, 2009, in the UK and November 17, 2009, in the US.
On October 23, 2010, Grohl performed with Tenacious D at BlizzCon. He appeared as the drummer for the entire concert, and a year later he returned with Foo Fighters and played another set there, this time as guitarist and vocalist.
Also in 2010, Grohl helped write and performed on drums for "Watch This" with guitarist Slash and Duff McKagan on Slash's self-titled album that also included many other famous artists.
In October 2011, Grohl temporarily joined Cage the Elephant as a replacement on tour after drummer Jared Champion's appendix burst.
Grohl directed a documentary entitled Sound City (2013) which is about the Van Nuys studio of the same name where Nevermind was recorded that shut down its music operations in 2011.
In 2012, following the departure of Joey Castillo from Queens of the Stone Age, Grohl performed on some tracks as drummer on their 2013 album ...Like Clockwork.
At 12-12-12: The Concert for Sandy Relief, Paul McCartney joined Grohl and the surviving members of Nirvana (Krist Novoselic and touring guitarist Pat Smear) to perform "Cut Me Some Slack", a song later recorded for the Sound City soundtrack. In what was regarded as a Nirvana reunion with McCartney as a stand-in for Kurt Cobain, this was the first time in eighteen years that the three had played alongside each other.
On March 14, 2013, Grohl delivered a keynote speech at the 2013 South by Southwest conference in Austin, Texas. He described his musical life from youth through to the Foo Fighters and emphasized the importance of each individual's voice: "There is no right or wrong—there is only your voice ...What matters most is that it's your voice. Cherish it. Respect it. Nurture it. Challenge it. Respect it." Grohl said during the speech that Psy's "Gangnam Style" was one of his favorite songs of the past decade. He also said Edgar Winter's instrumental "Frankenstein" was the song that made him want to become a musician.
On November 6, 2013, Grohl played drums at the 2013 Country Music Association Awards, replacing drummer Chris Fryar in the Zac Brown Band. The band debuted their new song "Day for the Dead". Grohl also produced Zac Brown Band's EP The Grohl Sessions, Vol. 1.
Grohl worked closely with indie hip-hop band RDGLDGRN on their EP. While Grohl was filming his Sound City documentary, the group asked the fellow native of Northern Virginia to drum on "I Love Lamp". Grohl wound up drumming for the entire record, with the exception of "Million Fans", which features a sampled breakbeat.
Grohl, a fan of theatrical Swedish metal band Ghost, produced their EP If You Have Ghost. He was also featured in a number of songs on the EP. Grohl played rhythm guitar for the song "If You Have Ghosts" (a cover of a Roky Erickson song), and drums on "I'm a Marionette" (an ABBA cover) as well as "Waiting for the Night" (a Depeche Mode cover). According to a member of Ghost, Grohl has appeared live in concert with the band wearing the same identity concealing outfit that the rest of the band usually wears.
In September, the all-star covers album by the Alice Cooper-led Hollywood Vampires supergroup was released and features Grohl playing drums on the medley "One/Jump Into the Fire".
On August 10, 2018, Grohl released "Play", a solo recording lasting over 22 minutes. A mini documentary accompanied it. That same year, Grohl invited ten-year-old Collier Cash Rule on stage at a Foo Fighters concert in Kansas City, Missouri and gave him his guitar. Rule played several Metallica songs and Grohl sang one verse and the chorus to "Enter Sandman".
Between August and November 2020, Grohl participated in an online drum battle with ten-year-old drummer Nandi Bushell, who had released cover versions of Nirvana and Foo Fighters songs on her YouTube channel, then challenged the elder drummer to a contest. After going back and forth with Bushell a few times, Grohl jokingly conceded victory to her, and wrote and performed a song in her honor. Grohl invited Bushell to perform with the Foo Fighters on stage during their August 26, 2021, show at the L.A. Forum, where she played drums on "Everlong", the show's finale. The videos of the drum battle received tens of millions of views.
During Hanukkah of 2020, Grohl collaborated with Greg Kurstin to release previously recorded covers of songs by Jewish artists under the moniker The Hanukkah Sessions, one per night. This continued in 2021 and 2022.
On October 5, 2021, Grohl's memoir The Storyteller: Tales of Life and Music was published by Dey Street Books. On March 25, 2022, the self-titled Dream Widow EP was released to digital streaming services featuring eight tracks ranging from thrash, death and extreme metal. The EP also featured Rami Jaffee, Jim Rota and Oliver Roman.
On June 25, 2022, Grohl duetted with Paul McCartney when he headlined the Glastonbury Festival. It was his first performance since the death of Taylor Hawkins earlier in the year. Television Since his first appearance in 1992, Grohl has been a musical guest on Saturday Night Live 15 timesmore than any other musician. He has appeared with Nirvana, Foo Fighters, Them Crooked Vultures, Mick Jagger, and Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers.
Grohl has also appeared in several sketches on SNL. On October 13, 2007, he performed in the SNL Digital Short "People Getting Punched Just Before Eating". On February 6, 2010, he appeared as a middle-aged punk rock drummer reuniting the group "Crisis of Conformity" (fronted by Fred Armisen) after 25 years in a skit later on in the episode. On April 9, 2011, he appeared in the SNL Digital Short "Helen Mirren's Magical Bosom" and the sketch "Bongo's Clown Room".
In mid-2010, Grohl added his name to the list of contributing rock star voice cameos for Cartoon Network's heavy metal parody/tribute show, Metalocalypse. He voiced the controversial Syrian dictator, Abdule Malik in the season 3 finale, Doublebookedklok.
In February 2013, Grohl filled in as host of Chelsea Lately for a week. Guests included Elton John, who disclosed on the E! show that he would appear with Grohl on the next Queens of the Stone Age album. Grohl had previously hosted the show during the first week of December 2012 as part of "Celebrity Guest Host Week".
On May 20, 2015, David Letterman selected Grohl and the Foo Fighters to play "Everlong" as the last musical guest on the final episode of Late Show with David Letterman. On December 1, 2015, Grohl appeared on an episode of The Muppets where he competed in a "drum off" with Animal.
Grohl appeared in the 50th anniversary season of Sesame Street in February 2019. On January 28, it was announced that the first authorized Dave Grohl documentary will be released via The Coda Collection. On October 8, Grohl was the guest storyteller on CBeebies Bedtime Story, reading a story based on the Beatles song "Octopus's Garden".
Filmmaking
Grohl directed the Foo Fighters music videos for "Monkey Wrench" (1997), "My Hero" (1998), "All My Life" (2002), "White Limo" (2011), and "Rope" (2011), as well as all the music videos from the Sonic Highways and Concrete and Gold era. Outside of Foo Fighters, he also filmed the music video for Soundgarden's "By Crooked Steps" (2014).
In 2013, Grohl produced and directed the documentary Sound City, about the history of the famed Sound City Studios recording studios in Van Nuys. The film, Grohl's feature-length directorial debut, premiered at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival.
Accompanying the release of Sonic Highways, Grohl directed an eight-part documentary miniseries of the same name that chronicles the album's development and recording across eight different American cities. It premiered on HBO on October 17, 2014.
In 2021, Grohl directed What Drives Us, a feature-length documentary on van touring. It was released on April 30, 2021, on the Coda Collection via Amazon Prime.
Cal Jam
Inspired by California Jam, to celebrate the release of Foo Fighters' ninth studio album Concrete and Gold and begin their North American tour, Cal Jam 17, a music festival curated by Grohl and Foo Fighters, was held from October 67, 2017 at Glen Helen Amphitheater, with 27,800 attendees, 3,100 campers, and nine arrests. Cal Jam 18, held October 5–6, 2018 in San Bernardino, California, featured the Foo Fighters and a Nirvana reunion.
Musicianship and equipment
Grohl is a self-taught musician and cannot read musical notation, and instead plays only by ear. His drum kit, designed by Drum Workshop, features five different sized tom-tom drums ranging from 5x8 inches to 16x18 inches, a 19-inch crash cymbal, two 20-inch crash cymbals, an 18-inch China cymbal, a 24-inch ride cymbal, and a standard kick drum, snare drum, and hi-hat.
Grohl's primary recording guitar is an original cherry red Gibson Trini Lopez Standard that he bought in the early 1990s, while still with Nirvana, because he liked the different style of headstock and the diamond-shaped sound holes on what was otherwise an ES-335. Onstage during early Foo Fighters tours, Grohl played two Gibson Les Pauls, then relied primarily on a pair of black Gibson Explorers while touring for The Colour and the Shape, There is Nothing Left to Lose, and One by One. His primary acoustic guitar is a black Elvis Presley model Gibson Dove. In October 2006, one of the miners took up his offer, joining Grohl for a drink after a Foo Fighters acoustic concert at the Sydney Opera House. Following the event, Grohl wrote "Ballad of the Beaconsfield Miners", an instrumental piece, which was included on Foo Fighters' 2007 release Echoes, Silence, Patience & Grace, and features Kaki King.
He has worn a White Knot ribbon, a symbol of support for same-sex marriage, to various events; when questioned about the knot, he responded, "I believe in love and I believe in equality and I believe in marriage equality." Grohl's gay rights activism dates back to the early 1990s, when Nirvana performed at a benefit to raise money to fight Oregon Ballot Measure 9, which forbade governments in Oregon from promoting or facilitating homosexuality. Grohl participated in two counter-protests against the Westboro Baptist Church for their anti-gay stance: in 2011, by performing "Keep It Clean" on the back of a flatbed truck and in 2015, by Rickrolling them.
Despite growing up with a firearm, Grohl is an advocate for gun control. In a 2008 interview, Grohl said he had never used cocaine, heroin, or speed, and that he had stopped smoking cannabis and taking LSD at the age of 20. He contributed to a 2009 anti-drug video for the BBC. He has described himself as a coffee addict who drinks an average of six cups of coffee every morning; in 2009, he was admitted to a hospital with chest pains caused by a caffeine overdose.
Grohl supported Barack Obama's 2012 presidential campaign and performed "My Hero" at the 2012 Democratic National Convention in Charlotte, North Carolina. Foo Fighters supported Joe Biden's 2020 presidential campaign and played at the "Celebrating America" concert during Biden's inauguration in 2021. In 2018, he said that Donald Trump "seems like a massive jerk". After Trump used the band's song "My Hero" at a rally without their permission, a Foo Fighters spokesperson announced that the band would donate any royalties from the usage to the Kamala Harris 2024 presidential campaign. Personal life In 1994, Grohl married Jennifer Leigh Youngblood, a photographer from Grosse Pointe, Michigan. They separated in December 1996 and divorced in 1997; Grohl admitted to infidelity. After divorcing Youngblood, Grohl dated snowboarder Tina Basich for a couple of years. Basich ended the relationship after discovering his infidelity. From 1999 to 2001, Grohl dated former Hole bassist Melissa Auf der Maur. In 2003, he married Jordyn Blum; they had met at the Sunset Marquis Whiskey Bar in West Hollywood, California. They reside in Los Angeles and have three daughters, born in 2006, 2009, and 2014. In 2024, Grohl announced on Instagram that he had fathered a fourth daughter, this time outside his marriage, and asked his family for forgiveness. As of 2025, the couple has not filed for divorce and is reportedly working to keep their marriage
In a June 2011 interview, Grohl revealed that he was going deaf in his left ear due to decades of performing on stage. During his appearance on The Howard Stern Show in February 2022, he stated that he suffers from hearing loss and that this has an impact on both his daily life and life as a musician; his tinnitus has forced him to read lips for about 20 years, a situation that became more difficult when people began wearing face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic. As for producing music, he refuses to use in-ear monitors despite their ability to protect his ears because it "removes [him] from the natural atmosphere sound so [he] cannot hear [his] bandmates". From 1993 to 1997, Grohl owned a house in Shoreline, Washington. In 2015, Grohl sold his beachfront house in Oxnard, California, for $2.9 million.
Honors
in 2014]]
In August 2009, Grohl was given the key to the city of Warren, Ohio, his birthplace, and performed the songs "Everlong", "Times Like These", and "My Hero". A roadway in downtown Warren named "David Grohl Alley" has been dedicated to him with murals by local artists.
In 2012, Grohl's hometown of Warren unveiled oversized drumsticks, listed in the Guinness Book of World Records for the largest drumsticks in the world. They were also displayed on July 7, 2012, at a concert at the Warren Amphitheater. Grohl's first solo Rolling Stone cover story was published on December 4, 2014. In 2016, Grohl was ranked 27th on the list of the best drummers of all time by Rolling Stone. Grohl received the George and Ira Gershwin Award in 2024. Discography Filmography Film {| class"wikitable"
!Year
!Film
!Role
!Notes
|-
|1992
|1991: The Year Punk Broke
|Himself
|Documentary
|-
|2000
|Is It Fall Yet?
|Daniel Dotson
|Voice only
|-
|2005
|Classic Albums: Nirvana – Nevermind
|Himself
|Documentary
|-
|2006
|Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny
|Satan
|Performed drums, vocals, guitar
|-
|2007
|''Runnin' Down a Dream
|Himself
|Documentary
|-
|2010
|Lemmy
|Himself
|Rockumentary
|-
|2011
|The Muppets
|Animool
|Cameo
|-
|2011
|Foo Fighters: Back and Forth
| rowspan="3" |Himself
|Rockumentary
|-
|2012
|See a Little Light: A Celebration of the Music and Legacy of Bob Mould
|Performed guitar, drums, vocals
|-
|2012
|Bad Brains: A Band in DC
| rowspan="11" |Documentary
|-
|2013
|Sound City
|Director
|-
|2013
|The Death and Resurrection Show
| rowspan="4" |Himself
|-
|2013
|Filmage: The Story of Descendents/All
|-
|2014
|Salad Days
|-
|2014
|Rye Coalition: The Story of the Hard Luck 5
|-
|2015
|Kurt Cobain: Montage of Heck
|Himself (Archival Footage)
|-
|2015
|All Things Must Pass
| rowspan="6" |Himself
|-
|2016
|Desert Age: A Rock and Roll Scene History
|-
|2016
|The Smart Studios Story
|-
|2018
|Industrial Accident: The Story of Wax Trax! Records
|-
|2020
|Bill & Ted Face the Music
|Cameo
|-
|2021
|I'm in the Band
| rowspan="2" |Documentary
|-
|2021
|What Drives Us
|Director
|-
|2022
|Studio 666
|Himself
|Horror film, also story
|}
Television
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Series
!Role
!Notes
|-
|1996
|The X-Files
|Man walking down hallway
|Uncredited cameo; Episode: "Pusher"
|-
|1996
|Space Ghost Coast to Coast
| rowspan="5" |Himself
|Episode: "Late Show"
|-
|2004
|Viva La Bam
|Episode: "Drive-Way Skate Park"
|-
|2005
|Classic Albums
|Episode: "Nirvana: Nevermind"
|-
|2006
|The West Wing
|Episode: "Election Day Part II"
|-
|2008
|Top Chef: New York
|Episode: "A Foo Fighters Thanksgiving"
|-
|2010
|Metalocalypse
|Abdule Malik
|Voice; Episode: "Doublebookedklok"
|-
|2013
|Behind the Music: Remastered
|Himself
|Episode: "Motörhead"
|-
|2013–16
|Drunk History''
|Memphis Mafia Member / American Congressman
|2 episodes
|-
|2013
|The High Fructose Adventures of Annoying Orange
| rowspan="8" |Himself
|Episode: "Meet Banana Monocle"
|-
|2013
|Chelsea Lately
|Guest host
|-
|2014
|Sonic Highways
|8 episodes
|-
|2014
|Off Camera
|
|-
|2015
|The Muppets
|Episode: "Going, Going, Gonzo"
|-
|2017
|Jimmy Kimmel Live!
|Guest host
|-
|2019
|Sesame Street
| rowspan="2" |Performed vocals and guitar
|-
|2021
|CBeebies Bedtime Story<ref name="CBeebies"/>
|-
|2021
|From Cradle to Stage
|Host
|6 episodes
|-
|2022
|Hot Ones
|Himself
|Webisode: "Dave Grohl Makes a New Friend While Eating Spicy Wings"
|}
References
Further reading
*
*
External links
* (Foo Fighters)
*
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20200813121102/https://whatgear.com/artist/dave-grohl Dave Grohl's Gearboard]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110123191519/http://www.upvenue.com/article/1265-david-grohl-discography-of-awesomeness.html Dave Grohl Band Discography]
* [http://www.artistdirect.com/entertainment-news/article/live-review-them-crooked-vultures-club-nokia-los-angeles/6666662 Live Review] at ArtistDirect.com
*
}}
}}
Category:1969 births
Category:20th-century American drummers
Category:20th-century American guitarists
Category:20th-century American singers
Category:21st-century American drummers
Category:21st-century American guitarists
Category:21st-century American singers
Category:American alternative rock drummers
Category:American alternative rock guitarists
Category:American alternative rock singers
Category:American autobiographers
Category:American documentary filmmakers
Category:American heavy metal drummers
Category:American heavy metal guitarists
Category:American heavy metal singers
Category:American LGBTQ rights activists
Category:American male drummers
Category:American male guitarists
Category:American male singers
Category:American male songwriters
Category:American multi-instrumentalists
Category:American music video directors
Category:American people of German descent
Category:American people of Irish descent
Category:American people of Slovak descent
Category:American philanthropists
Category:American punk rock drummers
Category:American punk rock guitarists
Category:American punk rock singers
Category:American rhythm guitarists
Category:American rock songwriters
Category:Annandale High School alumni
Category:Audiobook narrators
Category:Drummers from Ohio
Category:Drummers from Virginia
Category:Film directors from Ohio
Category:Film directors from Virginia
Category:Foo Fighters members
Category:Grammy Award winners
Category:Grunge musicians
Category:Guitarists from Ohio
Category:Guitarists from Virginia
Category:Killing Joke members
Category:Living people
Category:Mondo Generator members
Category:Musicians from Alexandria, Virginia
Category:Nirvana (band) members
Category:NME Awards winners
Category:Ohio Democrats
Category:People from Springfield, Virginia
Category:People from Warren, Ohio
Category:Queens of the Stone Age members
Category:Record producers from Ohio
Category:Record producers from Virginia
Category:Scream (band) members
Category:Singers from Ohio
Category:Singers from Virginia
Category:Songwriters from Ohio
Category:Songwriters from Virginia
Category:Teenage Time Killers members
Category:Them Crooked Vultures members
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Grohl
|
2025-04-05T18:28:27.921646
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Dollar
|
1 Buck}}
thumb|upright=1.5|
Dollar is the name of more than 25 currencies. The United States dollar, named after the international currency known as the Spanish dollar, was established in 1792 and is the first so named that still survives. Others include the Australian dollar, Brunei dollar, Canadian dollar, Eastern Caribbean dollar, Hong Kong dollar, Jamaican dollar, Liberian dollar, Namibian dollar, New Taiwan dollar, New Zealand dollar, Singapore dollar, Trinidad and Tobago Dollar and several others. The symbol for most of those currencies is the dollar sign $; the same symbol is used by many countries using peso currencies. The name "dollar" originates from the "thaler" (from thal, German for valley) suffix in the name of a 29 g silver coin called the Joachimsthaler minted in Bohemia.
Economies that use a "dollar"
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Currency
! ISO 4217 code
! Country or territory
! Established
! Preceding currency
|-
| Eastern Caribbean dollar
| XCD
|
| 1965
| British West Indies dollar
|-
| Australian dollar
| AUD
| and its territories
| 1966
| Australian pound 1910–1966 <br>Pound sterling 1825–1910
|-
| Bahamian dollar
| BSD
|
| 1966
| Bahamian pound
|-
| Barbadian dollar
| BBD
|
| 1972
| Eastern Caribbean dollar
|-
| Belize dollar
| BZD
|
| 1973
| British Honduran dollar
|-
| Bermudian dollar
| BMD
|
| 1970
| Pound sterling
|-
| Brunei dollar<br>
<small>(Alongside the Singapore dollar)</small>
| BND<br>
<small>(SGD)</small>
|
| 1967
| Malaya and British Borneo dollar
|-
| Canadian dollar
| CAD
|
| 1858
| Spanish dollar pre-1841 <br>Canadian pound 1841–1858 <br>Newfoundland dollar 1865–1949 in the Dominion of Newfoundland
|-
| Cayman Islands dollar
| KYD
|
| 1972
| Jamaican dollar
|-
| Eastern Caribbean dollar
| XCD
|
| 1965
| British West Indies dollar
|-
| Fijian dollar
| FJD
|
| 1969
| Fijian pound
|-
| Eastern Caribbean dollar
| XCD
|
| 1965
| British West Indies dollar
|-
| Guyanese dollar
| GYD
|
| 1839
| Eastern Caribbean dollar
|-
| Hong Kong dollar
| HKD
|
| 1863
| Rupee, Real (Spanish/Colonial Spain: Mexican), Chinese cash
|-
| Jamaican dollar
| JMD
|
| 1969
| Jamaican pound
|-
| Kiribati dollar along with the Australian dollar
| KID / AUD
|
| 1979
| Australian dollar
|-
| Liberian dollar
| LRD
|
| 1937
| United States dollar
|-
| Namibian dollar along with the South African rand
| NAD/ZAR
|
| 1993
| South African rand
|-
| Australian dollar
| AUD
|
| 1966
|
|-
| New Zealand dollar
| NZD
| and its territories and dependencies
| 1967
| New Zealand pound
|-
| Eastern Caribbean dollar
| XCD
|
| rowspan="3" |1965
|
|-
| Eastern Caribbean dollar
| XCD
|
|
|-
| Eastern Caribbean dollar
| XCD
|
|
|-
| Singapore dollar<br>
<small>(Alongside the Brunei dollar)</small>
| SGD<br>
<small>(BND)</small>
|
| 1967
| Malaya and British Borneo dollar
|-
| Solomon Islands dollar
| SBD
|
| 1977
| Australian pound
|-
| Surinamese dollar
| SRD
|
| 2004
| Surinamese guilder
|-
| New Taiwan dollar
| TWD
|
| 1949
| Old Taiwan dollar
|-
| Trinidad and Tobago dollar
| TTD
|
| 1964
| British West Indies dollar
|-
| Tuvaluan dollar along with the Australian dollar
| TVD / AUD
|
| 1976
|
|-
| United States dollar
| USD
| and its territories
| 1792
| Spanish dollar<br>Colonial scrip
|-
|}
Other countries that use "United States dollar"
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Country or territory
! Established
! Preceding currency
|-
|
| 2002
| Indonesian rupiah
|-
|
| 2001
| Ecuadorian sucre
|-
|
| 2001
| Salvadoran colón
|-
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|}
Other territories that use a "dollar"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Territory !! Currency
|-
| || Eastern Caribbean dollar
|-
| <small>(Netherlands)</small>|| US dollar
|-
| || US dollar (alongside the pound sterling)
|-
| || US dollar
|-
| || Eastern Caribbean dollar
|-
| <small>(Netherlands)</small>|| US dollar
|-
| <small>(France)</small>|| Canadian dollar (alongside the euro)
|-
| <small>(Netherlands)</small>|| US dollar
|-
| || US dollar
|}
Countries unofficially accepting "dollars"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Country
!Currency
|-
| || rowspan="7" | US dollar
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
| || Hong Kong dollar
|-
| || rowspan="9" | US dollar
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|-
|
|}
Countries and regions that have previously used a "dollar" currency
from 1935, featuring Charles Vyner Brooke, the 3rd and last White Rajah of Sarawak]]
*Confederate States of America: The Confederate States dollar issued from March 1861 to 1865
*Ethiopia: The name "Ethiopian dollar" was used in the English text on the birr banknotes before the Derg takeover in 1974.
*Malaysia: the Malaysian ringgit used to be called the "Malaysian Dollar" in English. The surrounding territories (that is, Malaya, British North Borneo, Sarawak, Brunei, and Singapore) used several varieties of dollars (for example, Straits dollar, Malayan dollar, Sarawak dollar, British North Borneo dollar; Malaya and British Borneo dollar) before Malaya, British North Borneo, Sarawak, Singapore and Brunei gained their independence from the United Kingdom. See also for complete list of currencies.
*Sierra Leone: The Sierra Leonean dollar was used from 1791 to 1805. It was subdivided into 100 cents and was issued by the Sierra Leone Company. The dollar was pegged to sterling at a rate of 1 dollar = 4 shillings 2 pence.
*Spain: the Spanish dollar was used from 1497 to 1868. It is closely related to the dollars (Spanish dollar was used in the US until 1857) and euros used today.
*Sri Lanka; the Ceylonese rixdollar was a currency used in British Ceylon in the early 19th Century.
*Rhodesia: the Rhodesian dollar replaced the Rhodesian pound in 1970 and it was used until Zimbabwe came into being in 1980.
*Republic of Texas: the Texas dollar was issued between January 1839 and September 1840.
*Zimbabwe: uses the Zimbabwe dollar, and also accepts the South African rand, the US dollar, the Euro, the Pound sterling, the Botswana pula, the Chinese yuan, the Indian rupee and the Japanese yen.
History
Etymology
On 15 January 1520, the Kingdom of Bohemia began minting coins from silver mined locally in Joachimsthal and marked on reverse with the Bohemian lion. The coins were named Joachimsthaler after the town, becoming shortened in common usage to thaler or taler. The town's name is derived from Saint Joachim, coupled with the German word Thal (Tal in modern spelling), which means 'valley' (cf. the English term dale); the coin is thus "from the valley of [St] Joachim".
This name found its way into other languages, for example:
* German — Thaler (or Taler)
* Czech, Slovak and Slovenian — tolar
* Slovak — toliar
* Croatian — talir
* Polish — talar
* Low German — daler
* Dutch — rijksdaalder (or daler)
* Danish and Norwegian — rigsdaler
* Latvian — dālderis
* Swedish — riksdaler
* Spanish — dólar (or real de a ocho or peso duro)
* Hungarian — tallér
* Ethiopian — talari (ታላሪ)
* English — dollar
In contrast to other languages which adopted the second part of word joachimsthaler, the first part found its way into Russian language and became , (ефимок).
The predecessor of the Joachimsthaler was the Guldengroschen or Guldiner which was a large silver coin originally minted in Tirol in 1486 and introduced into the Duchy of Saxony in 1500. The King of Bohemia wanted a similar silver coin, which became the Joachimsthaler.
Europe and colonial North America
, natively called Peso, was the main coin of the Spanish Empire. This coin is from 1739.]]
The Joachimsthaler of the 16th century was succeeded by the longer-lived Reichsthaler of the Holy Roman Empire, used from the 16th to 19th centuries. The Netherlands also introduced its own dollars in the 16th century: the Burgundian Cross Thaler (Bourgondrische Kruisdaalder), the German-inspired Rijksdaalder, and the Dutch lion dollar (leeuwendaalder). The latter coin was used for Dutch trade in the Middle East, in the Dutch East Indies and West Indies, and in the Thirteen Colonies of North America.
For the English North American colonists, however, the Spanish peso or "piece of eight" had always held first place, and this coin was also called the "dollar" as early as 1581. Spanish dollars or "pieces of eight" were distributed widely in the Spanish colonies in the New World and in the Philippines.
Origins of the dollar sign
The sign is first attested in business correspondence in the 1770s as a scribal abbreviation "p<sup>s</sup>", referring to the Spanish American peso, that is, the "Spanish dollar" as it was known in British North America. These late 18th- and early 19th-century manuscripts show that the s gradually came to be written over the p developing a close equivalent to the "$" mark, and this new symbol was retained to refer to the American dollar as well, once this currency was adopted in 1785 by the United States.
Adoption by the United States
By the time of the American Revolution, the Spanish dólar gained significance because they backed paper money authorized by the individual colonies and the Continental Congress. as a unit of pure silver weighing 371 4/16th grains (24.057 grams), or 416 grains of standard silver (standard silver being defined as 371.25/416 in silver, and balance in alloy). It was specified that the "money of account" of the United States should be expressed in those same "dollars" or parts thereof. Additionally, all lesser-denomination coins were defined as percentages of the dollar coin, such that a half-dollar was to contain half as much silver as a dollar, quarter-dollars would contain one-fourth as much, and so on.
In an act passed in January 1837, the dollar's weight was reduced to 412.5 grains and alloy at 90% silver, resulting in the same fine silver content of 371.25 grains. On 21 February 1853, the quantity of silver in the lesser coins was reduced, with the effect that their denominations no longer represented their silver content relative to dollar coins.
Various acts have subsequently been passed affecting the amount and type of metal in U.S. coins, so that today there is no legal definition of the term "dollar" to be found in U.S. statute. Currently the closest thing to a definition is found in United States Code Title 31, Section 5116, paragraph b, subsection 2: "The Secretary [of the Treasury] shall sell silver under conditions the Secretary considers appropriate for at least $1.292929292 a fine troy ounce."
Silver was mostly removed from U.S. coinage by 1965 and the dollar became a free-floating fiat money without a commodity backing defined in terms of real gold or silver. The US Mint continues to make silver $1-denomination coins, but these are not intended for general circulation.
Relationship to the troy pound
The quantity of silver chosen in 1792 to correspond to one dollar, namely, 371.25 grains of pure silver, is very close to the geometric mean of one troy pound and one pennyweight. In what follows, "dollar" will be used as a unit of mass. A troy pound being 5760 grains and a pennyweight being 240 times smaller, or 24 grains, the geometric mean is, to the nearest hundredth, 371.81 grains. This means that the ratio of a pound to a dollar (15.52) roughly equals the ratio of a dollar to a pennyweight (15.47). These ratios are also very close to the ratio of a gram to a grain: 15.43. Finally, in the United States, the ratio of the value of gold to the value of silver in the period from 1792 to 1873 averaged to about 15.5, being 15 from 1792 to 1834 and around 16 from 1834 to 1873. This is also nearly the value of the gold to silver ratio determined by Isaac Newton in 1717.
That these three ratios are all approximately equal has some interesting consequences. Let the gold to silver ratio be exactly 15.5. Then a pennyweight of gold, that is 24 grains of gold, is nearly equal in value to a dollar of silver (1 dwt of gold $1.002 of silver). Second, a dollar of gold is nearly equal in value to a pound of silver ($1 of gold 5754 3/8 grains of silver 0.999 Lb of silver). Third, the number of grains in a dollar (371.25) roughly equals the number of grams in a troy pound (373.24).Usage in the United KingdomThere are two quotes in the plays of William Shakespeare referring to dollars as money. Coins known as "thistle dollars" were in use in Scotland during the 16th and 17th centuries, and use of the English word, and perhaps even the use of the coin, may have begun at the University of St Andrews. This might be supported by a reference to the sum of "ten thousand dollars" in Macbeth (act I, scene II) (an anachronism because the real Macbeth, upon whom the play was based, lived in the 11th century). In the Sherlock Holmes story "The Man with the Twisted Lip" by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, published in 1891, an Englishman posing as a London beggar describes the shillings and pounds he collected as dollars.
In 1804, a British five-shilling piece, or crown, was sometimes called "dollar". It was an overstruck Spanish eight real coin (the famous "piece of eight"), the original of which was known as a Spanish dollar. Large numbers of these eight-real coins were captured during the Napoleonic Wars, hence their re-use by the Bank of England. They remained in use until 1811. During World War II, when the U.S. dollar was (approximately) valued at five shillings, the half crown (2s 6d) acquired the nickname "half dollar" or "half a dollar" in the UK.
Usage elsewhere
Chinese demand for silver in the 19th and early 20th centuries led several countries, notably the United Kingdom, United States and Japan, to mint trade dollars, which were often of slightly different weights from comparable domestic coinage. Silver dollars reaching China (whether Spanish, trade, or other) were often stamped with Chinese characters known as "chop marks", which indicated that that particular coin had been assayed by a well-known merchant and deemed genuine.
Other national currencies called "dollar"
one-dollar coin]]
for 100 billion dollars, during the hyperinflation in Zimbabwe]]
Prior to 1873, the silver dollar circulated in many parts of the world, with a value in relation to the British gold sovereign of roughly $1 4s 2d (21p approx). As a result of the decision of the German Empire to stop minting silver thaler'' coins in 1871, in the wake of the Franco-Prussian War, the worldwide price of silver began to fall. This resulted in the U.S. Coinage Act (1873) which put the United States onto a 'de facto' gold standard. Canada and Newfoundland were already on the gold standard, and the result was that the value of the dollar in North America increased in relation to silver dollars being used elsewhere, particularly Latin America and the Far East. By 1900, value of silver dollars had fallen to 50 percent of gold dollars. Following the abandonment of the gold standard by Canada in 1931, the Canadian dollar began to drift away from parity with the U.S. dollar. It returned to parity a few times, but since the end of the Bretton Woods system of fixed exchange rates that was agreed to in 1944, the Canadian dollar has been floating against the U.S. dollar. The silver dollars of Latin America and South East Asia began to diverge from each other as well during the course of the 20th century. The Straits dollar adopted a gold exchange standard in 1906 after it had been forced to rise in value against other silver dollars in the region. Hence, by 1935, when China and Hong Kong came off the silver standard, the Straits dollar was worth 2s 4d (11.5p approx) sterling, whereas the Hong Kong dollar was worth only 1s 3d sterling (6p approx).
The term "dollar" has also been adopted by other countries for currencies which do not share a common history with other dollars. Many of these currencies adopted the name after moving from a £sd-based to a decimalized monetary system. Examples include the Australian dollar, the New Zealand dollar, the Jamaican dollar, the Cayman Islands dollar, the Fiji dollar, the Namibian dollar, the Rhodesian dollar, the Zimbabwe dollar, and the Solomon Islands dollar.
* The tala is based on the Samoan pronunciation of the word "dollar".
* The Slovenian tolar had the same etymological origin as dollar (that is, thaler).
* The Swedish Daler used to be the name for the currency and have the same etymological origin as the German thaler).
See also
* Eurodollar
* List of circulating currencies
* North American currency union Amero
* Petrodollar
References
External links
* [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?searchbuck&searchmodeterm Etymonline (word history)]. for buck; [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?searchdollar&searchmodeterm Etymonline (word history)] for dollar
* [https://money.cnn.com/data/currencies/index.html Currency converter]. CNNMoney.com
Category:Denominations (currency)
Category:Numismatics
Category:Obsolete currencies in Malaysian history
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Dutch
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Dutch or Nederlands commonly refers to:
Something of, from, or related to the Netherlands
Dutch people as an ethnic group ()
Dutch nationality law, history and regulations of Dutch citizenship ()
Dutch language ()
In specific terms, it reflects the Kingdom of the Netherlands
Dutch Caribbean
Netherlands Antilles
Dutch may also refer to:
Places
Dutch, West Virginia, a community in the United States
Pennsylvania Dutch Country
People
Ethnic groups
Pennsylvania Dutch, a group of early German immigrants to Pennsylvania
Specific people
Dutch (nickname), a list of people
Johnny Dutch (born 1989), American hurdler and field athlete
Dutch Schultz (1902–1935), American mobster born Arthur Simon Flegenheimer
Dutch Mantel, ring name of American retired professional wrestler Wayne Maurice Keown (born 1949)
Dutch Savage, ring name of professional wrestler and promoter Frank Stewart (1935–2013)
Arts, entertainment, and media
Fictional characters
Dutch (Black Lagoon), an African-American character from the Japanese manga and anime Black Lagoon
Alan "Dutch" Schaefer, the protagonist of the 1987 film Predator played by Arnold Schwarzenegger
Dutch van der Linde, a central character from the Red Dead video games
Dutch Wagenbach, on the TV series The Shield
Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media
Dutch (1991 film), an American comedy film starring Ed O'Neill
Dutch (2021 film), an American romantic crime drama film
Dutch: A Memoir of Ronald Reagan, a 1999 biography with fictional elements by Edmund Morris
Dutch, the magazine, an English-language magazine about the Netherlands and the Dutch
Dutching, a gambling term that signifies betting on more than one outcome
Dutch, an American trip-hop duo that released the 2010 album A Bright Cold Day
Chess
Bird's Opening, a chess opening also known as the "Dutch attack"
Dutch Defence, a chess opening
Sports and mascots
Dutch Grand Prix, a Formula One car race
Dutch Open (disambiguation)
Dutch TT, a motorcycle race, part of the MotoGP World Championship
Dutch, nickname of college athletic teams of Central College in Pella, Iowa
Dutch, the mascot of the Union Dutchmen, the athletic teams of Union College
See also
Deutsch (disambiguation)
Double Dutch (disambiguation)
Dutch Boy (disambiguation)
Dutch Hill (disambiguation)
Dutch oven (disambiguation)
Dutchy (disambiguation)
Going Dutch or Dutch treat, an arrangement whereby each person in a group pays for themselves
Netherlands (disambiguation)
Terminology of the Low Countries
Category:Language and nationality disambiguation pages
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch
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Dysprosium
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Dysprosium is a chemical element; it has symbol Dy and atomic number 66. It is a rare-earth element in the lanthanide series with a metallic silver luster. Dysprosium is never found in nature as a free element, though, like other lanthanides, it is found in various minerals, such as xenotime. Naturally occurring dysprosium is composed of seven isotopes, the most abundant of which is <sup>164</sup>Dy.
Dysprosium was first identified in 1886 by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, but it was not isolated in pure form until the development of ion-exchange techniques in the 1950s. Dysprosium has relatively few applications where it cannot be replaced by other chemical elements. It is used for its high thermal neutron absorption cross-section in making control rods in nuclear reactors, for its high magnetic susceptibility ( ≈ }}) in data-storage applications, and as a component of Terfenol-D (a magnetostrictive material). Soluble dysprosium salts are mildly toxic, while the insoluble salts are considered non-toxic.CharacteristicsPhysical propertiesDysprosium is a rare-earth element and has a metallic, bright silver luster. It is quite soft and can be machined without sparking if overheating is avoided. Dysprosium's physical characteristics can be greatly affected by even small amounts of impurities.
Dysprosium and holmium have the highest magnetic strengths of the elements, It transforms from the hcp phase to the body-centered cubic phase at .
Dysprosium metal vigorously reacts with all the halogens at above 200 °C:
:2 Dy (s) + 3 F<sub>2</sub> (g) → 2 DyF<sub>3</sub> (s) [green]
:2 Dy (s) + 3 Cl<sub>2</sub> (g) → 2 DyCl<sub>3</sub> (s) [white]
:2 Dy (s) + 3 Br<sub>2</sub> (l) → 2 DyBr<sub>3</sub> (s) [white]
:2 Dy (s) + 3 I<sub>2</sub> (g) → 2 DyI<sub>3</sub> (s) [green]
Dysprosium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the yellow Dy(III) ions, which exist as a [Dy(OH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>9</sub>]<sup>3+</sup> complex:
:2 Dy (s) + 3 H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> (aq) → 2 Dy<sup>3+</sup> (aq) + 3 (aq) + 3 H<sub>2</sub> (g)
The resulting compound, dysprosium(III) sulfate, is noticeably paramagnetic.
Compounds
Dysprosium halides, such as DyF<sub>3</sub> and DyBr<sub>3</sub>, tend to take on a yellow color. Dysprosium oxide, also known as dysprosia, is a white powder that is highly magnetic, more so than iron oxide. Two of the most abundant dysprosium carbonates, Dy<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>·2–3H<sub>2</sub>O (similar to the mineral tengerite-(Y)), and DyCO<sub>3</sub>(OH) (similar to minerals kozoite-(La) and kozoite-(Nd)), are known to form via a poorly ordered (amorphous) precursor phase with a formula of Dy<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>·4H<sub>2</sub>O. This amorphous precursor consists of highly hydrated spherical nanoparticles of 10–20 nm diameter that are exceptionally stable under dry treatment at ambient and high temperatures.
Dysprosium forms several intermetallics, including the dysprosium stannides.
Isotopes
Naturally occurring dysprosium is composed of seven isotopes: <sup>156</sup>Dy, <sup>158</sup>Dy, <sup>160</sup>Dy, <sup>161</sup>Dy, <sup>162</sup>Dy, <sup>163</sup>Dy, and <sup>164</sup>Dy. These are all considered stable, although only the last two are theoretically stable: the others can theoretically undergo alpha decay. Of the naturally occurring isotopes, <sup>164</sup>Dy is the most abundant at 28%, followed by <sup>162</sup>Dy at 26%. The least abundant is <sup>156</sup>Dy at 0.06%. Dysprosium is the heaviest element to have isotopes that are predicted to be stable rather than observationally stable isotopes that are predicted to be radioactive.
Twenty-nine radioisotopes have been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 138 to 173. The most stable of these is <sup>154</sup>Dy, with a half-life of approximately 3 years, followed by <sup>159</sup>Dy with a half-life of 144.4 days. The least stable is <sup>138</sup>Dy, with a half-life of 200 ms. As a general rule, isotopes that are lighter than the stable isotopes tend to decay primarily by β<sup>+</sup> decay, while those that are heavier tend to decay by β<sup>−</sup> decay. However, <sup>154</sup>Dy decays primarily by alpha decay, and <sup>152</sup>Dy and <sup>159</sup>Dy decay primarily by electron capture. Dysprosium also has at least 11 metastable isomers, ranging in atomic mass from 140 to 165. The most stable of these is <sup>165m</sup>Dy, which has a half-life of 1.257 minutes. <sup>149</sup>Dy has two metastable isomers, the second of which, <sup>149m2</sup>Dy, has a half-life of 28 ns.
History
In 1878, erbium ores were found to contain the oxides of holmium and thulium. French chemist Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, while working with holmium oxide, separated dysprosium oxide from it in Paris in 1886. His procedure for isolating the dysprosium involved dissolving dysprosium oxide in acid, then adding ammonia to precipitate the hydroxide. He was only able to isolate dysprosium from its oxide after more than 30 attempts at his procedure. On succeeding, he named the element dysprosium from the Greek dysprositos (δυσπρόσιτος), meaning "hard to get". The element was not isolated in relatively pure form until after the development of ion exchange techniques by Frank Spedding at Iowa State University in the early 1950s.
Due to its role in permanent magnets used for wind turbines, it has been argued that dysprosium will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy. But this perspective has been criticised for failing to recognise that most wind turbines do not use permanent magnets and for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production.
In 2021, Dy was turned into a 2-dimensional supersolid quantum gas.
Occurrence
While dysprosium is never encountered as a free element, it is found in many minerals, including xenotime, fergusonite, gadolinite, euxenite, polycrase, blomstrandine, monazite and bastnäsite, often with erbium and holmium or other rare earth elements. No dysprosium-dominant mineral (that is, with dysprosium prevailing over other rare earths in the composition) has yet been found.
In the high-yttrium version of these, dysprosium happens to be the most abundant of the heavy lanthanides, comprising up to 7–8% of the concentrate (as compared to about 65% for yttrium). The concentration of Dy in the Earth's crust is about 5.2 mg/kg and in sea water 0.9 ng/L.
Production
Dysprosium is obtained primarily from monazite sand, a mixture of various phosphates. The metal is obtained as a by-product in the commercial extraction of yttrium. In isolating dysprosium, most of the unwanted metals can be removed magnetically or by a flotation process. Dysprosium can then be separated from other rare earth metals by an ion exchange displacement process. The resulting dysprosium ions can then react with either fluorine or chlorine to form dysprosium fluoride, DyF<sub>3</sub>, or dysprosium chloride, DyCl<sub>3</sub>. These compounds can be reduced using either calcium or lithium metals in the following reactions:
:3 Ca + 2 DyF<sub>3</sub> → 2 Dy + 3 CaF<sub>2</sub>
:3 Li + DyCl<sub>3</sub> → Dy + 3 LiCl
The components are placed in a tantalum crucible and fired in a helium atmosphere. As the reaction progresses, the resulting halide compounds and molten dysprosium separate due to differences in density. When the mixture cools, the dysprosium can be cut away from the impurities. with 99% of that total produced in China. Dysprosium prices have climbed nearly twentyfold, from $7 per pound in 2003, to $130 a pound in late 2010.
Currently, most dysprosium is being obtained from the ion-adsorption clay ores of southern China. the Browns Range Project pilot plant, 160 km south east of Halls Creek, Western Australia, is producing per annum.
According to the United States Department of Energy, the wide range of its current and projected uses, together with the lack of any immediately suitable replacement, makes dysprosium the single most critical element for emerging clean energy technologies; even their most conservative projections predicted a shortfall of dysprosium before 2015. As of late 2015, there is a nascent rare earth (including dysprosium) extraction industry in Australia.
Applications
Dysprosium is used, in conjunction with vanadium and other elements, in making laser materials and commercial lighting. Because of dysprosium's high thermal-neutron absorption cross-section, dysprosium-oxide–nickel cermets are used in neutron-absorbing control rods in nuclear reactors. Dysprosium–cadmium chalcogenides are sources of infrared radiation, which is useful for studying chemical reactions. Dysprosium is increasingly in demand for the permanent magnets used in electric-car motors and wind-turbine generators.
Neodymium–iron–boron magnets can have up to 6% of the neodymium substituted by dysprosium to raise the coercivity for demanding applications, such as drive motors for electric vehicles and generators for wind turbines. This substitution would require up to 100 grams of dysprosium per electric car produced. Based on Toyota's projected 2 million units per year, the use of dysprosium in applications such as this would quickly exhaust its available supply. The dysprosium substitution may also be useful in other applications because it improves the corrosion resistance of the magnets.
Dysprosium is one of the components of Terfenol-D, along with iron and terbium. Terfenol-D has the highest room-temperature magnetostriction of any known material, which is employed in transducers, wide-band mechanical resonators, and high-precision liquid-fuel injectors.
Dysprosium is used in dosimeters for measuring ionizing radiation. Crystals of calcium sulfate or calcium fluoride are doped with dysprosium. When these crystals are exposed to radiation, the dysprosium atoms become excited and luminescent. The luminescence can be measured to determine the degree of exposure to which the dosimeter has been subjected. Additionally, dysprosium has been used to create a two dimensional supersolid in a laboratory environment. Supersolids are expected to exhibit unusual properties, including superfluidity.
Dysprosium iodide and dysprosium bromide are used in high-intensity metal-halide lamps. These compounds dissociate near the hot center of the lamp, releasing isolated dysprosium atoms. The latter re-emit light in the green and red part of the spectrum, thereby effectively producing bright light.
Several paramagnetic crystal salts of dysprosium (dysprosium gallium garnet, DGG; dysprosium aluminium garnet, DAG; dysprosium iron garnet, DyIG) are used in adiabatic demagnetization refrigerators.
The trivalent dysprosium ion (Dy<sup>3+</sup>) has been studied due to its downshifting luminescence properties. Dy-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Dy:YAG) excited in the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum results in the emission of photons of longer wavelength in the visible region. This idea is the basis for a new generation of UV-pumped white light-emitting diodes.
The stable isotopes of dysprosium have been laser cooled and confined in magneto-optical traps for quantum physics experiments. The first Bose and Fermi quantum degenerate gases of an open shell lanthanide were created with dysprosium. Because dysprosium is highly magnetic—indeed it is the most magnetic fermionic element and nearly tied with terbium for most magnetic bosonic atom—such gases serve as the basis for quantum simulation with strongly dipolar atoms.
Due to its strong magnetic properties, Dysprosium alloys are used in the marine industry's sound navigation and ranging (SONAR) system. The inclusion of dysprosium alloys in the design of SONAR transducers and receivers can improve sensitivity and accuracy by providing more stable and efficient magnetic fields.
Precautions
Like many powders, dysprosium powder may present an explosion hazard when mixed with air and when an ignition source is present. Thin foils of the substance can also be ignited by sparks or by static electricity. Dysprosium fires cannot be extinguished with water. It can react with water to produce flammable hydrogen gas. Dysprosium chloride fires can be extinguished with water. Dysprosium fluoride and dysprosium oxide are non-flammable. Dysprosium nitrate, Dy(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>, is a strong oxidizing agent and readily ignites on contact with organic substances.
Soluble dysprosium salts, such as dysprosium chloride and dysprosium nitrate are mildly toxic when ingested. Based on the toxicity of dysprosium chloride to mice, it is estimated that the ingestion of 500 grams or more could be fatal to a human (cf. lethal dose of 300 grams of common table salt for a 100 kilogram human). The insoluble salts are non-toxic.<ref name"nbb" />ReferencesExternal links
* [https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele066.html It's Elemental – Dysprosium]
Category:Chemical elements
Category:Chemical elements with hexagonal close-packed structure
Category:Lanthanides
Category:Energy development
Category:Ferromagnetic materials
Category:Reducing agents
Category:Renewable energy technology
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Deforestation
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in Brazil's Maranhão state, 2016]]
to make way for an oil palm plantation in 2007.]]
state, 2009]]
Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal and destruction of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. About 31% of Earth's land surface is covered by forests at present. This is one-third less than the forest cover before the expansion of agriculture, with half of that loss occurring in the last century. Between 15 million to 18 million hectares of forest, an area the size of Bangladesh, are destroyed every year. On average 2,400 trees are cut down each minute. Estimates vary widely as to the extent of deforestation in the tropics. The reason for this linkage is because the effects of climate change on agriculture pose new risks to global food systems. Definition Deforestation is defined as the conversion of forest to other land uses (regardless of whether it is human-induced).
Deforestation and forest area net change are not the same: the latter is the sum of all forest losses (deforestation) and all forest gains (forest expansion) in a given period. Net change, therefore, can be positive or negative, depending on whether gains exceed losses, or vice versa.
{|class="wikitable"
|+Changes in forest carbon stock by region<br/>Figures in gigatons
Deforestation in many countries—both naturally occurring and human-induced—is an ongoing issue. Between 2000 and 2012, of forests around the world were cut down. Deforestation and forest degradation continue to take place at alarming rates, which contributes significantly to the ongoing loss of biodiversity.]]
Deforestation is more extreme in tropical and subtropical forests in emerging economies. More than half of all plant and land animal species in the world live in tropical forests. As a result of deforestation, only remain of the original of tropical rainforest that formerly covered the Earth.
The global annual net loss of trees is estimated to be approximately 10 billion. According to the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 the global average annual deforested land in the 2015–2020 demi-decade was 10 million hectares and the average annual forest area net loss in the 2000–2010 decade was 4.7 million hectares.
In 2023, the Global Forest Watch reported a 9% decline in tropical primary forest loss compared to the previous year, with significant regional reductions in Brazil and Colombia overshadowed by increases elsewhere, leading to a 3.2% rise in global deforestation. Massive wildfires in Canada, exacerbated by climate change, contributed to a 24% increase in global tree cover loss, highlighting the ongoing threats to forests essential for carbon storage and biodiversity. Despite some progress, the overall trends in forest destruction and climate impacts remain off track.
The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report stated in 2022: “Over 420 million ha of forest were lost to deforestation from 1990 to 2020; more than 90% of that loss took place in tropical areas (high confidence), threatening biodiversity, environmental services, livelihoods of forest communities and resilience to climate shocks (high confidence).”
See also:
*Deforestation by continent
**
**
**
Rates of deforestation
Global deforestation sharply accelerated around 1852. As of 1947, the planet had of mature tropical forests, but by 2015, it was estimated that about half of these had been destroyed. Total land coverage by tropical rainforests decreased from 14% to 6%. Much of this loss happened between 1960 and 1990, when 20% of all tropical rainforests were destroyed. At this rate, extinction of such forests is projected to occur by the mid-21st century.
In the early 2000s, some scientists predicted that unless significant measures (such as seeking out and protecting old growth forests that have not been disturbed) In 2019, the world lost nearly 12 million hectares of tree cover. Nearly a third of that loss, 3.8 million hectares, occurred within humid tropical primary forests, areas of mature rainforest that are especially important for biodiversity and carbon storage. This is equivalent to losing an area of primary forest the size of a football pitch every six seconds.
Rates of change
A 2002 analysis of satellite imagery suggested that the rate of deforestation in the humid tropics (approximately 5.8 million hectares per year) was roughly 23% lower than the most commonly quoted rates. A 2005 report by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimated that although the Earth's total forest area continued to decrease at about 13 million hectares per year, the global rate of deforestation had been slowing. On the other hand, a 2005 analysis of satellite images reveals that deforestation of the Amazon rainforest is twice as fast as scientists previously estimated.
From 2010 to 2015, worldwide forest area decreased by 3.3 million ha per year, according to FAO. During this five-year period, the biggest forest area loss occurred in the tropics, particularly in South America and Africa. Per capita forest area decline was also greatest in the tropics and subtropics but is occurring in every climatic domain (except in the temperate) as populations increase.
An estimated 420 million ha of forest has been lost worldwide through deforestation since 1990, but the rate of forest loss has declined substantially. In the most recent five-year period (2015–2020), the annual rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 million ha, down from 12 million ha in 2010–2015.
|image4 = 20220910 Amazon deforestation and degradation, by country - Amazon Watch.svg
|caption4 Overall, 20% of the Amazon rainforest has been "transformed" (deforested) and another 6% has been "highly degraded", causing Amazon Watch to warn that the Amazonia is in the midst of a tipping point crisis.
}}
Africa had the largest annual rate of net forest loss in 2010–2020, at 3.9 million ha, followed by South America, at 2.6 million ha. The rate of net forest loss has increased in Africa in each of the three decades since 1990. It has declined substantially in South America, however, to about half the rate in 2010–2020 compared with 2000–2010. Asia had the highest net gain of forest area in 2010–2020, followed by Oceania and Europe. Nevertheless, both Europe and Asia recorded substantially lower rates of net gain in 2010–2020 than in 2000–2010. Oceania experienced net losses of forest area in the decades 1990–2000 and 2000–2010. The London-based Rainforest Foundation notes that "the UN figure is based on a definition of forest as being an area with as little as 10% actual tree cover, which would therefore include areas that are actually savanna-like ecosystems and badly damaged forests". Other critics of the FAO data point out that they do not distinguish between forest types, and that they are based largely on reporting from forestry departments of individual countries, which do not take into account unofficial activities like illegal logging. Despite these uncertainties, there is agreement that destruction of rainforests remains a significant environmental problem.
The rate of net forest loss declined from 7.8 million ha per year in the decade 1990–2000 to 5.2 million ha per year in 2000–2010 and 4.7 million ha per year in 2010–2020. The rate of decline of net forest loss slowed in the most recent decade due to a reduction in the rate of forest expansion. The amount of forest has increased in 22 of the world's 50 most forested nations. Asia as a whole gained 1 million hectares of forest between 2000 and 2005. Tropical forest in El Salvador expanded more than 20% between 1992 and 2001. Based on these trends, one study projects that global forestation will increase by 10%—an area the size of India—by 2050. 36% of globally planted forest area is in East Asia – around 950,000 square kilometers. From those 87% are in China. Status by region
Rates of deforestation vary around the world. Up to 90% of West Africa's coastal rainforests have disappeared since 1900. Madagascar has lost 90% of its eastern rainforests. In South Asia, about 88% of the rainforests have been lost.
Mexico, India, the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Burma, Malaysia, Bangladesh, China, Sri Lanka, Laos, Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, Guinea, Ghana and the Ivory Coast, have lost large areas of their rainforest.
of locations of the 2019 Amazon rainforest wildfires as detected by MODIS from August 15 to August 22, 2019]]
.]]
Much of what remains of the world's rainforests is in the Amazon basin, where the Amazon Rainforest covers approximately 4 million square kilometres. Some 80% of the deforestation of the Amazon can be attributed to cattle ranching, as Brazil is the largest exporter of beef in the world. The Amazon region has become one of the largest cattle ranching territories in the world. The regions with the highest tropical deforestation rate between 2000 and 2005 were Central America—which lost 1.3% of its forests each year—and tropical Asia. Brazil has lost 90–95% of its Mata Atlântica forest. Deforestation in Brazil increased by 88% for the month of June 2019, as compared with the previous year. However, Brazil still destroyed 1.3 million hectares in 2019.
Paraguay was losing its natural semi-humid forests in the country's western regions at a rate of 15,000 hectares at a randomly studied 2-month period in 2010. In 2009, Paraguay's parliament refused to pass a law that would have stopped cutting of natural forests altogether.
As of 2007, less than 50% of Haiti's forests remained.
From 2015 to 2019, the rate of deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo doubled. In 2021, deforestation of the Congolese rainforest increased by 5%.
The World Wildlife Fund's ecoregion project catalogues habitat types throughout the world, including habitat loss such as deforestation, showing for example that even in the rich forests of parts of Canada such as the Mid-Continental Canadian forests of the prairie provinces half of the forest cover has been lost or altered.
In 2011, Conservation International listed the top 10 most endangered forests, characterized by having all lost 90% or more of their original habitat, and each harboring at least 1500 endemic plant species (species found nowhere else in the world).
, it is estimated that 70% of the world's forests are within one kilometer of a forest edge, where they are most prone to human interference and destruction.
:{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+Top 10 Most Endangered Forests in 2011
|-
|New Caledonia
|Asia-Pacific
|5%
|Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
|See note for region covered.
|-
|Sundaland
|Asia-Pacific
|7%
|Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
|Western half of the Indo-Malayan archipelago including southern Borneo and Sumatra.
|-
|Philippines
|Asia-Pacific
|7%
|Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
|Forests over the entire country including 7,100 islands.
|-
|Atlantic Forest
|South America
|8%
|Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
|Forests along Brazil's Atlantic coast, extends to parts of Paraguay, Argentina and Uruguay.
|-
|Mountains of Southwest China
|Asia-Pacific
|8%
|Temperate coniferous forest
|See note for region covered.
|-
|California Floristic Province
|North America
|10%
|Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests
|See note for region covered.
|-
|Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa
|Africa
|10%
|Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
|Mozambique, Tanzania, Kenya, Somalia.
|-
|Madagascar & Indian Ocean Islands
|Africa
|10%
|Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
|Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion, Seychelles, Comoros.
|-
|Eastern Afromontane
|Africa
|11%
|Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests<br />Montane grasslands and shrublands
|Forests scattered along the eastern edge of Africa, from Saudi Arabia in the north to Zimbabwe in the south.
|}
By country
Deforestation in particular countries:
Causes
in Indragiri Hulu, Sumatra, Indonesia. Deforestation for oil palm plantation.]]Agricultural expansion continues to be the main driver of deforestation and forest fragmentation and the associated loss of forest biodiversity. Disregard of ascribed value, lax forest management, and deficient environmental laws are some of the factors that lead to large-scale deforestation.
The types of drivers vary greatly depending on the region in which they take place. The regions with the greatest amount of deforestation for livestock and row crop agriculture are Central and South America, while commodity crop deforestation was found mainly in Southeast Asia. The region with the greatest forest loss due to shifting agriculture was sub-Saharan Africa.
Agriculture
The overwhelming direct cause of deforestation is agriculture.
More than 80% of deforestation was attributed to agriculture in 2018. Forests are being converted to plantations for coffee, tea, palm oil, rice, rubber, and various other popular products. The rising demand for certain products and global trade arrangements causes forest conversions, which ultimately leads to soil erosion. The top soil oftentimes erodes after forests are cleared which leads to sediment increase in rivers and streams.
Most deforestation also occurs in tropical regions. The estimated amount of total land mass used by agriculture is around 38%.
Since 1960, roughly 15% of the Amazon has been removed with the intention of replacing the land with agricultural practices. It is no coincidence that Brazil has recently become the world's largest beef exporter at the same time that the Amazon rainforest is being clear cut.
Another prevalent method of agricultural deforestation is slash-and-burn agriculture, which was primarily used by subsistence farmers in tropical regions but has now become increasingly less sustainable. The method does not leave land for continuous agricultural production but instead cuts and burns small plots of forest land which are then converted into agricultural zones. The farmers then exploit the nutrients in the ashes of the burned plants. As well as, intentionally set fires can possibly lead to devastating measures when unintentionally spreading fire to more land, which can result in the destruction of the protective canopy.
The repeated cycle of low yields and shortened fallow periods eventually results in less vegetation being able to grow on once burned lands and a decrease in average soil biomass. In small local plots sustainability is not an issue because of longer fallow periods and lesser overall deforestation. The relatively small size of the plots allowed for no net input of to be released. Livestock ranching Consumption and production of beef is the primary driver of deforestation in the Amazon, with around 80% of all converted land being used to rear cattle. 91% of Amazon land deforested since 1970 has been converted to cattle ranching.
Livestock ranching requires large portions of land to raise herds of animals and livestock crops for consumer needs. According to the World Wildlife Fund, "Extensive cattle ranching is the number one culprit of deforestation in virtually every Amazon country, and it accounts for 80% of current deforestation."
The cattle industry is responsible for a significant amount of methane emissions since 60% of all mammals on earth are livestock cows. Replacing forest land with pastures creates a loss of forest stock, which leads to the implication of increased greenhouse gas emissions by burning agriculture methodologies and land-use change. Wood industry
A large contributing factor to deforestation is the lumber industry. A total of almost of timber, or about 1.3% of all forest land, is harvested each year. In addition, the increasing demand for low-cost timber products only supports the lumber company to continue logging.
Experts do not agree on whether industrial logging is an important contributor to global deforestation. Some argue that poor people are more likely to clear forest because they have no alternatives, others that the poor lack the ability to pay for the materials and labour needed to clear forest. the inequitable distribution of wealth and power, population growth and overpopulation, and urbanization. The impact of population growth on deforestation has been contested. One study found that population increases due to high fertility rates were a primary driver of tropical deforestation in only 8% of cases. In 2000 the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) found that "the role of population dynamics in a local setting may vary from decisive to negligible", and that deforestation can result from "a combination of population pressure and stagnating economic, social and technological conditions". though there are cases in which the impacts of globalization (new flows of labor, capital, commodities, and ideas) have promoted localized forest recovery.
gold mining in Madre de Dios, Peru.]]
The degradation of forest ecosystems has also been traced to economic incentives that make forest conversion appear more profitable than forest conservation. Many important forest functions have no markets, and hence, no economic value that is readily apparent to the forests' owners or the communities that rely on forests for their well-being. Whereas deforestation was primarily driven by subsistence activities and government-sponsored development projects like transmigration in countries like Indonesia and colonization in Latin America, India, Java, and so on, during the late 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, by the 1990s the majority of deforestation was caused by industrial factors, including extractive industries, large-scale cattle ranching, and extensive agriculture. Since 2001, commodity-driven deforestation, which is more likely to be permanent, has accounted for about a quarter of all forest disturbance, and this loss has been concentrated in South America and Southeast Asia.
As the human population grows, new homes, communities, and expansions of cities will occur, leading to an increase in roads to connect these communities. Rural roads promote economic development but also facilitate deforestation. About 90% of the deforestation has occurred within 100 km of roads in most parts of the Amazon. Mining The importance of mining as a cause of deforestation increased quickly in the beginning the 21st century, among other because of increased demand for minerals. The direct impact of mining is relatively small, but the indirect impacts are much more significant. More than a third of the earth's forests are possibly impacted, at some level and in the years 2001–2021, "755,861 km<sup>2</sup>... ...had been deforested by causes indirectly related to mining activities alongside other deforestation drivers (based on data from WWF)"
In the year 2023, mining, including for the elements needed for the energy transition strongly contributed to deforestation. Mining is a particular threat to biodiversity: "in 2019, 79 percent of global metal ore extraction originated from five of the six most species-rich biomes".
Climate change
Another cause of deforestation is due to the effects of climate change: More wildfires, insect outbreaks, invasive species, and more frequent extreme weather events (such as storms) are factors that increase deforestation.
A study suggests that "tropical, arid and temperate forests are experiencing a significant decline in resilience, probably related to increased water limitations and climate variability" which may shift ecosystems towards critical transitions and ecosystem collapses. By contrast, "boreal forests show divergent local patterns with an average increasing trend in resilience, probably benefiting from warming and fertilization, which may outweigh the adverse effects of climate change". The rising temperatures cause massive wildfires especially in the Boreal forests. One possible effect is the change of the forest composition. Deforestation can also cause forests to become more fire prone through mechanisms such as logging. Military causes
Huey helicopter spraying Agent Orange during the Vietnam War]]
Operations in war can also cause deforestation. For example, in the 1945 Battle of Okinawa, bombardment and other combat operations reduced a lush tropical landscape into "a vast field of mud, lead, decay and maggots".
Deforestation can also result from the intentional tactics of military forces. Clearing forests became an element in the Russian Empire's successful conquest of the Caucasus in the mid-19th century.
The British (during the Malayan Emergency) and the United States (in the Korean War and in the Vietnam War) used defoliants (like Agent Orange or others). The destruction of forests in Vietnam War is one of the most commonly used examples of ecocide, including by Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme, lawyers, historians and other academics. Impacts On atmosphere and climate
" practice in Madagascar, 2010]]
Deforestation is a major contributor to climate change. It is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Recent calculations suggest that CO<sub>2</sub> emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (excluding peatland emissions) contribute about 12% of total anthropogenic CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, with a range from 6% to 17%. A 2022 study shows annual carbon emissions from tropical deforestation have doubled during the last two decades and continue to increase: by 0.97 ± 0.16 PgC (petagrams of carbon, i.e. billions of tons) per year in 2001–2005 to 1.99 ± 0.13 PgC per year in 2015–2019.
The incineration and burning of forest plants to clear land releases large amounts of CO<sub>2</sub>, which contributes to global warming. Scientists also state that tropical deforestation releases 1.5 billion tons of carbon each year into the atmosphere.
Carbon sink or source
A study suggests logged and structurally degraded tropical forests are carbon sources for at least a decade – even when recovering – due to larger carbon losses from soil organic matter and deadwood, indicating that the tropical forest carbon sink (at least in South Asia) "may be much smaller than previously estimated", <!--with potential implications on offsetting, the importance of deforestation prevention, and contemporary e.g. logging-and-reforestation practices-->contradicting that "recovering logged and degraded tropical forests are net carbon sinks".<!--https://www.derstandard.at/story/2000142385381/nachwachsender-regenwald-gibt-mehr-co2-frei-als-er-bindet-->, 2006. People use slash-and-burn deforestation to clear land for agriculture.]]
On the environment
According to a 2020 study, if deforestation continues at current rates it can trigger a total or almost total extinction of humanity in the next 20 to 40 years. They conclude that "from a statistical point of view... the probability that our civilisation survives itself is less than 10% in the most optimistic scenario." To avoid this collapse, humanity should pass from a civilization dominated by the economy to "cultural society" that "privileges the interest of the ecosystem above the individual interest of its components, but eventually in accordance with the overall communal interest." Changes to the water cycle The water cycle is also affected by deforestation. Trees extract groundwater through their roots and release it into the atmosphere. When part of a forest is removed, the trees no longer transpire this water, resulting in a much drier climate. Deforestation reduces the content of water in the soil and groundwater as well as atmospheric moisture. The dry soil leads to lower water intake for the trees to extract. Deforestation reduces soil cohesion, so that erosion, flooding and landslides ensue.
Shrinking forest cover lessens the landscape's capacity to intercept, retain and transpire precipitation. Instead of trapping precipitation, which then percolates to groundwater systems, deforested areas become sources of surface water runoff, which moves much faster than subsurface flows. Forests return most of the water that falls as precipitation to the atmosphere by transpiration. In contrast, when an area is deforested, almost all precipitation is lost as run-off. That quicker transport of surface water can translate into flash flooding and more localized floods than would occur with the forest cover. Deforestation also contributes to decreased evapotranspiration, which lessens atmospheric moisture which in some cases affects precipitation levels downwind from the deforested area, as water is not recycled to downwind forests, but is lost in runoff and returns directly to the oceans. According to one study, in deforested north and northwest China, the average annual precipitation decreased by one third between the 1950s and the 1980s.
in Madagascar has led to extensive siltation and unstable flows of western rivers.]]
Trees, and plants in general, affect the water cycle significantly:
As a result, the presence or absence of trees can change the quantity of water on the surface, in the soil or groundwater, or in the atmosphere. This in turn changes erosion rates and the availability of water for either ecosystem functions or human services. Deforestation on lowland plains moves cloud formation and rainfall to higher elevations.
The forest may have little impact on flooding in the case of large rainfall events, which overwhelm the storage capacity of forest soil if the soils are at or close to saturation.
Tropical rainforests produce about 30% of Earth's fresh water.
Deforestation disrupts normal weather patterns creating hotter and drier weather thus increasing drought, desertification, crop failures, melting of the polar ice caps, coastal flooding and displacement of major vegetation regimes.
Soil erosion
.]]
Due to surface plant litter, forests that are undisturbed have a minimal rate of erosion. The rate of erosion occurs from deforestation, because it decreases the amount of litter cover, which provides protection from surface runoff. The rate of erosion is around 2 metric tons per square kilometre. This can be an advantage in excessively leached tropical rain forest soils. Forestry operations themselves also increase erosion through the development of (forest) roads and the use of mechanized equipment.
Other changes to the soil
Clearing forests changes the environment of the microbial communities within the soil, and causes a loss of biodiversity in regards to the microbes since biodiversity is actually highly dependent on soil texture. Although the effect of deforestation has much more profound consequences on sandier soils compared to clay-like soils, the disruptions caused by deforestation ultimately reduces properties of soil such as hydraulic conductivity and water storage, thus reducing the efficiency of water and heat absorption. In a simulation of the deforestation process in the Amazon, researchers found that surface and soil temperatures increased by 1 to 3 degrees Celsius demonstrating the loss of the soil's ability to absorb radiation and moisture. Biodiversity loss
Deforestation on a human scale results in decline in biodiversity, and on a natural global scale is known to cause the extinction of many species. The removal or destruction of areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded environment with reduced biodiversity. moreover, forests foster medicinal conservation. With forest biotopes being irreplaceable source of new drugs (such as taxol), deforestation can destroy genetic variations (such as crop resistance) irretrievably.
. In 2009, the vast majority of the illegally obtained rosewood was exported to China.]]
Since the tropical rainforests are the most diverse ecosystems on Earth and about 80% of the world's known biodiversity can be found in tropical rainforests, removal or destruction of significant areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded environment with reduced biodiversity. Road construction and development of adjacent land, which greatly reduces the area of intact wilderness and causes soil erosion, is a major contributing factor to the loss of biodiversity in tropical regions. A study in Rondônia, Brazil, has shown that deforestation also removes the microbial community which is involved in the recycling of nutrients, the production of clean water and the removal of pollutants.
It has been estimated that 137 plant, animal and insect species go extinct every day due to rainforest deforestation, which equates to 50,000 species a year. Others state that tropical rainforest deforestation is contributing to the ongoing Holocene mass extinction. The known extinction rates from deforestation rates are very low, approximately one species per year from mammals and birds, which extrapolates to approximately 23,000 species per year for all species. Predictions have been made that more than 40% of the animal and plant species in Southeast Asia could be wiped out in the 21st century. Such predictions were called into question by 1995 data that show that within regions of Southeast Asia much of the original forest has been converted to monospecific plantations, but that potentially endangered species are few and tree flora remains widespread and stable. Most predictions of forestry related biodiversity loss are based on species-area models, with an underlying assumption that as the forest declines species diversity will decline similarly. However, many such models have been proven to be wrong and loss of habitat does not necessarily lead to large scale loss of species.
In 2012, a study of the Brazilian Amazon predicts that despite a lack of extinctions thus far, up to 90 percent of predicted extinctions will finally occur in the next 40 years.
Oxygen-supply misconception
Rainforests are widely believed by lay persons to contribute a significant amount of the world's oxygen, In fact about 50 percent of oxygen on Earth is produced by algae.
On human health
Deforestation reduces safe working hours for millions of people in the tropics, especially for those performing heavy labour outdoors. Continued global heating and forest loss is expected to amplify these impacts, reducing work hours for vulnerable groups even more. A study conducted from 2002 to 2018 also determined that the increase in temperature as a result of climate change, and the lack of shade due to deforestation, has increased the mortality rate of workers in Indonesia. Infectious diseases Deforestation eliminates a great number of species of plants and animals which also often results in exposure of people to zoonotic diseases. Forest-associated diseases include malaria, Chagas disease (also known as American trypanosomiasis), African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), leishmaniasis, Lyme disease, HIV and Ebola. In Kenya, deforestation has led to an increase in malaria cases which is now the leading cause of morbidity and mortality the country. A 2017 study found that deforestation substantially increased the incidence of malaria in Nigeria.
Another pathway through which deforestation affects disease is the relocation and dispersion of disease-carrying hosts. This disease emergence pathway can be called "range expansion", whereby the host's range (and thereby the range of pathogens) expands to new geographic areas. Through deforestation, hosts and reservoir species are forced into neighboring habitats. Accompanying the reservoir species are pathogens that have the ability to find new hosts in previously unexposed regions. As these pathogens and species come into closer contact with humans, they are infected both directly and indirectly. Another example of range expansion due to deforestation and other anthropogenic habitat impacts includes the Capybara rodent in Paraguay.
According to the World Economic Forum, 31% of emerging diseases are linked to deforestation. A publication by the United Nations Environment Programme in 2016 found that deforestation, climate change, and livestock agriculture are among the main causes that increase the risk of zoonotic diseases, that is diseases that pass from animals to humans. COVID-19 pandemic
Scientists have linked the Coronavirus pandemic to the destruction of nature, especially to deforestation, habitat loss in general and wildlife trade. According to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) the Coronavirus disease 2019 is zoonotic, e.g., the virus passed from animals to humans. UNEP concludes that: "The most fundamental way to protect ourselves from zoonotic diseases is to prevent destruction of nature. Where ecosystems are healthy and biodiverse, they are resilient, adaptable and help to regulate diseases. On the economy and agriculture in Malaysia]]
Economic losses due to deforestation in Brazil could reach around 317 billion dollars per year, approximately 7 times higher in comparison to the cost of all commodities produced through deforestation.
The forest products industry is a large part of the economy in both developed and developing countries. Short-term economic gains made by conversion of forest to agriculture, or over-exploitation of wood products, typically leads to a loss of long-term income and long-term biological productivity. West Africa, Madagascar, Southeast Asia and many other regions have experienced lower revenue because of declining timber harvests. Illegal logging causes billions of dollars of losses to national economies annually.
The resilience of human food systems and their capacity to adapt to future change is linked to biodiversity – including dryland-adapted shrub and tree species that help combat desertification, forest-dwelling insects, bats and bird species that pollinate crops, trees with extensive root systems in mountain ecosystems that prevent soil erosion, and mangrove species that provide resilience against flooding in coastal areas.
Satellite imaging has become crucial in obtaining data on levels of deforestation and reforestation. Landsat satellite data, for example, has been used to map tropical deforestation as part of NASA's Landsat Pathfinder Humid Tropical Deforestation Project. The project yielded deforestation maps for the Amazon Basin, Central Africa, and Southeast Asia for three periods in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s.
Greenpeace has mapped out the forests that are still intact and published this information on the internet. World Resources Institute in turn has made a simpler thematic map showing the amount of forests present just before the age of man (8000 years ago) and the current (reduced) levels of forest. Control International, national and subnational policies
Policies for forest protection include information and education programs, economic measures to increase revenue returns from authorized activities and measures to increase effectiveness of "forest technicians and forest managers". Poverty and agricultural rent were found to be principal factors leading to deforestation. Contemporary domestic and foreign political decision-makers could possibly create and implement policies whose outcomes ensure that economic activities in critical forests are consistent with their scientifically ascribed value for ecosystem services, climate change mitigation and other purposes.
Such policies may use and organize the development of complementary technical and economic means – including for lower levels of beef production, sales and consumption (which would also have major benefits for climate change mitigation), higher levels of specified other economic activities in such areas (such as reforestation, forest protection, sustainable agriculture for specific classes of food products and quaternary work in general), product information requirements, practice- and product-certifications and eco-tariffs, along with the required monitoring and traceability. Inducing the creation and enforcement of such policies could, for instance, achieve a global phase-out of deforestation-associated beef. With complex polycentric governance measures, goals like sufficient climate change mitigation as decided with e.g. the Paris Agreement and a stoppage of deforestation by 2030 as decided at the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference could be achieved. A study has suggested higher income nations need to reduce imports of tropical forest-related products and help with theoretically forest-related socioeconomic development. Proactive government policies and international forest policies "revisit[ing] and redesign[ing] global forest trade" are needed as well.
In 2022 the European parliament approved a bill aiming to stop the import linked with deforestation. This EU Regulation on Deforestation-free products (EUDR), may cause to Brazil, for example, to stop deforestation for agricultural production and begun to "increase productivity on existing agricultural land". The legislation was adopted with some changes by the European Council in May 2023 and is expected to enter into force several weeks after. The bill requires companies who want to import certain types of products to the European Union to prove the production of those commodities is not linked to areas deforested after 31 of December 2020. It prohibits also import of products linked with Human rights abuse. The list of products includes: palm oil, cattle, wood, coffee, cocoa, rubber and soy. Some derivatives of those products are also included: chocolate, furniture, printed paper and several palm oil based derivates.
But unfortunately, as the report Bankrolling ecosystem destruction shows, this regulation of product imports is not enough. The European financial sector is investing billions of euros in the destruction of nature. Banks do not respond positively to requests to stop this, which is why the report calls for European regulation in this area to be tightened and for banks to be banned from continuing to finance deforestation.
International pledges
In 2014, about 40 countries signed the New York Declaration on Forests, a voluntary pledge to halve deforestation by 2020 and end it by 2030. The agreement was not legally binding, however, and some key countries, such as Brazil, China, and Russia, did not sign onto it. As a result, the effort failed, and deforestation increased from 2014 to 2020.
In November 2021, 141 countries (with around 85% of the world's primary tropical forests and 90% of global tree cover) agreed at the COP26 climate summit in Glasgow to the ''Glasgow Leaders' Declaration on Forests and Land Use'', a pledge to end and reverse deforestation by 2030. The agreement was accompanied by about $19.2 billion in associated funding commitments. In September 2022, the EU Parliament supported and strengthened the plan from the EU's executive with 453 votes to 57.
In 2018 the biggest palm oil trader, Wilmar, decided to control its suppliers to avoid deforestation
In 2021, over 100 world leaders, representing countries containing more than 85% of the world's forests, committed to halt and reverse deforestation and land degradation by 2030. Land rights
to indigenous inhabitants is argued to efficiently conserve forests.]]
Indigenous communities have long been the frontline of resistance against deforestation. Transferring rights over land from public domain to its indigenous inhabitants is argued to be a cost-effective strategy to conserve forests. This includes the protection of such rights entitled in existing laws, such as India's Forest Rights Act. In Brazil, forested areas given tenure to indigenous groups have even lower rates of clearing than national parks.Forest management
In areas where "slash-and-burn" is practiced, switching to "slash-and-char" would prevent the rapid deforestation and subsequent degradation of soils. The biochar thus created, given back to the soil, is not only a durable carbon sequestration method, but it also is an extremely beneficial amendment to the soil. Mixed with biomass it brings the creation of terra preta, one of the richest soils on the planet and the only one known to regenerate itself.
Certification, as provided by global certification systems such as Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification and Forest Stewardship Council, contributes to tackling deforestation by creating market demand for timber from sustainably managed forests. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), "A major condition for the adoption of sustainable forest management is a demand for products that are produced sustainably and consumer willingness to pay for the higher costs entailed. [...] By promoting the positive attributes of forest products from sustainably managed forests, certification focuses on the demand side of environmental conservation."
Financial compensations for reducing emissions from deforestation
Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) in developing countries has emerged as a new potential to complement ongoing climate policies. The idea consists in providing financial compensations for the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from deforestation and forest degradation". REDD can be seen as an alternative to the emissions trading system as in the latter, polluters must pay for permits for the right to emit certain pollutants (i.e. ).
Main international organizations including the United Nations and the World Bank, have begun to develop programs aimed at curbing deforestation. The blanket term Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) describes these sorts of programs, which use direct monetary or other incentives to encourage developing countries to limit and/or roll back deforestation. Funding has been an issue, but at the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Conference of the Parties-15 (COP-15) in Copenhagen in December 2009, an accord was reached with a collective commitment by developed countries for new and additional resources, including forestry and investments through international institutions, that will approach US$30 billion for the period 2010–2012.
Significant work is underway on tools for use in monitoring developing countries' adherence to their agreed REDD targets. These tools, which rely on remote forest monitoring using satellite imagery and other data sources, include the Center for Global Development's FORMA (Forest Monitoring for Action) initiative and the Group on Earth Observations' Forest Carbon Tracking Portal. Methodological guidance for forest monitoring was also emphasized at COP-15. The environmental organization Avoided Deforestation Partners leads the campaign for development of REDD through funding from the U.S. government. History PrehistoryThe Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse
Small scale deforestation was practiced by some societies for tens of thousands of years before the beginnings of civilization. The first evidence of deforestation appears in the Mesolithic period. It was probably used to convert closed forests into more open ecosystems favourable to game animals. Stone axes were being made from about 3000 BC not just from flint, but from a wide variety of hard rocks from across Britain and North America as well. They include the noted Langdale axe industry in the English Lake District, quarries developed at Penmaenmawr in North Wales and numerous other locations. Rough-outs were made locally near the quarries, and some were polished locally to give a fine finish. This step not only increased the mechanical strength of the axe, but also made penetration of wood easier. Flint was still used from sources such as Grimes Graves but from many other mines across Europe.
Evidence of deforestation has been found in Minoan Crete; for example the environs of the Palace of Knossos were severely deforested in the Bronze Age.
Pre-industrial history
, deforested. ]]
Just as archaeologists have shown that prehistoric farming societies had to cut or burn forests before planting, documents and artifacts from early civilizations often reveal histories of deforestation. Some of the most dramatic are eighth century BCE Assyrian reliefs depicting logs being floated downstream from conquered areas to the less forested capital region as spoils of war. Ancient Chinese texts make clear that some areas of the Yellow River valley had already destroyed many of their forests over 2000 years ago and had to plant trees as crops or import them from long distances. In South China much of the land came to be privately owned and used for the commercial growing of timber.
Three regional studies of historic erosion and alluviation in ancient Greece found that, wherever adequate evidence exists, a major phase of erosion follows the introduction of farming in the various regions of Greece by about 500–1,000 years, ranging from the later Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age. The thousand years following the mid-first millennium BC saw serious, intermittent pulses of soil erosion in numerous places. The historic silting of ports along the southern coasts of Asia Minor (e.g. Clarus, and the examples of Ephesus, Priene and Miletus, where harbors had to be abandoned because of the silt deposited by the Meander) and in coastal Syria during the last centuries BC.
Easter Island has suffered from heavy soil erosion in recent centuries, aggravated by agriculture and deforestation. The disappearance of the island's trees seems to coincide with a decline of its civilization around the 17th and 18th century. Scholars have attributed the collapse to deforestation and over-exploitation of all resources.
The famous silting up of the harbor for Bruges, which moved port commerce to Antwerp, also followed a period of increased settlement growth (and apparently of deforestation) in the upper river basins. In early medieval Riez in upper Provence, alluvial silt from two small rivers raised the riverbeds and widened the floodplain, which slowly buried the Roman settlement in alluvium and gradually moved new construction to higher ground; concurrently the headwater valleys above Riez were being opened to pasturage.
A typical progress trap was that cities were often built in a forested area, which would provide wood for some industry (for example, construction, shipbuilding, pottery). When deforestation occurs without proper replanting, however; local wood supplies become difficult to obtain near enough to remain competitive, leading to the city's abandonment, as happened repeatedly in Ancient Asia Minor. Because of fuel needs, mining and metallurgy often led to deforestation and city abandonment.
]]
With most of the population remaining active in (or indirectly dependent on) the agricultural sector, the main pressure in most areas remained land clearing for crop and cattle farming. Enough wild green was usually left standing (and partially used, for example, to collect firewood, timber and fruits, or to graze pigs) for wildlife to remain viable. The elite's (nobility and higher clergy) protection of their own hunting privileges and game often protected significant woodland.
Major parts in the spread (and thus more durable growth) of the population were played by monastical 'pioneering' (especially by the Benedictine and Commercial orders) and some feudal lords' recruiting farmers to settle (and become tax payers) by offering relatively good legal and fiscal conditions. Even when speculators sought to encourage towns, settlers needed an agricultural belt around or sometimes within defensive walls. When populations were quickly decreased by causes such as the Black Death, the colonization of the Americas, or devastating warfare (for example, Genghis Khan's Mongol hordes in eastern and central Europe, Thirty Years' War in Germany), this could lead to settlements being abandoned. The land was reclaimed by nature, but the secondary forests usually lacked the original biodiversity. The Mongol invasions and conquests alone resulted in the reduction of 700 million tons of carbon from the atmosphere by enabling the re-growth of carbon-absorbing forests on depopulated lands over a significant period of time.
]]
From 1100 to 1500 AD, significant deforestation took place in Western Europe as a result of the expanding human population. The large-scale building of wooden sailing ships by European (coastal) naval owners since the 15th century for exploration, colonisation, slave trade, and other trade on the high seas, consumed many forest resources and became responsible for the introduction of numerous bubonic plague outbreaks in the 14th century. Piracy also contributed to the over harvesting of forests, as in Spain. This led to a weakening of the domestic economy after Columbus' discovery of America, as the economy became dependent on colonial activities (plundering, mining, cattle, plantations, trade, etc.)
The massive use of charcoal on an industrial scale in Early Modern Europe was a new type of consumption of western forests. Each of Nelson's Royal Navy war ships at Trafalgar (1805) required 6,000 mature oaks for its construction. In France, Colbert planted oak forests to supply the French navy in the future. When the oak plantations matured in the mid-19th century, the masts were no longer required because shipping had changed.
Efforts to stop or slow deforestation have been attempted for many centuries because it has long been known that deforestation can cause environmental damage sufficient in some cases to cause societies to collapse. In Tonga, paramount rulers developed policies designed to prevent conflicts between short-term gains from converting forest to farmland and long-term problems forest loss would cause, while during the 17th and 18th centuries in Tokugawa, Japan, the shōguns developed a highly sophisticated system of long-term planning to stop and even reverse deforestation of the preceding centuries through substituting timber by other products and more efficient use of land that had been farmed for many centuries.
In 16th-century Germany, landowners also developed silviculture to deal with the problem of deforestation. However, these policies tend to be limited to environments with good rainfall, no dry season and very young soils (through volcanism or glaciation). This is because on older and less fertile soils trees grow too slowly for silviculture to be economic, whilst in areas with a strong dry season there is always a risk of forest fires destroying a tree crop before it matures.
19th and 20th centuries
) circa 1920, during the British colonial era]]
Steamboats
In the 19th century, the introduction of steamboats in the United States was the cause of deforestation of banks of major rivers, such as the Mississippi River, with increased and more severe flooding one of the environmental results. The steamboat crews cut wood daily from the riverbanks to fuel the steam engines. Between St. Louis and the confluence with the Ohio River to the south, the Mississippi became broader and shallower and changed its channel laterally. Attempts to improve navigation by the use of snag pullers often resulted in crews' clearing large trees 100 to back from the banks. Several French colonial towns of the Illinois Country, such as Kaskaskia, Cahokia and St. Philippe, Illinois, were flooded and abandoned in the late 19th century, with a loss to the cultural record of their archeology.
Society and culture
Different cultures of different places in the world have different interpretations of the actions of the cutting down of trees. For example, in Meitei mythology and Meitei folklore of Manipur (India), deforestation is mentioned as one of the reasons to make mother nature weep and mourn for the death of her precious children.
See also
* Clearcutting
* Clearing (geography)
* Defaunation
* Desertification
* Forest transition
* Illegal logging
* International Year of Forests
* Land degradation
* Land use, land-use change and forestry
* Mountaintop removal
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Notes
3.1%), mainly in agricultural regions of Asia (Song et al. 2018), see Figure 4.5. Other tree or land cover datasets show opposite global net trends (Li et al. 2018b), but high agreement in terms of net losses in the tropics and large net gains in the temperate and boreal zones (Li et al. 2018b; Song et al. 2018; Hansen et al. 2013).» .}}
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References
Sources
External links
* [https://earthenginepartners.appspot.com/science-2013-global-forest Global map of deforestation based on Landsat data]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131225223447/http://www.intactforests.org/world.map.html Old-growth forest zones within the remaining world forests]
* [http://uk.oneworld.net/guides/forests OneWorld Tropical Forests Guide]
* [http://www.effects-of-deforestation.com General info on deforestation effects]
* [http://www.rainforestfoundation.org/climate-change/ Deforestation and Climate Change]
*
Category:World forestry
Category:Environmental issues with forests
Category:Forest pathology
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Desertification
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Decertification|Desertion}}
areas based on the aridity index computed over a 30-year average during 1981 to 2010. Typical deserts are indicated by the hyper-arid category (light yellow).]]
Desertification is a type of gradual land degradation of fertile land into arid desert due to a combination of natural processes and human activities.
The immediate cause of desertification is the loss of most vegetation. This is driven by a number of factors, alone or in combination, such as drought, climatic shifts, tillage for agriculture, overgrazing and deforestation for fuel or construction materials. Though vegetation plays a major role in determining the biological composition of the soil, studies have shown that, in many environments, the rate of erosion and runoff decreases exponentially with increased vegetation cover.
At least 90% of the inhabitants of drylands live in developing countries, where they also suffer from poor economic and social conditions. Effects of desertification include sand and dust storms, food insecurity, and poverty.
Methods of mitigating or reversing desertification include improving soil quality, greening deserts, managing grazing, and tree-planting (reforestation and afforestation).
Throughout geological history, the development of deserts has occurred naturally over long intervals of time.
Definition of Desert – That area of the earth where the sum of rain and snowfall is much less than other areas, where the annual average rainfall is less than 25CM. Definition by UNO (1995) – Land degradation in barren, humid and sub-humid areas due to climate change and human activities is called desertification.
As of 2005, considerable controversy existed over the proper definition of the term desertification with more than 100 formal definitions in existence. The most widely accepted of these was that of the Princeton University Dictionary which defined it as "the process of fertile land transforming into desert typically as a result of deforestation, drought or improper/inappropriate agriculture". This definition clearly demonstrated the interconnectedness of desertification and human activities, in particular land use and land management practices. It also highlighted the economic, social and environmental implications of desertification. However, this original understanding that desertification involved the physical expansion of deserts has been rejected as the concept has further evolved since then.
There exists also controversy around the sub-grouping of types of desertification, including, for example, the validity and usefulness of such terms as "man-made desert" and "non-pattern desert".
Causes
Immediate causes
The immediate cause of desertification is the loss of most vegetation. This is driven by a number of factors, alone or in combination, such as drought, climatic shifts, tillage for agriculture, overgrazing and deforestation for fuel or construction materials. Though vegetation plays a major role in determining the biological composition of the soil, studies have shown that, in many environments, the rate of erosion and runoff decreases exponentially with increased vegetation cover. Unprotected, dry soil surfaces blow away with the wind or are washed away by flash floods, leaving infertile lower soil layers that bake in the sun and become an unproductive hardpan. Influence of human activities Early studies argued one of the most common causes of desertification was overgrazing, over consumption of vegetation by cattle or other livestock. However, the role of local overexploitation in driving desertification in the recent past is controversial. Drought in the Sahel region is now thought to be principally the result of seasonal variability in rainfall caused by large-scale sea surface temperature variations, largely driven by natural variability and anthropogenic emissions of aerosols (reflective sulphate particles) and greenhouse gases. As a result, changing ocean temperature and reductions in sulfate emissions have caused a re-greening of the region.
There are multiple reasons farmers use intensive farming as opposed to extensive farming but the main reason is to maximize yields. By increasing productivity, they require a lot more fertilizer, pesticides, and labor to upkeep machinery. This continuous use of the land rapidly depletes the nutrients of the soil causing desertification to spread. Natural variations Scientists agree that the existence of a desert in the place where the Sahara desert is now located is due to natural variations in solar insolation due to orbital precession of the Earth. Such variations influence the strength of the West African Monsoon, inducing feedback in vegetation and dust emission that amplify the cycle of wet and dry Sahara climate. There is also a suggestion the transition of the Sahara from savanna to desert during the mid-Holocene was partially due to overgrazing by the cattle of the local population.
Climate change
Research into desertification is complex, and there is no single metric which can define all aspects. However, more intense climate change is still expected to increase the current extent of drylands on the Earth's continents: from 38% in late 20th century to 50% or 56% by the end of the century, under the "moderate" and high-warming Representative Concentration Pathways 4.5 and 8.5. Most of the expansion will be seen over regions such as "southwest North America, the northern fringe of Africa, southern Africa, and Australia". These regions are among the most vulnerable ecosystems to anthropogenic climate and land use change and are under threat of desertification. An observation-based attribution study of desertification was carried out in 2020 which accounted for climate change, climate variability, CO<sub>2</sub> fertilization as well as both the gradual and rapid ecosystem changes caused by land use. The increase of desertification has also increased the amount of loose sand and dust that the wind can pick up ultimately resulting in a storm. For example, dust storms in the Middle East “are becoming more frequent and intense in recent years” because “long-term reductions in rainfall [cause] lower soil moisture and vegetative cover”.
Dust storms can contribute to certain respiratory disorders such as pneumonia, skin irritations, asthma and many more. They can pollute open water, reduce the effectiveness of clean energy efforts, and halt most forms of transportation.
Dust and sand storms can have a negative effect on the climate which can make desertification worse. Dust particles in the air scatter incoming radiation from the sun (Hassan, 2012). The dust can provide momentary coverage for the ground temperature but the atmospheric temperature will increase. This can disform and shorten the life time of clouds which can result in less rainfall. The violent herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria, Sudan, Mali and other countries in the Sahel region have been exacerbated by climate change, land degradation and population growth. Increasing poverty
outside Leuchars]]
At least 90% of the inhabitants of drylands live in developing countries, where they also suffer from poor economic and social conditions. This situation is exacerbated by land degradation because of the reduction in productivity, the precariousness of living conditions and the difficulty of access to resources and opportunities.
Many underdeveloped countries are affected by overgrazing, land exhaustion and overdrafting of groundwater due to pressures to exploit marginal drylands for farming. Decision-makers are understandably averse to invest in arid zones with low potential. This absence of investment contributes to the marginalization of these zones. When unfavorable agri-climatic conditions are combined with an absence of infrastructure and access to markets, as well as poorly adapted production techniques and an underfed and undereducated population, most such zones are excluded from development.
Desertification often causes rural lands to become unable to support the same sized populations that previously lived there. This results in mass migrations out of rural areas and into urban areas particularly in Africa creating unemployment and slums. The number of these environmental refugees grows every year, with projections for sub-Saharan Africa showing a probable increase from 14 million in 2010 to nearly 200 million by 2050. This presents a future crisis for the region, as neighboring nations do not always have the ability to support large populations of refugees.
In Mongolia, the land is 90% fragile dry land, which causes many herders to migrate to the city for work. With very limited resources, the herders that stay on the dry land graze very carefully in order to preserve the land.
Agriculture is a main source of income for many desert communities. The increase in desertification in these regions has degraded the land to such an extent where people can no longer productively farm and make a profit. This has negatively impacted the economy and increased poverty rates.
There is, however, increased global advocacy e.g. the UN SDG 15 to combat desertification and restore affected lands.
Geographic areas affected
Drylands occupy approximately 40–41% of Earth's land area and are home to more than 2 billion people.
Sahel
The impact of climate change and human activities on desertification are exemplified in the Sahel region of Africa. The region is characterized by a dry hot climate, high temperatures and low rainfall (100–600 mm per year). So, droughts are the rule in the Sahel region. The Sahel has lost approximately 650,000 km<sup>2</sup> of its productive agricultural land over the past 50 years; the propagation of desertification in this area is considerable.
region of Mali]]
The climate of the Sahara has undergone enormous variations over the last few hundred thousand years, oscillating between wet (grassland) and dry (desert) every 20,000 years (a phenomenon believed to be caused by long-term changes in the North African climate cycle that alters the path of the North African Monsoon, caused by an approximately 40,000-year cycle in which the axial tilt of the earth changes between 22° and 24.5°). Some statistics have shown that, since 1900, the Sahara has expanded by 250 km to the south over a stretch of land from west to east 6,000 km long.
Lake Chad, located in the Sahel region, has undergone desiccation due to water withdrawal for irrigation and decrease in rainfall. The lake has shrunk by over 90% since 1987, displacing millions of inhabitants. Recent efforts have managed to make some progress toward its restoration, but it is still considered to be at risk of disappearing entirely.
To limit desertification, the Great Green Wall (Africa) initiative was started in 2007 involving the planting of vegetation along a stretch of 7,775 km, 15 km wide, involving 22 countries to 2030. The purpose of this mammoth planting initiative is to enhance retention of water in the ground following the seasonal rainfall, thus promoting land rehabilitation and future agriculture. Senegal has already contributed to the project by planting 50,000 acres of trees. It is said to have improved land quality and caused an increase in economic opportunity in the region.Gobi Desert and Mongolia
Another major area that is being impacted by desertification is the Gobi Desert located in Northern China and Southern Mongolia. The Gobi Desert is the fastest expanding desert on Earth, as it transforms over of grassland into wasteland annually. Although the Gobi Desert itself is still a distance away from Beijing, reports from field studies state there are large sand dunes forming only 70 km (43.5 mi) outside the city.
In Mongolia, around 90% of grassland is considered vulnerable to desertification by the UN. An estimated 13% of desertification in Mongolia is caused by natural factors; the rest is due to human influence particularly overgrazing and increased erosion of soils in cultivated areas. During the period 1940 to 2015, the mean air temperature increased by 2.24 °C. The warmest ten-year period was during the latest decade to 2021. Precipitation has decreased by 7% over this period resulting in increased arid conditions throughout Mongolia. The Gobi desert continues to expand northward, with over 70% of Mongolia's land degraded through overgrazing, deforestation, and climate change. In addition, the Mongolia government has listed forest fires, blights, unsustainable forestry and mining activities as leading causes of desertification in the country. The transition from sheep to goat farming in order to meet export demands for cashmere wool has caused degradation of grazing lands. Compared to sheep, goats do more damage to grazing lands by eating roots and flowers.
To mitigate the financial impact of desertification in Inner Mongolia, Bai Jingying teaches women how to do traditional embroidery, which they then sell to provide additional income.
South America
South America is another area vulnerable by desertification, as 25% of the land is classified as drylands and over 68% of the land area has undergone soil erosion as a result of deforestation and overgrazing. 27 to 43% of the land areas in Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador and Peru are at risk due to desertification. In Argentina, Mexico and Paraguay, greater than half the land area is degraded by desertification and cannot be used for agriculture. In Central America, drought has caused increased unemployment and decreased food security - also causing migration of people. Similar impacts have been seen in rural parts of Mexico where about 1,000 km<sup>2</sup> of land have been lost yearly due to desertification.
Reversing desertification
related to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification]]
, Tunisia]]
plantations, such as those shown, have played a role in combating edge effects of desertification in the Thar Desert, India.]]
planted along roads in Xinjiang near Cherchen to slow desertification]]
Techniques and countermeasures exist for mitigating or reversing desertification. For some of these measures, there are numerous barriers to their implementation. Yet for others, the solution simply requires the exercise of human reason.
One proposed barrier is that the costs of adopting sustainable agricultural practices sometimes exceed the benefits for individual farmers, even while they are socially and environmentally beneficial. Another issue is a lack of political will, and lack of funding to support land reclamation and anti-desertification programs.
Desertification is recognized as a major threat to biodiversity. Some countries have developed biodiversity action plans to counter its effects, particularly in relation to the protection of endangered flora and fauna. Improving soil quality
Techniques focus on two aspects: provisioning of water, and fixation and hyper-fertilizing soil. Fixating the soil is often done through the use of shelter belts, woodlots and windbreaks. Windbreaks are made from trees and bushes and are used to reduce soil erosion and evapotranspiration.
Some soils (for example, clay), due to lack of water can become consolidated rather than porous (as in the case of sandy soils). Some techniques as zaï or tillage are then used to still allow the planting of crops.
Another technique that is useful is contour trenching. This involves the digging of 150 m long, 1 m deep trenches in the soil. The trenches are made parallel to the height lines of the landscape, preventing the water from flowing within the trenches and causing erosion. Stone walls are placed around the trenches to prevent the trenches from closing up again. This method was invented by Peter Westerveld.
Enriching of the soil and restoration of its fertility is often achieved by plants. Of these, leguminous plants which extract nitrogen from the air and fix it in the soil, succulents (such as Opuntia), and food crops/trees as grains, barley, beans and dates are the most important. Sand fences can also be used to control drifting of soil and sand erosion.
Another way to restore soil fertility is through the use of nitrogen-rich fertilizer. Due to the higher cost of this fertilizer, many smallholder farmers are reluctant to use it, especially in areas where subsistence farming is common. Several nations, including India, Zambia, and Malawi have responded to this by implementing subsidies to help encourage adoption of this technique.
Some research centres (such as Bel-Air Research Center IRD/ISRA/UCAD) are also experimenting with the inoculation of tree species with mycorrhiza in arid zones. The mycorrhiza are basically fungi attaching themselves to the roots of the plants. They hereby create a symbiotic relation with the trees, increasing the surface area of the tree's roots greatly (allowing the tree to gather much more nutrient from the soil).
The bioengineering of soil microbes, particularly photosynthesizers, has also been suggested and theoretically modeled as a method to protect drylands. The aim would be to enhance the existing cooperative loops between soil microbes and vegetation.
Desert greening
As there are many different types of deserts, there are also different types of desert reclamation methodologies. An example for this is the salt flats in the Rub' al Khali desert in Saudi Arabia. These salt flats are one of the most promising desert areas for seawater agriculture and could be revitalized without the use of freshwater or much energy.
Farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR) is another technique that has produced successful results for desert reclamation. Since 1980, this method to reforest degraded landscape has been applied with some success in Niger. This simple and low-cost method has enabled farmers to regenerate some 30,000 square kilometers in Niger. The process involves enabling native sprouting tree growth through selective pruning of shrub shoots. The residue from pruned trees can be used to provide mulching for fields thus increasing soil water retention and reducing evaporation. Additionally, properly spaced and pruned trees can increase crop yields. The Humbo Assisted Regeneration Project which uses FMNR techniques in Ethiopia has received money from The World Bank's BioCarbon Fund, which supports projects that sequester or conserve carbon in forests or agricultural ecosystems.
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations launched the FAO Drylands Restoration Initiative in 2012 to draw together knowledge and experience on dryland restoration. In 2015, FAO published global guidelines for the restoration of degraded forests and landscapes in drylands, in collaboration with the Turkish Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs and the Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency.
The "Green Wall of China" is a high-profile example of one method that has been finding success in this battle with desertification. This wall is a much larger-scale version of what American farmers did in the 1930s to stop the great Midwest dust bowl. This plan was proposed in the late 1970s, and has become a major ecological engineering project that is not predicted to end until the year 2055. According to Chinese reports, there have been nearly 66 billion trees planted in China's great green wall. The green wall of China has decreased desert land in China by an annual average of 1,980 square km. The frequency of sandstorms nationwide have fallen 20% due to the green wall. Due to the success that China has been finding in stopping the spread of desertification, plans are currently being made in Africa to start a "wall" along the borders of the Sahara desert as well to be financed by the United Nations Global Environment Facility trust.
, participating countries and Sahel. In September 2020, it was reported that the GGW had covered only 4% of the planned area.]]
In 2007 the African Union started the Great Green Wall of Africa project in order to combat desertification in 20 countries. The wall is 8,000 km wide, stretching across the entire width of the continent and has 8 billion dollars in support of the project. The project has restored 36millionhectares of land, and by 2030 the initiative plans to restore a total of 100 millionhectares. The Great Green Wall has created many job opportunities for the participating countries, with over 20,000 jobs created in Nigeria alone.Better managed grazingRestored grasslands store CO<sub>2</sub> from the atmosphere as organic plant material. Grazing livestock, usually not left to wander, consume the grass and minimize its growth. A method proposed to restore grasslands uses fences with many small paddocks, moving herds from one paddock to another after a day or two in order to mimic natural grazers and allowing the grass to grow optimally. Proponents of managed grazing methods estimate that increasing this method could increase carbon content of the soils in the world's 3.5 billion hectares of agricultural grassland and offset nearly 12 years of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions.
Historical evidence shows that the serious and extensive land deterioration occurring several centuries ago in arid regions had three centers: the Mediterranean, the Mesopotamian Valley, and the Loess Plateau of China, where population was dense.
The earliest known discussion of the topic arose soon after the French colonization of West Africa, when the Comité d'Etudes commissioned a study on desséchement progressif to explore the prehistoric expansion of the Sahara Desert. The modern study of desertification emerged from the study of the 1980s drought in the Sahel.<ref name":6" />
See also
* Aridification
* Oasification
* Soil retrogression and degradation
* Water scarcity
* World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought
References
Sources
*External links
* [https://www.unccd.int Official website of the Secretariat] of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
** [http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/unccd/unccd.html Procedural history and related documents] on the UNCCD, from the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law
* [http://www.fao.org/in-action/action-against-desertification Official website] of Action Against Desertification, a United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization initiative of the African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States
*[https://www.unenvironment.org/resources/report/global-deserts-outlook Global Deserts Outlook] (2006), thematic assessment report in the Global Environment Outlook (GEO) series of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP).
Category:Environmental soil science
Category:Paleoclimatology
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Dumbarton Bridge (California)
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| Bicycles and pedestrians
}}
| crosses = San Francisco Bay
| locale = Menlo Park, California and Fremont, California
| owner = State of California
| maint = California Department of Transportation and the Bay Area Toll Authority
| id = 35 0038
| website =
| design = Twin girder bridge
| material = Concrete
| mainspan
| length , 1.63 miles
| width | clearance
| below (main span)
| traffic = 70,000+ (auto)<br />118 (bike & pedestrian)
| open = (original span)<br> (current span)
| closed | toll :
* $8.00
* $4.00 (carpool rush hours, FasTrak only)
}}
| coordinates
}}
The Dumbarton Bridge is the southernmost of the highway bridges across San Francisco Bay in California. Carrying over 70,000 vehicles and about 118 pedestrian and bicycle crossings daily (384 on weekends), it is the shortest bridge across San Francisco Bay at . Its eastern end is in Fremont, near Newark in the San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge, and its western end is in Menlo Park. Bridging State Route 84 across the bay, it has three lanes each way and a separated bike/pedestrian lane along its south side. Like the San Mateo–Hayward Bridge to the north, power lines parallel the bridge.
History and engineering features
The bridge has never been officially named, but its commonly used name comes from Dumbarton Point near the east end of the bridge, named in 1876 after Dumbarton, Scotland. Built originally to provide a shortcut for traffic originating in San Mateo and Santa Clara counties, the bridge served industrial and residential areas on both sides. The earlier bridge opened on January 17, 1927, and was the first vehicular bridge to cross San Francisco Bay. A portion of this old drawbridge remains as a fishing pier on the east side of the Bay. The original bridge was built with private capital and then purchased by the state for $2.5 million in 1951 (equivalent to $ million in ).
Its age, and the two-lane undivided roadway and lift-span, led to a replacement bridge being built to the north. This bridge opened in October 1982 as a four-lane, high-level structure. The structure was re-striped to accommodate six lanes on October 18, 1989, in response to the temporary closing of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge due to the Loma Prieta earthquake, and the permanent widening of the approaches was completed by July 2003. The cost of the complete replacement project was $200 million (equivalent to $ million in ). The current bridge includes a two-way bicycle and separate pedestrian path on the south-facing side. A center span provides of vertical clearance for shipping. The approach spans on both sides of the Bay are of pre-stressed lightweight concrete girders supporting a lightweight concrete deck. The center spans are twin steel trapezoidal girders which also support a lightweight concrete deck.
The center span of the original bridge was demolished in a controlled explosion in September 1984.
Roadway connections
The bridge is part of State Route 84, and is directly connected to Interstate 880 by a freeway segment north of the Fremont end.
There is no freeway connection between U.S. 101 and the southwest end of the Dumbarton Bridge. Motorists must traverse one of three at-grade routes to connect from the Bayshore Freeway to the bridge. These are (from northwest to southeast):
# the Bayfront Expressway, a limited-access road linking to U.S. 101 at Marsh Road, Atherton (the official routing of SR 84)
# Willow Road (SR 114), an approximately one-mile expressway through east Menlo Park to U.S. 101
# University Avenue (SR 109), an arterial road and the main commercial street of East Palo Alto.
The Willow Road and University Avenue junctions with Bayfront Expressway are at-grade intersections controlled by traffic lights; there are two additional controlled intersections at Chilco Road and Marsh Road, and the Marsh Road interchange on U.S. 101 is a parclo. The result is that Bayfront Expressway is frequently congested, and when not congested is often the site of high-speed car crashes. In 2007, author David Halberstam was killed in one such crash at the Willow Road intersection.
Access to I-280 is available via State Route 84 to Woodside Road (as signed) or other arterial routes. There are no cross-Peninsula freeway connections between State Routes 92 and 84. In addition, there are no direct cross-Peninsula arterial routes between State Route 84 and Page Mill Road, a five-mile gap.
Although the present situation has resulted in severe traffic problems on the bridge itself and in Menlo Park and East Palo Alto, Caltrans has been unable to upgrade the relevant portion of Highway 84 to freeway standards for several decades, due to opposition from the cities of Menlo Park, Atherton and Palo Alto. Freeway opponents fear that upgrading Highway 84 will encourage more people to live in southern Alameda County (where housing is more affordable) and commute to jobs in the mid-Peninsula area (where businesses wish to be located in order to be close to Silicon Valley), thus increasing traffic in their neighborhoods to the south and west of U.S. 101 and even along State Routes 85 and 237.
Bus service across the bridge is provided by the Dumbarton Express, run by a consortium of local transit agencies (SamTrans, AC Transit, VTA and others) which connects to BART at Union City and Caltrain at Palo Alto and California Avenue. AC Transit also runs Transbay buses U (Fremont BART and Amtrak to Stanford) and DA (Ardenwood to Oracle and Facebook headquarters) across the bridge. The free Stanford Marguerite Shuttle also runs buses AE-F and EB across the bridge.
Environmental factors
When the current bridge was planned in the 1970s, Caltrans conducted extensive environmental research on the aquatic and terrestrial environment. Principal concerns of the public were air pollution and noise pollution impacts, particularly in some residential areas of Menlo Park and East Palo Alto. Studies were conducted to produce contour maps of projected sound levels and carbon monoxide concentrations throughout the western approaches, for each alternative connection scheme.
The area around the bridge is an important ecological area, hosting many species of birds, fish and mammals. The endangered species California clapper rail is known to be present in the western bridge terminus area.
Near the bridge on the Peninsula are Menlo Park's Bayfront Park, East Palo Alto's Ravenswood Open Space Preserve, and the Palo Alto Baylands Nature Preserve. An accessible portion of the San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge lies immediately north of the western bridge terminus, where the Ravenswood trail runs.
On both sides of the east end of the bridge are large salt ponds and levee trails belonging to the Don Edwards San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge. The headquarters and visitor center for the refuge is on a hill south of the bridge approach. North of the east end of the bridge is Coyote Hills Regional Park, with its network of trails running over tall hills. North of that is the Alameda Creek Regional Trail from the Bay to Niles Canyon. East of Coyote Hills is Ardenwood Historic Farm, a restored working farm that preserves and displays turn-of-the-century farming methods
Tolls
Tolls are only collected from westbound traffic headed to Menlo Park at the toll plaza on the Fremont side of the bay. All-electronic tolling has been in effect since 2020, and drivers may either pay using the FasTrak electronic toll collection device or using the license plate tolling program. It remains not truly an open road tolling system until the remaining unused toll booths are removed, forcing drivers to slow substantially from freeway speeds while passing through. Effective , the toll rate for passenger cars is $8. During peak traffic hours on weekdays between 5:00 am and 10:00 am, and between 3:00 pm and 7:00 pm, carpool vehicles carrying three or more people, clean air vehicles, or motorcycles may pay a discounted toll of $4 if they have FasTrak and use the designated carpool lane. Carpools with two people may also receive the discount until 2026. Drivers without Fastrak or a license plate account must open and pay via a "short term" account within 48 hours after crossing the bridge or they will be sent an invoice of the unpaid toll. No additional toll violation penalty will be assessed if the invoice is paid within 21 days.Historical toll ratesPrior to 1969, tolls on the Dumbarton Bridge were collected in both directions. When it opened, the original 1927 span had a toll of $0.40 per car () plus $0.05 per passenger (). In 1959, tolls were set to $0.35 per car (). It was raised to $0.70 in 1969 (), then $0.75 in 1976 (). The toll per car remained at $0.75 when the replacement bridge opened in 1982 ().
The basic toll (for automobiles) on the seven state-owned bridges, including the Dumbarton Bridge, was standardized to $1 by Regional Measure 1, approved by Bay Area voters in 1988 (). A $1 seismic retrofit surcharge was added in 1998 by the state legislature, increasing the toll to $2 (), originally for eight years, but since then extended to December 2037 (AB1171, October 2001). On March 2, 2004, voters approved Regional Measure 2 to fund various transportation improvement projects, raising the toll by another dollar to $3 (). An additional dollar was added to the toll starting January 1, 2007, to cover cost overruns on the eastern span replacement of the Bay Bridge, increasing the toll to $4 ().
The Metropolitan Transportation Commission, a regional transportation agency, in its capacity as the Bay Area Toll Authority, administers RM1 and RM2 funds, a significant portion of which are allocated to public transit capital improvements and operating subsidies in the transportation corridors served by the bridges. Caltrans administers the "second dollar" seismic surcharge, and receives some of the MTC-administered funds to perform other maintenance work on the bridges. The Bay Area Toll Authority is made up of appointed officials put in place by various city and county governments, and is not subject to direct voter oversight.
Due to further funding shortages for seismic retrofit projects, the Bay Area Toll Authority again raised tolls on all seven of the state-owned bridges in July 2010. The toll rate for autos on the Dumbarton Bridge was thus increased to $5 ().
In June 2018, Bay Area voters approved Regional Measure 3 to further raise the tolls on all seven of the state-owned bridges to fund $4.5 billion worth of transportation improvements in the area. Under the passed measure, the toll rate for autos on the Dumbarton Bridge was increased to $6 on January 1, 2019; to $7 on January 1, 2022; and then to $8 on January 1, 2025.
In September 2019, the MTC approved a $4 million plan to eliminate toll takers and convert all seven of the state-owned bridges to all-electronic tolling, citing that 80 percent of drivers are now using Fastrak and the change would improve traffic flow. On March 20, 2020, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, all-electronic tolling was placed in effect for all seven state-owned toll bridges. The MTC then installed new systems at all seven bridges to make them permanently cashless by the start of 2021. In April 2022, the Bay Area Toll Authority announced plans to remove all remaining unused toll booths and create an open-road tolling system which functions at highway speeds.
The Bay Area Toll Authority then approved a plan in December 2024 to implement 50-cent annual toll increases on all seven state-owned bridges between 2026 and 2030 to help pay for bridge maintenance. The standard toll rate for autos will thus rise to $8.50 on January 1, 2026; $9 in 2027; $9.50 in 2028; $10 in 2029; and then to $10.50 in 2030. And becoming effective in 2027, a 25-cent surcharge will be added to any toll charged to a license plate account, and a 50-cent surcharge added to a toll violation invoice, due to the added cost of processing these payment methods. The carpool lane rules will also be standardized across the toll bridges in 2026, with a minimum of three people required to qualify for the discount.
Dumbarton Rail Bridge
Just to the south of the car bridge lies the Dumbarton Rail Bridge. Built in 1910, the rail bridge has been unused since 1982 and its western approach collapsed in a fire in 1998. When the bridge was in use, boaters would signal the operator, who would start a diesel engine and rotate the bridge to the open position on a large gear. The bridge is now left in the open position as shown. There are plans for a new rail bridge and rehabilitation of the rail line to serve a commuter rail service to connect Union City, Fremont, and Newark to various Peninsula destinations. A successful March 2004 regional transportation ballot measure included funding to rehabilitate the rail bridge for the commuter rail service, but in October 2008 the Metropolitan Transportation Commission transferred $91 million from this project to the BART Warm Springs extension in Fremont<!-- , delaying for at least a decade plans to send commuter trains across the bridge -->.
Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct
Between the Dumbarton Bridge and the Dumbarton Rail Bridge is the Bay crossing of the Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct. The aqueduct rises above ground in Newark at the east side of the Bay, falls below the water's surface at a pump station in Fremont, re-emerges in the middle of the Bay and then continues above water until it reaches the west side of the Bay at Menlo Park.
In popular culture
A scene of the 1971 movie Harold and Maude was filmed at the original toll plaza and showed Maude speeding and disobeying a police officer.
References
External links
* [http://www.bayareafastrak.org/ Bay Area FasTrak] – includes toll information on this and the other Bay Area toll facilities
* [http://www.dot.ca.gov/dist4/dumbarton/ California Dept. of Transportation: Dumbarton Bridge]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110807051038/http://baytrail.abag.ca.gov/vtour/map3/access/Btdmbrtn/Btdmbrtn.htm Bay Trail: Dumbarton Bridge]
*
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Category:Bridges in the San Francisco Bay Area
Category:Road bridges in California
Category:Bridges in Alameda County, California
Category:Bridges in San Mateo County, California
Category:Concrete bridges in California
Category:Toll bridges in California
Category:Bridges completed in 1927
Category:Bridges completed in 1982
Category:Buildings and structures in Fremont, California
Category:Menlo Park, California
Category:San Francisco Bay
Category:San Francisco Bay Trail
Category:1927 establishments in California
Category:Girder bridges in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dumbarton_Bridge_(California)
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Dock (disambiguation)
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A dock is infrastructure used for berthing watercraft.
Dock or DOCK may also refer to:
Transportation
Dry dock, a construction and repair facility for ships
Floating dock (disambiguation), several different types of structures
Loading dock, an area for trucks to deliver or receive cargo
Pier, a type of maritime structure
Space dock, a structure used for the docking and berthing of spacecraft
Computing
Dock (computing), or taskbar, a graphical user interface feature
Dock (macOS), the taskbar in the macOS operating system
Docking station, used for connecting laptops or other mobile devices
DOCK, molecular analysis software
Plants and animals
Dock, or dockweed, a name for plants in the genus Rumex, especially broad-leaved dock
Dock, more rarely used in the names of certain similar broad-leaved plants, like velvet dock
Tailhead, or dock, the beginning of an animal's tail
Biochemistry
DOCK, software for use in molecular docking
DOCK (protein), a family of proteins involved in cell signalling
Places
The Dock, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada
The Dock, Washington, D.C., United States
The Dock Gymnasium, Louisiana State University Shreveport, United States
Docks (nightclub) in Hamburg, Germany
The Docks Waterfront Entertainment Complex in Toronto, Ontario, Canada
The former name of Devonport, Devon, now a part of the city of Plymouth
Execution Dock in London
Other uses
The area of a courtroom where an accused party sits during proceedings
To pierce dough during its handling to prevent the formation of large air pockets, such as with a roller docker
Dock or Hayden Scott-Baron (born 1980), English manga illustrator
Dock (given name), include a list of people with the name
See also
Docking (disambiguation)
Docker (disambiguation)
Docklands (disambiguation)
Dox (disambiguation)
DOC (disambiguation)
Docs (disambiguation)
Dockx
Hohe Dock, one of the highest peaks in the Glockner Group of the Austrian Alps
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dock_(disambiguation)
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Dallas Cowboys
|
| first_season = 1960
| city = AT&T Stadium (Arlington, Texas)
| misc = Headquartered in Ford Center at The Star (Frisco, Texas)
| uniform = Dallas Cowboys Uniforms 2022.png
| colors Navy blue, metallic silver, royal blue, silver-green, white<br />
| coach = Brian Schottenheimer
| owner = Jerry Jones
| president = Jerry Jones
| general manager = Jerry Jones
| ceo = Stephen Jones
| nicknames =
* America's Team
* Doomsday Defense
* The 'Boys
* Big D
| song = Cowboys Stampede March
| mascot = Rowdy
| website =
| hist_yr = 1960
| NFL_start_yr = 1960
| division_hist =
* Western Conference (1960)
* Eastern Conference (1961–1969)
** Capitol Division (1967–1969)
* National Football Conference (1970–present)
** NFC East (1970–present)
| no_league_champs = 5
| no_sb_champs = 5
| no_conf_champs = 10
| no_div_champs = 25
| league_champs | sb_champs 1971 (VI), 1977 (XII), 1992 (XXVII), 1993 (XXVIII), 1995 (XXX)
| conf_champs = *NFL Eastern: 1966, 1967
* NFC: 1970, 1971, 1975, 1977, 1978, 1992, 1993, 1995
| div_champs =
* NFL Capitol: 1967, 1968, 1969
* NFC East: 1970, 1971, 1973, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1981, 1985, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1998, 2007, 2009, 2014, 2016, 2018, 2021, 2023
| playoff_appearances =
* NFL: 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1985, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2014, 2016, 2018, 2021, 2022, 2023
| no_playoff_appearances = 36
| stadium_years =
* Cotton Bowl ()
* Texas Stadium ()
* AT&T Stadium (–present)
| team_owners =
* Clint Murchison Jr. (1960–1984)
* Bum Bright (1984–1989)
* Jerry Jones (1989–present)
}}
The Dallas Cowboys are a professional American football team based in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex. The Cowboys compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member of the National Football Conference (NFC) East division. The team is headquartered in Frisco, Texas, and has played its home games at AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas, since its opening in 2009. The stadium took its current name prior to the 2013 season, following the team's decision to sell the stadium's naming rights to telecommunications company AT&T.
The Cowboys joined the NFL as an expansion team in . The team's national following might best be represented by its NFL record of consecutive sell-outs. The Cowboys' streak of 190 consecutive sold-out regular and post-season games (home and away) began in 2002. The franchise has made it to the Super Bowl eight times, tying it with the Pittsburgh Steelers, Denver Broncos, and San Francisco 49ers for second-most Super Bowl appearances in history behind the New England Patriots' record 11 appearances. Their eight NFC championships are tied for most in the conference's history. The Cowboys are the only NFL team to record 20 straight winning seasons (from 1966 to 1985) during which they missed the playoffs only twice (1974 and 1984).
In 2015, the Dallas Cowboys became the first sports team to be valued at $4 billion, making it the most valuable sports team in the world, according to Forbes. The Cowboys also generated $620 million in revenue in 2014, a record for a U.S. sports team. and making Forbes' list as the most valued NFL team for the 12th straight year.
History
Origins
Prior to the formation of the Dallas Cowboys, there had not been an NFL team south of Washington, D.C. since the Dallas Texans folded in 1952 after only one season. Two businessmen had tried and failed to get Dallas a team in the NFL: Lamar Hunt responded by forming the American Football League with a group of owners, which would spur the NFL to expand beyond twelve teams. Oilman Clint Murchison Jr. persisted with his intent to bring a team to Dallas, but George Preston Marshall, owner of the Washington Redskins, had a monopoly in the South (after the addition of Dallas, the South would see three further teams - NFL teams in Atlanta and New Orleans, and an AFL team in Miami - added in the next six years).
Murchison had tried to purchase the Washington Redskins (now Commanders) from Marshall in 1958 with the intent of moving them to Dallas. An agreement was struck, but as the deal was about to be finalized, Marshall called for a change in terms, which infuriated Murchison, and he called off the deal. Marshall then opposed any franchise for Murchison in Dallas. Since NFL expansion needed unanimous approval from team owners at that time, Marshall's position would prevent Murchison from joining the league.
Marshall had a falling out with the Redskins band leader Barnee Breeskin, who had written the music to the Redskins fight song "Hail to the Redskins", and Marshall's wife had penned the lyrics. Breeskin owned the rights to the song and was aware of Murchison's plight to get an NFL franchise. Angry with Marshall, Breeskin approached Murchison's attorney to sell him the rights to the song before the expansion vote in 1959: Murchison subsequently purchased "Hail to the Redskins" for $2,500.
Before the vote to award franchises in 1959, Murchison revealed to Marshall that he now owned the song, and barred Marshall from playing it during games. After Marshall launched an expletive-laced tirade, Murchison sold the rights to "Hail to the Redskins" back to Marshall in exchange for his vote, the lone one against Murchison getting a franchise at that time, and a rivalry was born. San Francisco 49ers scout Gil Brandt as head of player personnel, and New York Giants defensive coordinator Tom Landry as head coach, thus forming a triumvirate that would lead the Cowboys' football operations for three decades.
Tom Landry years (1960–1988)
, pictured here in 1997, coached the team from 1960 to 1988 and led the Cowboys to five Super Bowl appearances and two Super Bowl victories in 1971 and 1977|left]]
was the first franchise quarterback of the Cowboys. NFL Films cited Meredith as the first "star" of the franchise, leading them to back-to-back NFL Championship Game appearances during the 1966 and 1967 seasons, both times falling one game shy of the Super Bowl]]
Like most expansion teams, the Cowboys struggled at first. They failed to win a game in their inaugural season. However, Landry slowly brought the team to respectability. In 1965, they finally got to .500. They broke all the way through a year later, winning consecutive Eastern Conference titles in 1966 and 1967. However, they lost the NFL Championship Game each time to the Green Bay Packers with the second loss coming in the 1967 Ice Bowl. They would win consecutive division titles in 1968 and 1969 when the NFL adopted a divisional format, but were defeated in the playoffs both years by the Cleveland Browns.
From 1970 through 1979, the Cowboys won 105 regular season games, more than any other NFL franchise during that time span. In addition, they appeared in five Super Bowls, winning two (1971 and 1977).
Led by quarterback Craig Morton, the Cowboys had a 10–4 season in 1970. They defeated Detroit 5–0 in the lowest-scoring playoff game in NFL history and then defeated San Francisco 17–10 in the first-ever NFC Championship Game to qualify for their first Super Bowl appearance in franchise history, a mistake-filled Super Bowl V, where they lost 16–13 to the Baltimore Colts courtesy of a field goal by Colts' kicker Jim O'Brien with five seconds remaining in the contest. Despite the loss, linebacker Chuck Howley was named the Super Bowl MVP, the first and only time in Super Bowl history that the game's MVP did not come from the winning team.
Super Bowl VI champions (1971)
in Super Bowl VI in 1971|left]]
The Cowboys moved from the Cotton Bowl to Texas Stadium in week six of the 1971 season. Landry named Staubach as the permanent starting quarterback to start the second half of the season, and Dallas was off and running. The Cowboys won their last seven regular season games (finishing 11–3) before dispatching the Minnesota Vikings and San Francisco 49ers in the playoffs to return to the Super Bowl. In Super Bowl VI, behind an MVP performance from Staubach and a then Super Bowl record 252 yards rushing, the Cowboys crushed the upstart Miami Dolphins, 24–3, to finally bury the "Next Year's Champions" stigma.
After missing the playoffs in 1974, the team drafted well the following year, adding defensive lineman Randy White (a future Hall of Fame member) and linebacker Thomas "Hollywood" Henderson. The fresh influx of talent helped the Cowboys back to the playoffs in 1975 as a wild card, losing to the Pittsburgh Steelers, 21–17, in Super Bowl X. Super Bowl XII champions (1977)
in Super Bowl XII in 1977]]
Dallas began the 1977 season 8–0, finishing 12–2. In the postseason, the Cowboys routed the Chicago Bears 37–7 and Minnesota Vikings 23–6 before defeating the Denver Broncos 27–10 in Super Bowl XII in New Orleans. As a testament to Doomsday's dominance in the hard-hitting game, defensive linemen Randy White and Harvey Martin were named co-Super Bowl MVPs, the first and only time multiple players have received the award. Dallas returned to the Super Bowl, following the 1978 season, losing to Pittsburgh 35–31. Bob Ryan, an NFL Films editor, dubbed the Cowboys "America's Team" following the Super Bowl loss, a nickname that has earned derision from non-Cowboys fans but has stuck through both good times and bad. Danny White became the Cowboys' starting quarterback in 1980 after quarterback Roger Staubach retired. Despite going 12–4 in 1980, the Cowboys came into the playoffs as a Wild Card team. In the opening round of the 1980–81 NFL playoffs they avenged their elimination from the prior year's playoffs by defeating the Rams. In the Divisional Round they squeaked by the Atlanta Falcons 30–27. For the NFC Championship they were pitted against division rival Philadelphia Eagles, the team that won the division during the regular season. The Eagles captured their first conference championship and Super Bowl berth by winning 20–7.
1981 brought another division championship for the Cowboys. They entered the 1981–82 NFL playoffs as the number 2 seed. Their first postseason saw them blow out Tampa Bay in a 38–0 shutout. The Cowboys then advanced to the NFC Championship Game against the San Francisco 49ers, the number 1 seed. Despite having a late 4th quarter 27–21 lead, they would lose to the 49ers 28–27. 49ers quarterback Joe Montana led his team on an 89-yard game-winning touchdown drive, connecting with Dwight Clark in a play known as The Catch.
The 1982 season was shortened after a player strike. With a 6–3 record Dallas made it to the playoffs for the 8th consecutive season. As the number 2 seed for the 1982–83 NFL playoffs they eliminated the Buccaneers 30–17 in the Wild Card round and dispatched the Packers 37–26 in the Divisional round to advance to their 3rd consecutive Conference championship game. However, the third time was not the charm for the Cowboys as they fell 31–17 to their division rival and eventual Super Bowl XVII champions, the Washington Redskins.
Although it was not apparent at the time, the loss in the 1982 NFC title game marked the end of an era. For the 1983 season the Cowboys went 12–4 and made it once again to the playoffs but were upset at home in the Wild Card by the Rams 24–17. However, 1983 was a missed opportunity as prior to their playoff defeat, the Cowboys had a chance to clinch the NFC East and home-field advantage throughout the playoffs against Washington in the penultimate week of the regular season, but were defeated soundly 31–10 at home, and conceded control of the division to the Redskins in which they would not relinquish a week later. Prior to the 1984 season, Murchison sold the Cowboys to another Texas oil magnate, H.R. "Bum" Bright and his ten partners. Dallas posted a 9–7 record that season but missed the playoffs for the first time in 10 seasons and only the second time in 18 years. After going 10–6 in 1985 and winning a division title, the Cowboys were shut out 20–0 by the Rams in the Divisional round in Los Angeles.
Hard times came for the organization as they went 7–9 in 1986, 7–8 in 1987, and 3–13 in 1988. During this time period, Bright became disenchanted with the team. During an embarrassing home loss to Atlanta in 1987, Bright told the media that he was "horrified" at Landry's play calling. During the savings and loan crisis, Bright's savings and loan was taken over by the FSLIC. With most of the rest of his money tied up in the Cowboys, Bright was forced to sell the team to Jerry Jones on February 25, 1989, for $150 million. Jerry Jones era (1989–present) Jimmy Johnson years (1989–1993)
Jones immediately fired Tom Landry, the only head coach in franchise history, replacing him with University of Miami head coach Jimmy Johnson, who was also Jones' teammate at the University of Arkansas as a fellow defensive lineman. The hiring of Johnson also reunited Johnson with second-year wide receiver Michael Irvin, who had played collegiately at Miami. With the first pick in the draft, the Cowboys selected UCLA quarterback Troy Aikman. Later that same year, they would trade veteran running back Herschel Walker to the Minnesota Vikings for five veteran players and eight draft choices. Although the Cowboys finished the 1989 season with a 1–15 record, their worst in almost 30 years, "The Trade" later allowed Dallas to draft a number of impact players to rebuild the team.
Johnson quickly returned the Cowboys to the NFL's elite. Skillful drafts added fullback Daryl Johnston and center Mark Stepnoski in 1989, running back Emmitt Smith in 1990, defensive tackle Russell Maryland and offensive tackle Erik Williams in 1991, and safety Darren Woodson in 1992. The young talent joined holdovers from the Landry era such as wide receiver Michael Irvin, guard Nate Newton, linebacker Ken Norton Jr., and offensive lineman Mark Tuinei, defensive lineman Jim Jeffcoat, and veteran pickups such as tight end Jay Novacek and defensive end Charles Haley.
Things started to look up for the franchise in 1990. On Week 1 Dallas won their first home game since September 1988 when they defeated the San Diego Chargers 17–14. They went 2–7 in their next 9 games but won 4 of their last 6 games to finish the season with a 4th place 7–9 record.
Coming into 1991 the Cowboys replaced offensive coordinator Dave Shula with Norv Turner; the Cowboys raced to a 6–5 start, then defeated the previously unbeaten Redskins despite injury to Troy Aikman. Backup Steve Beuerlein took over and the Cowboys finished 11–5. In the Wild Card round they defeated the Bears 17–13 for the Cowboys' first playoff win since 1982. In the Divisional round their season ended in a 38–6 playoff rout by the Lions. Super Bowl XXVII champions (1992)
In 1992 Dallas set a team record for regular-season wins with a 13–3 mark. They started off the season by defeating the defending Super Bowl champion Redskins 23–10. Going into the playoffs as the number 2 seed they had a first-round bye before facing division rival the Philadelphia Eagles. The Cowboys won that game 34–10 to advance to the NFC Conference Championship game for the first time in 10 years. They were pitted against the San Francisco 49ers, the top seed. On January 17, 1993, the Cowboys went to Candlestick Park and defeated the 49ers 30–20 to clinch their first Super Bowl berth since 1978. Dallas defeated the Buffalo Bills 52–17 in Super Bowl XXVII, during which they forced a record nine turnovers. Johnson became the first coach to claim a national championship in college football and a Super Bowl victory in professional football.
Super Bowl XXVIII champions (1993)
]]
Despite starting the 1993 season 0–2, Dallas finished the regular season 12–4 as the number 1 seed of the NFC. Dallas sent a then-NFL record 11 players to the Pro Bowl in 1993: Aikman, safety Thomas Everett, Irvin, Johnston, Maryland, Newton, Norton, Novacek, Smith, Stepnoski, and Williams. They defeated the Green Bay Packers 27–17 in the divisional round. In the NFC Conference Championship, Dallas beat the 49ers in Dallas, 38–21. The Cowboys again defeated the Buffalo Bills in Super Bowl XXVIII, 30–13 (becoming the first team in NFL history to win a Super Bowl after starting 0–2).
Barry Switzer years (1994–1997)
Only weeks after Super Bowl XXVIII, however, friction between Johnson and Jones culminated in Johnson stunning the football world by announcing his resignation. Jones then hired former University of Oklahoma head coach Barry Switzer to replace Johnson. The Cowboys finished 12–4 in 1994. They once again clinched a first-round bye and defeated Green Bay 35–9 in the Divisional Round. They missed the Super Bowl, however, after losing to the San Francisco 49ers in the NFC Championship Game, 38–28.
Super Bowl XXX champions (1995)
Prior to the start of 1995 season Jerry Jones lured All-Pro cornerback Deion Sanders away from San Francisco. Dallas started the season 4–0 including shutting out their division rival New York Giants 35–0 at Giants Stadium to open their season. Emmitt Smith set an NFL record with 25 rushing touchdowns that season. They ended the season 12–4 and went into the playoffs as the number 1 seed. In the Divisional round, they dispatched their division rival Eagles 30–11 to advance to their fourth consecutive NFC Conference Championship Game, in which they defeated Green Bay, 38–27. In Super Bowl XXX the Cowboys defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 27–17 at Sun Devil Stadium for their fifth Super Bowl championship, tied with the San Francisco 49ers for the most by any NFC team. Switzer joined Johnson as the only coaches to win a college football national championship and a Super Bowl.
, Emmitt Smith, and Michael Irvin (known as "The Triplets") led the Cowboys to three Super Bowl wins]]
The glory days of the Cowboys were again beginning to dim as free agency, age, and injuries began taking their toll. Star receiver Michael Irvin was suspended by the league for the first five games of 1996 following a drug-related arrest; he came back after the Cowboys started the season 2–3. They finished the regular season with a 10–6 record, won the NFC East title, and entered the playoffs as the number 3 seed in the NFC. They defeated Minnesota 40–15 in the Wild Card round but were eliminated in the Divisional Round of the playoffs 26–17 by the Carolina Panthers.
The Cowboys went 6–10 in 1997, losing the last six consecutive games of the season, with discipline and off-field problems becoming major distractions. As a result, Switzer resigned as head coach in January 1998 and former Steelers offensive coordinator Chan Gailey was hired to take his place.
Gailey and Campo years (1998–2002)
Gailey led the team to two playoff appearances with a 10–6 record in 1998 and an NFC East championship, the Cowboys' sixth in seven years, but the Cowboys were upset at home in the Wild Card Round of the playoffs by the Arizona Cardinals 20–7.
In 1999 Dallas went 8–8 in a season that featured Irvin suffering a career-ending cervical spine injury in a loss to the Philadelphia Eagles at Veterans Stadium. The season ended in a 27-10 Wild Card playoff loss to the Minnesota Vikings. Gailey was fired and became the first Cowboys coach who did not take the team to a Super Bowl.
Defensive coordinator Dave Campo was promoted to head coach for the 2000 season. Prior to the season starting cornerback Deion Sanders was released after 5 seasons with the team. He later signed with the division rival Washington Redskins. In Week 1, they were blown out 41–14 by the Philadelphia Eagles. That game was very costly when veteran quarterback Troy Aikman suffered a serious concussion which ultimately ended his career. Longtime NFL quarterback Randall Cunningham filled in for Aikman for the rest of the season at quarterback. The Cowboys finished the season in 4th place with a 5–11 record. The only highlights of 2000 were Emmitt Smith having his 10th consecutive 1,000-yard rushing season and a season sweep over the Redskins.
2001 was another hard year in Dallas. Prior to the season starting Aikman was released from the team and he retired due to the concussions he had received. Jerry Jones signed Tony Banks as a quarterback. Banks had been a starter for half of the season the previous year for the Super Bowl XXXV champion Baltimore Ravens before being benched. Jones also drafted quarterback Quincy Carter in the second round of that year's draft, and Banks was released during the preseason. Ryan Leaf, Anthony Wright, and Clint Stoerner all competed for the quarterback position that season. Dallas again finished at 5–11, last place in the NFC East, but they swept the Washington Redskins for the 4th consecutive season.
Prior to the 2002 season Dallas drafted safety Roy Williams with the 8th overall pick. The season started out low as the Cowboys lost to the expansion Houston Texans 19–10 in Week 1. By far the highlight of 2002 was on October 28, when during a home game against the Seattle Seahawks, Emmitt Smith broke the all-time NFL rushing record previously held by Walter Payton. Their Thanksgiving Day win over the Washington Redskins was their 10th consecutive win against the Redskins. However, that was their final 2002 win as the team lost their next four games to finish with another last-place 5–11 record. The losing streak was punctuated with a Week 17 20–14 loss against the Redskins. That game was Smith's last game as a Cowboys player; he was released during the offseason. Campo was immediately fired as head coach at the conclusion of the season.
Bill Parcells years (2003–2006)
Jones then lured Bill Parcells out of retirement to coach the Cowboys. The Cowboys became the surprise team of the 2003 season getting off to a hot 7–2 start, but went 3–4 for the rest of the season. They were able to grab the second NFC wild-card spot with a 10–6 record but lost in the Wild Card round to eventual conference champion Carolina Panthers, 29–10.
In 2004 Dallas was unable to replicate their 2003 success and ended 6–10. Quincy Carter was released during the preseason and was replaced at quarterback by Vinny Testaverde.
Dallas got off to a great 7–3 start for the 2005 season but ended up only in 3rd place with a 9–7 record. Prior to the beginning of that season, they signed veteran Drew Bledsoe as starting quarterback.
2006 was an interesting year for the Cowboys. Prior to the season, they signed free agent wide receiver Terrell Owens who was talented yet controversial. The Cowboys started the season 3–2. During a week 7 matchup against the New York Giants, Bledsoe, who had been struggling since the start of the season, was pulled from the game and was replaced by backup Tony Romo. Romo was unable to salvage that game and Dallas lost 36–22. However, Romo was named the starter for the team and went 5–1 in his first 6 games. Dallas ended the season with a 9–7 2nd-place finish. They were able to clinch the number 5 playoff seed. They traveled to play the Seattle Seahawks where the Seahawks won 21–20. After the season Parcells retired and was replaced by Wade Phillips. Wade Phillips years (2007–2010)
Dallas started the 2007 season with a bang, winning their first five games. They won 12 of their first 13 games, with their only loss during that span being to the New England Patriots, who went undefeated that season. Despite dropping two of their last three regular-season games, the Cowboys clinched their first number 1 NFC seed in 12 years, which also granted them a first-round bye and home-field advantage throughout the playoffs. They lost in the divisional round 21–17 to the eventual Super Bowl champion New York Giants.
In the tumultuous 2008 season, the Cowboys started off strong, going 3–0 for the second straight year, en route to a 4–1 start. However, things soon went downhill from there, after quarterback Tony Romo suffered a broken pinkie in an overtime loss to the Arizona Cardinals. With Brad Johnson and Brooks Bollinger playing as backups, Dallas went 1–2 during a three-game stretch. Romo's return showed promise, as Dallas went 3–0. However, injuries mounted during the season, with the team losing several starters for the year, such as Kyle Kosier, Felix Jones, safety Roy Williams, punter Mat McBriar, and several other starters playing with injuries. Entering December, the 8–4 Cowboys underperformed, finishing 1–3. They failed to make the playoffs after losing to the Philadelphia Eagles in the final regular-season game which saw the Eagles reach the playoffs instead.
On May 2, 2009, the Dallas Cowboys' practice facility collapsed during a wind storm. The collapse left twelve Cowboys players and coaches injured. The most serious injuries were special teams coach Joe DeCamillis, who suffered fractured cervical vertebrae and had surgery to stabilize fractured vertebrae in his neck, and Rich Behm, the team's 33-year-old scouting assistant, who was permanently paralyzed from the waist down after his spine was severed.
The 2009 season started positively with a road win against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, but fortunes quickly changed as Dallas fell to a 2–2 start. In week five, with starting wide receiver Roy Williams sidelined by injury, receiver Miles Austin got his first start of the season and had a record-setting day (250 yards receiving and 2 touchdowns) to help lead Dallas to an overtime win over the Kansas City Chiefs. Following their bye week, they went on a three-game winning streak including wins over the Atlanta Falcons and NFC East division rival Philadelphia Eagles. Despite entering December with a record of 8–3, they lost their slim grip on 1st place in the division with losses to the New York Giants and San Diego Chargers. Talks of past December collapses resurfaced, and another collapse in 2009 seemed validated. However, the team surged in the final three weeks of the season with a 24–17 victory against the eventual Super Bowl XLIV champion New Orleans Saints at the Louisiana Superdome, ending the Saints' previously unbeaten season in week 15. For the first time in franchise history, they posted back-to-back shutouts when they beat their division rivals, the Washington Redskins (17–0) and Philadelphia Eagles (24–0) to end the season. In the process, the Cowboys clinched their second NFC East title in three years as well as the third seed in the NFC Playoffs. Six days later, in the wild-card round of the playoffs, Dallas played the Eagles in a rematch of week 17. The Cowboys defeated the Eagles for the first Cowboys post-season win since the 1996 season, ending a streak of six consecutive NFL post-season losses. However, their playoff run ended after being routed 34–3 in the Divisional Round against the Minnesota Vikings.
After beginning the 2010 season at 1–7, Phillips was fired as head coach and was replaced by offensive coordinator Jason Garrett as the interim head coach.
Jason Garrett years (2010–2019)
With Garrett as interim head coach, the Cowboys finished the 2010 season 6–10 after beginning at 1–7. With this improvement, the Cowboys signed Garrett as the head coach for the 2011 season.
, pictured here in 2008, was starting quarterback for the Cowboys from 2006 to 2015]]
To start the 2011 season the Cowboys played the New York Jets on a Sunday night primetime game in New York, on September 11. The Cowboys held the lead through most of the game, until a fumble, blocked punt, and interception led to the Jets coming back to win the game. In week 2 the Cowboys traveled to San Francisco to play the San Francisco 49ers. In the middle of the 2nd quarter, while the Cowboys trailed 10–7, Tony Romo suffered a rib injury and was replaced by Jon Kitna. Kitna threw 1 touchdown and 2 interceptions until Romo returned in the 3rd quarter as Dallas trailed 17–7. Romo then threw 3 touchdown passes to Miles Austin as the Cowboys rallied to send the game into overtime. On their opening possession after a 49ers punt, Romo found wide receiver Jesse Holley on a 78-yard pass, which set up the game-winning field goal by rookie kicker Dan Bailey. The Cowboys ended the season 8–8. They were in a position to win the NFC East but lost to the New York Giants in a Week 17 primetime Sunday Night game on NBC which allowed the Giants to win the division. The Giants would go on to win Super Bowl XLVI.
The Cowboys started off the 2012 season on a high note by defeating the defending Super Bowl champion New York Giants 24–17 on the opening night of the season. They would hover around the .500 mark for the majority of the season. They lost a close Week 6 game to eventual Super Bowl XLVII champion Baltimore Ravens 31–29 at M&T Bank Stadium in Baltimore. Going into Week 17 they found themselves once again one win away from winning the division. Standing in their way were the Washington Redskins, who had beaten them on Thanksgiving at AT&T Stadium and who were one win away from their first division title since 1999. Led by Robert Griffin III the Redskins defeated the Cowboys at home 28–18. Dallas once again finished the season 8–8.
In the 2013 season the Cowboys started off by defeating the New York Giants for the second straight year; this time 36–31. It was the first time since 2008 that the Cowboys were able to defeat the Giants at home. The win was punctuated by Brandon Carr intercepting an Eli Manning pass for a touchdown late in the 4th quarter. For the third straight year, Dallas once again found itself stuck in the .500 area. In Week 5, they lost a shootout to the eventual AFC champion Denver Broncos 51–48. They battled it out with the Philadelphia Eagles for control of the division throughout the season. In December however they lost 2 crucial back-to-back games to the Chicago Bears and Green Bay Packers. They were very successful in division games having a 5–0 division record heading into another Week 17 showdown for the NFC East crown against the Eagles. That included beating the Washington Redskins 24–23 on Week 16 thanks to the late-game heroics of Tony Romo. However, Romo received a severe back injury in that game which prematurely ended his season. The Cowboys called upon backup quarterback Kyle Orton to lead them into battle on the final week of the season. Orton was unsuccessful who threw a game-ending interception to the Eagles which allowed the Eagles to win 24–22. Dallas ended the year at 8–8 for the third year in a row. The two differences from this 8–8 ending compared to the others was that Dallas ended the season in second place compared to the 2 previous 3rd-place finishes, along with their season-ending defeat taking place at home instead of on the road.
To start off the 2014 season Dallas began by losing to the San Francisco 49ers 28–17. After that, they went on a 6-game winning streak. The highlight of this streak was defeating the Super Bowl XLVIII champion Seattle Seahawks at CenturyLink Field 30–23. In Week 8, the Washington Redskins ended the Cowboys' winning streak by winning in overtime 20–17, and Romo injured his back again. He missed next week, a home loss to the Arizona Cardinals 28–17 with backup quarterback Brandon Weeden. Romo returned in Week 9 to lead a 31–17 victory over the Jacksonville Jaguars, which was played at Wembley Stadium in London, England as part of the NFL International Series. Dallas played their traditional Thanksgiving home game against their division rival Philadelphia Eagles. Both teams were vying for first place in the division with identical 8–3 records. The Eagles got off to a fast start and the Cowboys were unable to catch up, losing 33–10. They would rebound the next week when they defeated the Chicago Bears 41–28. Week 15 was a rematch against 1st place Philadelphia. This time it was the Cowboys who got off to a fast start going up 21–0. Then the Eagles put up 24 points but Dallas came back to win 38–27 to go into first place for the first time in the season and improve to 10–4. Going into their Week 16 matchup at home against the Indianapolis Colts, Dallas was in a position to clinch their first division title since 2009 by defeating the Colts 42-7 and the Eagles losing that week to the Redskins. They became the 2014 NFC East Champions, eliminating the Eagles from the playoffs. Dallas ended the regular season with a 12–4 record and an 8–0 away record when they won on the road against Washington 44–17.
On January 4, 2015, the Cowboys, as the number 3 seed, hosted the number 6 seed Detroit Lions in the wild-card round of the NFL playoffs. In the game, the Lions got off to a hot start, going up 14–0 in the first quarter. Dallas initially struggled on both sides of the ball. However, towards the end of the second quarter, Romo threw a 76-yard touchdown pass to Terrance Williams. Matt Prater of the Lions would kick a field goal before halftime to go up 17–7. Dallas came out swinging to start the second half by picking off Detroit quarterback Matthew Stafford on the first play of the third quarter. However, the Cowboys failed to capitalize on the turnover, as Dan Bailey missed a field goal during Dallas's ensuing drive. Detroit then kicked another field goal to make the score 20–7. A DeMarco Murray touchdown later in that quarter closed the gap to 20–14. A 51-yard Bailey field goal almost 3 minutes into the fourth quarter trimmed the Cowboys' deficit to 3. The Lions got the ball back and started driving down the field. On 3rd down-and-1 of that Lions drive, Stafford threw a 17-yard pass intended for Lions tight end Brandon Pettigrew, but the ball hit Cowboys linebacker Anthony Hitchens in the back a fraction of a second before he ran into Pettigrew. The play was initially flagged as defensive pass interference against Hitchens. However, the penalty was then nullified by the officiating crew. The Cowboys got the ball back on their 41-yard line and had a successful 59-yard drive which was capped off by an 8-yard touchdown pass from Romo to Williams to give the Cowboys their first lead of the game at 24–20. The Lions got the ball back with less than 2:30 to play in regulation. Stafford fumbled the ball at the 2-minute mark. The fumble was recovered by Cowboys defensive end DeMarcus Lawrence, who then fumbled the ball which was recovered by the Lions. Lawrence would redeem himself by sacking Stafford on a 4th down-and-3 play. The sack led to Stafford fumbling the ball again, which Lawrence recovered to seal the game for the Cowboys, who won 24–20. This was the first time in franchise playoff history that Dallas had been down by 10 or more points at halftime and rallied to win the game.
The following week, the Cowboys traveled to Lambeau Field in Green Bay, Wisconsin to play the Green Bay Packers in the Divisional Round. Despite having a 14–7 halftime lead, the Cowboys fell to the Packers 26–21, thus ending their season. The season ended on an overturned call of a completed catch by Dez Bryant. The catch was challenged by the Packers, and the referees overturned the call because of the "Calvin Johnson rule".
During the 2015 offseason the Cowboys allowed running back DeMarco Murray to become a free agent. Murray signed with the division rival Philadelphia Eagles. On July 15 wide receiver Dez Bryant signed a 5-year, $70 million contract.
The Cowboys started the 2015 season at home against the New York Giants, in which Dallas won 27–26. Dez Bryant left the game early with a fractured bone in his foot. On the road against the Philadelphia Eagles, Romo suffered a broken left collarbone, the same one he injured in 2010, and Brandon Weeden replaced him. Dallas won 20–10 to begin the season 2–0, but then went on a seven-game losing streak. They finished the season 4–12 and last in their division.
In 2016, after a preseason injury to Tony Romo, rookie quarterback Dak Prescott was slated as the starting quarterback, as Romo was expected to be out 6–8 weeks. In week 1 against the New York Giants, Dallas lost 20–19. After this loss, Dallas would go on an eleven-game winning streak. After much speculation leading to a potential quarterback controversy, Romo made an announcement that Prescott had earned the right to take over as the Cowboys starting quarterback.
In game 10, Romo suited up for the first time in the season and was the backup quarterback. Dallas defeated the Baltimore Ravens to win their 9th straight game, breaking a franchise record of 8 straight games set in 1977. It also marked rookie running back Ezekiel Elliott breaking Tony Dorsett's single-season rushing record for a Cowboys rookie. Prescott also tied an NFL rookie record held by Russell Wilson and Dan Marino by throwing multiple touchdowns in 5 straight games. Dallas finished 13–3, tying their best 16-game regular-season record. While Dallas defeated the Green Bay Packers at Lambeau Field in week 6, the Packers would win at AT&T Stadium in the divisional round of the NFL playoffs on a last-second field goal, ending the Cowboys' season.
and Ezekiel Elliott were both Rookie of the Year finalists in 2016 after leading the team to a 13–3 record, with the former winning the award]]
Dak Prescott was named NFL Rookie of the Year in the NFL honors on February 4, 2017, and Ezekiel Elliott led the league in rushing yards. Jason Garrett was named Coach of the Year. Both Prescott and Elliott made the 2017 Pro Bowl. This is the first time the Cowboys sent two rookies to the Pro Bowl.
2017 was the first season since 2002 without quarterback Tony Romo, who retired on April 4 after 14 seasons with the Cowboys. The season also featured second-year running back Ezekiel Elliott being suspended for 6 games after violating the league's conduct policy. The suspension was to begin at the start of the year but was pushed back to November. The Cowboys finished the year at 9-7 without making the playoffs. Following the season, Dez Bryant was released after eight seasons in Dallas and tight end Jason Witten, who holds several franchise receiving records, retired after 15 seasons, ending an era.
The Dallas Cowboys' 2017 season was the subject of the third season of Amazon's sports documentary series All or Nothing. The series is produced by NFL Films.
In the 2018 season, the Cowboys finished with a 10–6 record and won the NFC East. In the Wild Card Round, the Cowboys defeated the Seattle Seahawks 24–22 before losing 30–22 to the Los Angeles Rams in the Divisional Round. Mike McCarthy years (2020–2024)
Following the end of the 2019 season, where the Cowboys missed the playoffs for the 7th time in the last 10 seasons, it was announced that the team had parted ways with longtime head coach Jason Garrett. Both Marvin Lewis (former Bengals coach) and Mike McCarthy (former Packers coach who led Green Bay to a Super Bowl win) were interviewed for the head coaching position.
McCarthy and the Cowboys picked up the first win against the Atlanta Falcons in Week 2. On October 11, the Cowboys' 2020 season was all but lost when quarterback Dak Prescott suffered a grievous ankle injury that ended his season. Despite the loss of Prescott, McCarthy's first year Cowboys still remained in the running for a playoff appearance throughout most of the regular season. They would go on to finish the season with a 6–10 record, which ranked the team third in the NFC East Division. Throughout the 2020 season, the Cowboys' defense struggled massively. Following the season, defensive coordinator Mike Nolan and defensive line coach Jim Tomsula were dismissed.
The Cowboys' 2021 season resulted in the first winning season since 2018, and with the San Francisco 49ers' Week 16 loss to the Tennessee Titans, the Cowboys clinched their first playoff berth also since 2018. Following a Denver Broncos' loss to the Las Vegas Raiders, the Cowboys clinched the NFC East, based on strength-of-victory tiebreakers; this was their first division title since 2018. They swept the NFC East for the first time since 1998. Rookie Micah Parsons was awarded as Defensive Rookie of the Year, and contributed to a league-leading defense. The Cowboys' strong offense finished the year with 530 points, the most in the league, and a team record. They finished the season with a 12–5 record, their best since 2016. But despite high expectations, the Cowboys lost in the wild card round of the playoffs to the San Francisco 49ers 23–17.
The 2022 season saw a repeat of the 12–5 record. Despite losing to the Jacksonville Jaguars in Week 15, the Cowboys clinched a playoff berth after a loss by the Washington Commanders later that day. This marked the first time since 2006–2007 the Cowboys qualified for the postseason in consecutive seasons. Quarterback Dak Prescott was awarded as Walter Payton NFL Man of the Year, for his contributions to the community and charity. In the wild-card round of the playoffs, the Cowboys defeated the Tampa Bay Buccaneers to win their first road playoff game since their Super Bowl-winning 1992 season, and ended their winless streak against Tom Brady in what proved to be Brady's last game in his career. However, they were defeated by the San Francisco 49ers for the second consecutive season, this time in the divisional round, their seventh consecutive divisional round defeat.
On February 16, 2022, a settlement of $2.4 million was paid after four cheerleaders accused Rich Dalrymple, the now-retired senior vice president of public relations and communications, of voyeurism in their locker room as they undressed during a 2015 event at AT&T Stadium.
After the NFL allowed teams to seek blockchain sponsorships, the Cowboys became the first team to do so, signing a multi-year contract with the platform Blockchain.com on April 13, 2022.
In 2023, the Cowboys again achieved a 12–5 record, for the third year in a row. The team won the NFC East division for the first time since the 2021 season and the second time in three seasons. They ended up in a three-way tie with the San Francisco 49ers and the Detroit Lions for first place in the NFC at 12–5. However, they lost the conference record tiebreaker to the 49ers but won the head to head tiebreaker over the Lions, giving them the second seed in the playoffs. Although the Cowboys lost to the Buffalo Bills in Week 15, they clinched their third straight playoff berth before taking the field when the Green Bay Packers and Atlanta Falcons lost to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and Carolina Panthers, respectively. This marked the Cowboys' first run of three consecutive postseason appearances since appearing in six straight from 1991 to 1996. However, the Cowboys collapsed in the playoffs, and, despite having one of the best-ranked offenses and defenses of the league, were crushed 48–32 by their rival, seventh-seeded Green Bay Packers in the Wild Card round, at one point trailing 48–16 during the fourth quarter. With the loss, the Cowboys became the first team to lose to a #7 seed since the playoff bracket expanded for the 2020–21 NFL playoffs. This also marked the first time a team failed to reach a Conference Championship Game despite winning at least 12 games in three consecutive seasons. On January 13, 2025, it was announced that McCarthy would not be returning as head coach of the Dallas Cowboys due to a contract dispute.
Brian Schottenheimer years (2025–present)
On January 24, 2025, it was announced that Brian Schottenheimer had been promoted from offensive coordinator to head coach.
Thanksgiving Day games
In their seventh season in 1966, the Cowboys agreed to host a second NFL Thanksgiving game; the tradition of a team hosting on Thanksgiving had been popularized by the Detroit Lions (who had hosted a game on the day mostly un-interrupted since moving to Detroit in 1934). General manager Tex Schramm wanted to find a way to boost publicity on a national level for his team, which had struggled for most of the 1960s. In fact, the NFL guaranteed a cut of the gate revenue in the belief that the game would not be a hit because of said struggle. With a kickoff just after 5 p.m. CST, over eighty thousand fans (and millions viewing on CBS) saw the Cowboys beat the Cleveland Browns 26–14 at the Cotton Bowl.
In 1975 and 1977, at the behest of <!--then- -->Commissioner Pete Rozelle, the <!-- then- -->St. Louis Cardinals replaced Dallas as a host team. Dallas then hosted St. Louis in 1976 in an effort by the NFL to give St. Louis national exposure. Although the Cardinals, at the time known as the "Cardiac Cards" due to their propensity for winning very close games, were a modest success at the time, the games did not prove as successful. Owing to factors that ranged from ugly contests to opposition from the Kirkwood–Webster Groves Turkey Day Game (a local high school football contest) led to Dallas resuming regular hosting duties in 1978. It was then, after Rozelle asked Dallas to resume hosting Thanksgiving games, that the Cowboys requested (and received) an agreement guaranteeing the Cowboys a spot on Thanksgiving Day for good; as such, the Cowboys play in the late afternoon.Logos and uniformsLogoThe Dallas Cowboys' blue star logo, which represents Texas as "The Lone Star State", is one of the most well-known team logos in professional sports. The blue star originally was a solid shape until a white line and blue border were added in 1964. The logo has remained the same since. Today, the blue star has been extended to not only the Dallas Cowboys, but owner Jerry Jones' defunct AFL team, the Dallas Desperados that used a similar logo based on that of the Cowboys. The blue star also is used on other entries like an imaging facility and storage facility.Uniforms
The Dallas Cowboys' white home jersey has royal blue (PMS 287 C) solid socks, numbers, lettering, and two stripes on the sleeves outlined in black. The home pants are a common metallic silver-green color (PMS 8280 C) that helps bring out the blue in the uniform. The navy (PMS 289 C) road jerseys (nicknamed the "Stars and Stripes" jersey) have white lettering and numbers with navy pinstripes. A white/gray/white stripe is on each sleeve as well as the collared V-neck, and a Cowboys star logo is placed upon the stripes. A "Cowboys" chest crest is directly under the NFL shield. The away pants are a pearlish metallic-silver color (PMS 8180 C) and like the home pants, enhance the navy in the uniforms. The team uses a serifed font for the lettered player surnames on the jersey nameplates.
In 1966, the team modified the jerseys, which now featured only two sleeve stripes, slightly wider; the socks followed the same pattern. In 1967 the "lone star" helmet decal added a blue outline to the white-bordered star, giving the logo a bigger, bolder look. The logo and this version of the uniform have seen little change to the present day.
The only notable changes from 1970 to the present were:
* 1970 to 1973: The "TV" numbers were moved from the shoulders to the sleeves above the stripes (the TV numbers returned to the shoulders on the white jerseys in 1974, but remained on the sleeves of the blue jerseys through 1978).
* 1982 to 1988: The pants featured a white uniform number in an elliptical blue circle worn near the hip.
* the removal of the indented serifs on the front and back jersey numbers in the early 1980s (seen currently on the throwback jersey)
* 1980: The blue jersey was rendered in a slightly darker shade than the 1964–79 version; from 1981 to 1994 the dark jerseys sported numbers that were gray with white borders and a blue pinstripe. The stripes on the sleeves and socks also used the same gray with white border scheme (sans navy pinstripe).
* 1982 to present: Player names on jersey backs, which were originally in block-letter style, were slightly smaller and in a footed "serif" style.
* 1996 to present: The blue jersey features white/gray/white stripes on each sleeve and the collared V-neck, the Cowboys star logo placed upon the sleeve stripes, white lettering and numbers with navy pinstripes, and the "Cowboys" wordmark in the center of the neckline. The "Cowboys" wordmark was also placed at that same spot on the white jersey from 1996 to 1998.
During the 1976 season, the blue-white-blue stripe on the crown of the helmets was temporarily changed to red-white-blue to commemorate the United States' bicentennial anniversary. This stripe configuration returned in 2021 and is now worn for one regular season game annually when the team pays tribute to Medal of Honor recipients.
In 1994, the NFL celebrated their 75th Anniversary, and the Dallas Cowboys celebrated their back-to-back Super Bowl titles by unveiling a white "Double-Star" jersey on Thanksgiving Day. This jersey was used for special occasions and was worn throughout the 1994–95 playoffs. During the same season, the Cowboys also wore their 1960–63 road jersey with a silver helmet for one game as part of a league-wide "throwback" policy.
During the 1995 season, the team wore the navy "Double-Star" jersey for games at Washington and Philadelphia and permanently switched to solid color socks (royal blue for the white uniform, and navy blue for the dark uniform). The navy "Double-Star" jersey was not seen again until the NFL's Classic Throwback Weekend on Thanksgiving Day 2001–2003.
In 2004, the Cowboys resurrected their original 1960–1963 uniform on Thanksgiving Day. This uniform became the team's alternate or "third jersey" and was usually worn at least once a year, primarily Thanksgiving Day. Two exceptions were when the Cowboys wore their normal white uniforms on Thanksgiving in 2007 and 2008. While the team didn't wear the throwback uniform exactly on Thanksgiving Day in those two years, Dallas wore them on a date around Thanksgiving for those two years. In 2007 Dallas wore the throwback uniform on November 29, 2007, against the Green Bay Packers. In 2008 Dallas wore the throwback uniform on November 23, 2008, against the San Francisco 49ers. The team went back to wearing this uniform at home on Thanksgiving Day in 2009 while their opponent was the Oakland Raiders who wore their AFL Legacy Weekend throwbacks. Dallas wore this alternate uniform on October 11, 2009, as part of one of the NFL's AFL Legacy Weekends when they traveled to Kansas City to play the Chiefs who were sporting their AFL Dallas Texans' uniforms. This created a rare game in which neither team wore a white jersey and the first time the Cowboys wore the alternative uniform as a visiting team. The 1960–1963 uniform may also be used on other special occasions. Other instances include the 2005 Monday Night game against the Washington Redskins when the team inducted Troy Aikman, Emmitt Smith, and Michael Irving into the Cowboys Ring of Honor, and the 2006 Christmas Day game against the Philadelphia Eagles.
In 2013, the NFL issued a new helmet rule stating that players would no longer be allowed to use alternate helmets due to the league's enhanced concussion awareness. This caused the Cowboys' white 1960s throwback helmets to become non-compliant. However, this rule became moot in 2022 when the NFL once again allowed teams to use an alternate helmet again, and the Cowboys reintroduced the 1960s white helmet.
During the "one-shell era", in 2013, 2014, 2016, and 2017, the team wore their normal blue jerseys at home for Thanksgiving; the only exceptions were in 2015 and 2020 when the Cowboys wore the "Color Rush" uniforms (see below), and in 2018, 2019 and 2021 when they wore their regular white uniforms. In 2017, the team initially announced that they will wear blue jerseys at home on a more regular basis, only to rescind soon after.
In 2015, the Cowboys released their Color Rush uniform, featuring a variation of the 1990s "Double Star" alternates with white pants and socks. The uniform was first used in a Thanksgiving game against the Carolina Panthers and in subsequent Thursday Night Football games since 2016. In 2022, the "Color Rush" uniforms would be worn with a white helmet; this design would emulate their current silver helmets but without any silver elements.
The Cowboys also unveiled a navy uniform-white pants combination which was first used on December 10, 2017, against the Giants.
In 1964, Tex Schramm started the tradition of the Cowboys wearing their white jersey at home, contrary to an unofficial rule that teams should wear colored jerseys at home. Schramm did this because he wanted fans to see a variety of opponents' colors at home games.
Throughout the years, the Cowboys' blue jersey has been popularly viewed to be "jinxed" because the team often seemed to lose when they wore them. This purported curse drew attention after the team lost Super Bowl V with the blue jerseys. However, the roots of the curse likely date back earlier to the 1968 divisional playoffs, when the blue-shirted Cowboys were upset by the Cleveland Browns in what turned out to be Don Meredith's final game with the Cowboys. Another example was a 1976 regular season road game against the St. Louis Cardinals, in which the Cardinals elected to wear white as the home team and promptly defeated the then-undefeated Cowboys 21–17 for their first loss in six games.
Since the white home uniform tradition began in 1964, the only season Dallas never wore blue uniforms in a regular season game was in the 1972 season, even though they wore them thrice in the preseason. The only other times Dallas wore blue in one regular season game came in 1968, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1998, 2010, and 2020. Conversely, the 2019 season saw Dallas wear their blue uniforms eight times, the most of any season.
Since the 1970 NFL-AFL merger, league rules were changed to allow the Super Bowl home team to pick their choice of jersey. Most of the time, Dallas will wear their blue jerseys when they visit Washington, Philadelphia (sometimes), Miami, or one of the handful of other teams that traditionally wear their white jerseys at home during the first half of the season due to the hot climates in their respective cities or other means. Occasionally opposing teams will wear their white jerseys at home to try to invoke the curse, such as when the Philadelphia Eagles hosted the Cowboys in the 1980 NFC Championship Game, as well as their November 4, 2007, meeting. Various other teams followed suit in the 1980s.
Although Dallas has made several tweaks to their blue jerseys over the years, Schramm said he did not believe in the curse. Since the league began allowing teams to use an alternate jersey, the Cowboys' alternates have been primarily blue versions of past jerseys and the Cowboys have generally had success when wearing these blue alternates. With the implementation of the 2013 NFL helmet rule for alternate jerseys, the team decided instead to wear their regular blue jerseys for their Thanksgiving game, something they have not done at home since Schramm started the white-jersey-at-home tradition.
and Bob Lilly jerseys shown at the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio]]
handing the ball off to running back Ezekiel Elliott, both in the blue jerseys during a 2018 game]]
Thanksgiving Day uniforms
With the Dallas Cowboys traditionally hosting Thanksgiving Day games, the team donned new uniforms when they unveiled their white "Double-Star" jersey for the first time on November 24, 1994. This game later became synonymous with future Cowboys Head Coach (2010–2019); then 3rd string Quarterback Jason Garrett as he led a come-from-behind victory against the Green Bay Packers.
In the 2004 season, the team went further into Cowboys history by choosing to don blue jerseys worn in their first 4 years of existence, which included white helmets and pants. However, keeping consistent with modern marketing, navy blue was used for this version as opposed to the original 1960-1963 royal color jersey. This regulation also prevented the Cowboys from pairing the white helmets with the throwback uniforms, as the team will often use the traditional silver-blue as their primary helmets throughout the season.
In the 2015 season, the Cowboys chose to wear a variation of the 1994 "Double-Star" jersey as their Color Rush on Thanksgiving Day against the Carolina Panthers on November 26, 2015. Since then, the Color Rush was only used again on Thanksgiving against the Washington Football Team on November 26, 2020. In all other seasons, the team opted to wear their standard white or blue uniforms.
In 2022, the NFL restored the use of alternate helmets and the Cowboys reinstated the white helmet and navy 'throwback" uniforms on November 24, 2022, against the New York Giants.
Stadiums
Cotton Bowl
in Dallas]]
The Cotton Bowl is a stadium which opened in 1932 and became known as "The House That Doak Built" due to the immense crowds that former SMU running back Doak Walker drew to the stadium during his college career in the late 1940s. Originally known as the Fair Park Bowl, it is located in Fair Park, site of the State Fair of Texas. Concerts or other events using a stage allow the playing field to be used for additional spectators. The Cotton Bowl was the longtime home of the annual Cotton Bowl Classic college football bowl game, for which the stadium is named. (Beginning with the January 2010 game, the Cotton Bowl Classic has been played at AT&T Stadium in Arlington.) The Dallas Cowboys called the Cotton Bowl home for 11 years, from the team's formation in 1960 until 1971, when the Cowboys moved to Texas Stadium. It is the only Cowboys stadium within the Dallas city limits. The Cowboys hosted the Green Bay Packers for the 1966 NFL Championship at the Cotton Bowl.
Texas Stadium
in Irving]]
For the majority of the franchise's history the Cowboys played their home games at Texas Stadium. Just outside the city of Dallas, the stadium was located in Irving. The stadium opened on October 24, 1971, at a cost of $35 million and with a seating capacity of 65,675. The stadium was famous for its hole-in-the-roof dome. The roof's worn paint had become so unsightly in the early 2000s that it was repainted in the summer of 2006 by the City of Irving. It was the first time the famed roof was repainted since Texas Stadium opened. The roof was structurally independent from the stadium it covered. The Cowboys lost their final game at Texas Stadium to the Baltimore Ravens, 33–24, on December 20, 2008. After Cowboys Stadium was opened in 2009, the Cowboys turned over the facility to the City of Irving.
In 2009, it was replaced as home of the Cowboys by Cowboys Stadium, which officially opened on May 27, 2009, in Arlington. Texas Stadium was demolished by implosion on April 11, 2010.AT&T Stadium
during a game]]
AT&T Stadium, previously named Cowboys Stadium, is a domed stadium with a retractable roof in Arlington. After failed negotiations to build a new stadium on the site of the Cotton Bowl, Jerry Jones, along with the city of Arlington, Texas, a suburb of Fort Worth, funded the stadium at a cost of $1.3 billion. The stadium is located in Tarrant County, the first time the Cowboys has called a stadium home outside of Dallas County. It was completed on May 29, 2009, and seats 80,000, but is expandable to seat up to 100,000. AT&T Stadium is among the largest domed stadiums in the world.
A highlight of AT&T Stadium is its gigantic, center-hung high-definition television screen, at one point the largest in the world. The , scoreboard surpassed the screen that opened in 2009 at the renovated Kauffman Stadium in Kansas City as the world's largest. In 2011, Charlotte Motor Speedway unveiled its plans for a new HDTV screen larger than the one in AT&T Stadium;
At the debut pre-season game of Cowboys Stadium, a punt by Tennessee Titans kicker, A. J. Trapasso, hit the 2,100 in. screen above the field. The punt deflected and was ruled in-play until Titans coach Jeff Fisher informed the officials that the punt struck the scoreboard. (Many believe Trapasso was trying to hit the suspended scoreboard, based on replays and the angle of the kick.) The scoreboard is, however, within the regulation of the NFL guidelines – hanging approximately five feet above the minimum height. No punts hit the scoreboard during the entire 2009 regular season during an actual game. Also, on August 22, 2009, the day after AJ Trapasso hit the screen, many fans touring the facility noted that half of the field was removed with large cranes re-positioning the screen. According to some fans, a tour guide explained that Jerry Jones invited a few professional soccer players to drop kick soccer balls to try to hit the screen. Once he observed them hitting it consistently he had the screen moved up another 10 feet.
The first regular season home game of the 2009 season was against the New York Giants. A league record-setting 105,121 fans showed up to fill Cowboys Stadium for the game before which the traditional "blue star" at the 50-yard line was unveiled for the first time; however, the Cowboys lost in the final seconds, 33–31.
The Cowboys got their first regular-season home win on September 28, 2009. They beat the Carolina Panthers 21–7 with 90,588 in attendance. The game was televised on ESPN's Monday Night Football and marked a record 42nd win for the Cowboys on Monday Night Football.
On July 25, 2013, the Cowboys announced that AT&T would be taking over the rights to the name of the stadium.Training camp sites
in Frisco, home of Cowboys training camp since 2016]]
Dallas Cowboys training camp locations:
* 1960: Pacific University, Forest Grove, Oregon
* 1961: St. Olaf College, Northfield, Minnesota
* 1962: Northern Michigan College, Marquette, Michigan
* 1963–1989: California Lutheran College, Thousand Oaks, California
* 1990–1997: St. Edward's University, Austin, Texas
* 1998–2002: Midwestern State University, Wichita Falls, Texas
* 2001, 2004–2006, 2008, 2012–2015: River Ridge Sports Complex, Oxnard, California
* 2002–2003, 2007, 2009: The Alamodome, San Antonio, Texas
* 2010–2011: The Alamodome, San Antonio, Texas and River Ridge Sports Complex, Oxnard, California
* 2016–present: The Ford Center at The Star, Frisco, Texas
Nationwide fanbase
Fan support
Ever since the team joined the NFL in 1960, the franchise have garnered strong fan support in both the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex and the state of Texas. With its strong fanbase across the country, including the notable presence of fans at road games, the Cowboys are often referred to as "America's Team".CriticismDespite the historical success of the franchise and a large Cowboys' fanbase, many fans of other NFL teams have come to dislike the Cowboys. Over the years, the Cowboys' fanbase had been labeled as the most annoying in all of sports. ESPN host and commentator Stephen A. Smith has validated this claim.RivalriesThe NFC East, composed of the Cowboys, Philadelphia Eagles, the Washington Commanders and New York Giants, is one of the least-changed divisions of the original six formed in the wake of the NFL-AFL merger (its only major changes being the relocation of the Cardinals franchise from St. Louis to Arizona and its subsequent move to the NFC West in the league's 2002 realignment). Three of the four teams have been division rivals since the Cowboys' entry into the NFL. As such, the Cowboys have some of the longest and fiercest rivalries in the sport.DivisionalPhiladelphia Eagles
in December 2007]]
The competition between the Cowboys and the Philadelphia Eagles has been particularly intense since the late 1970s, when the long-moribund Eagles returned to contention. In January 1981, the two teams faced off in the NFC Championship, with Philadelphia winning 20–7. A series of other factors heightened tensions during the 1980s and 1990s, including several provocative actions by Philadelphia fans and Eagles head coach Buddy Ryan. Among these were the 1989 Bounty Bowls in which Ryan allegedly placed a bounty on Dallas kicker Luis Zendejas and Veterans Stadium fans pelted the Cowboys with snowballs and other debris.
A 1999 game in Philadelphia saw Eagles fans cheering as Michael Irvin lay motionless on the field at Veterans Stadium. In 2008, the rivalry became more intense when in the last game of the year in which both teams could clinch a playoff spot with a victory, the Philadelphia Eagles defeated the Cowboys 44–6. The following season, the Cowboys avenged that defeat by beating the Eagles three times: twice during the regular season to claim the title as NFC East champions and once more in a wild-card playoff game by a combined score of 78–30, including a 24–0 shutout in week 17. That three-game sweep was Dallas' first over any opponent and the longest winning streak against the Eagles since 1992–1995 when Dallas won seven straight matches against Philadelphia.
During the 2013 season, Dallas won the first meeting 17–3 at Lincoln Financial Field in Philadelphia. The two teams met again in Week 17 at AT&T Stadium with the winner clinching the 2013 NFC East title. The Cowboys came into the game at a disadvantage with starting quarterback Tony Romo out with a season-ending back injury, which put backup Kyle Orton as the starter. It was a tight game with the Eagles up 24–22 with less than 2 minutes to go in regulation. Orton got the ball and started driving down the field when he was intercepted by the Eagles defense, which ended the game and the Cowboys season. In 2014, the Cowboys and Eagles both won against each other on the road with Philadelphia posting a dominant 33–10 win on Thanksgiving Day in Dallas, and Dallas returning the favor two weeks later by defeating the Eagles 38–27 at Lincoln Financial Field in Philadelphia. The second game between these rivals clinched a playoff spot for Dallas and led to formerly first-place Philadelphia missing out on the post-season. Dallas leads the all-time series 73–56.New York Giants
The first game ever played between the New York Giants and Cowboys was a 31–31 tie on December 4, 1960. Dallas logged its first win in the series on October 29, 1961, and New York's first was on November 11, 1962. Among the more notable moments in the rivalry was the Giants' defeat of Dallas in the 2007 playoffs en route to their victory in Super Bowl XLII and winning the first regular-season game played at Cowboys Stadium in 2009. Dallas currently leads the all-time series 75–47–2. The Cowboys currently have a 14–7 advantage over Washington at FedEx Field. Some notable moments in the rivalry include Washington's victory over Dallas in the 1982 NFC Championship and the latter's 1989 win over Washington for their only victory that season. The last Cowboys game with Tom Landry as coach was a win over Washington on December 11, 1988. In the 2010s, Washington has struggled to consistently compete for the Division title, but still play the Cowboys particularly tough, posting an impressive upset victory against Dallas in 2014, despite being outclassed by the Cowboys in the overall standings. The 2010s also included an important game in week 17 of 2012 which saw Washington defeat Dallas 28–18 to win the NFC East.
Conference
San Francisco 49ers
The bitter rivalry between the Dallas Cowboys and San Francisco 49ers has been going on since the 1970s. The NFL Top 10 ranked this rivalry to be the tenth best in the history of the NFL. San Francisco has played Dallas in seven postseason games. The Cowboys defeated the 49ers in the 1970 and 1971 NFC Championship games, and again in the 1972 Divisional Playoff Game. The 1981 NFC Championship Game in San Francisco, which saw the 49ers' Joe Montana complete a game-winning pass to Dwight Clark in the final minute (now known as The Catch) is one of the most famous games in NFL history. The rivalry became even more intense during the 1992–1994 seasons. San Francisco and Dallas faced each other in the NFC Championship Game three separate times. Dallas won the first two match-ups, and San Francisco won the third. In each of these pivotal match-ups, the game's victor went on to win the Super Bowl. Both the Cowboys and the 49ers are tied for third all-time in Super Bowl victories to the Pittsburgh Steelers and New England Patriots, with five each. The 49ers-Cowboys rivalry is also part of the larger cultural rivalry between California and Texas. The 49ers lead the all-time series with a record of 20–19–1.Green Bay Packers
The rivalry between the Dallas Cowboys and the Green Bay Packers is one of the best known intra-conference rivalries in the NFL. The two teams do not play every year; instead, they play once every three years due to the NFL's rotating division schedules, or if the two teams finish in the same place in their respective divisions, they would play the ensuing season. The rivalry has also resulted in notable playoff games.
The all-time regular seasons series record is 20–17 in favor of the Packers, and the postseason series is also in favor of the Packers at 5–4.Los Angeles Rams
The Cowboys also had a fierce rivalry with the Los Angeles Rams, particularly during the 1970s and 1980s. The two teams played eight postseason games during this period, including two NFC championship games. Between 1975 and 1980, the Cowboys faced the Rams in the playoffs five times in a six-year period. In both 1975 and 1978, the Cowboys won the NFC championship on the road in blowout fashion, only to be followed by close defeats at home in next year's divisional round. The 1980 Wild Card Round saw Dallas follow up last year's playoff defeat with another blowout victory. As of 2022, the Cowboys and Rams tied the all-time regular season series 18–18, but the Rams lead the all-time playoff series 5–4, having recently defeated the Cowboys in the 2018 Divisional Round.Minnesota Vikings
Between the Dallas Cowboys and Minnesota Vikings, the Cowboys lead the all-time series 18–15. The teams have met seven times in the post-season, the Cowboys third most played playoff opponent. The rivalry is home to many key memories, including the famous 1975 Hail Mary pass against the Vikings, the Herschel Walker trade, the Randy Moss Thanksgiving game, and Brett Favre torching the Cowboys in what would be his last playoff win of his career in 2009. As of the 2023 season, the Cowboys lead the all-time series 19–15.
Inter Conference
Houston Oilers/Houston Texans
The Cowboys have an intrastate interconference rivalry with the Houston Texans for which they compete in either a preseason or regular season game for bragging rights in Texas, a tradition started between the teams prior to the Oilers relocating to Nashville, Tennessee to become the Tennessee Titans. The Texans defeated the Cowboys in the team's inaugural season in 2002. The Cowboys lead the all-time series 4–2.Pittsburgh Steelers
The two teams met in the first regular-season game the Cowboys ever played in 1960 (a 35–28 loss to the Steelers), the first-ever regular-season victory for the expansion Cowboys in 1961, and would later meet in three Super Bowls, all of them closely contested events. The Steelers-Cowboys is to date the Super Bowl matchup with the most contests. The Steelers won Super Bowl X and Super Bowl XIII; both games were decided in the final seconds, first on a last-second throw by Roger Staubach, then as a fourth-quarter rally by Dallas fell short on an onside kick. The Cowboys won Super Bowl XXX in January 1996. It is said that the rivalry was fueled in the 1970s due to the stark contrast of the teams: the Cowboys, being more of a "flashy" team with Roger Staubach's aerial attack and the "flex" Doomsday Defense; while the Steelers were more of a "blue-collar" team with a strong running game and the 1970s-esque Steel Curtain defense, a contrast that still exists today. In addition, both teams have national fan bases rivaled by few NFL teams, and both come from areas with a strong following for football at all levels. Dallas leads the all-time series 17–16 including the playoffs.
Season-by-season records
Players of note
Current roster
Pro Football Hall of Famers
]]
]]
]]
]]
]]
]]
]]
]]
]]
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
|-
! colspan"5" style""|Dallas Cowboys Hall of Famers
|-
! colspan"5" style""|Players
|-
! No.
! Name
! Position
! Seasons
! Inducted
|-
| 79 || || OT || 1971 || 1977
|-
| 19 || || WR || 1971–1972 || 1978
|-
| 74 || || DT || 1961–1974 || 1980
|-
| 26 || || CB || 1970–1972 || 1981
|-
| 12 || || QB || 1969–1979 || 1985
|-
| 89 || || TE || 1969–1972 || 1988
|-
| 33 || || RB || 1977–1987 || 1994
|-
| 81 || || TE || 1978 || 1994
|-
| 54 || || DT, LB || 1975–1988 || 1994
|-
| 20 || || CB || 1964–1977 || 1996
|-
| 25 || || WR || 1964 || 1998
|-
| 8 || || QB || 1989–2000 || 2006
|-
| 70 || || OT || 1967–1979 || 2006
|-
| 88 || || WR || 1988–1999 || 2007
|-
| 22 || || WR || 1965–1974 || 2009
|-
| 22 || || RB || 1990–2002 || 2010
|-
| 21 || || CB, KR || 1995–1999 || 2011
|-
| 73 || || G || 1994–2005 || 2013
|-
| 94 || || DE || 1992–1996 || 2015
|-
| 81 || || WR || 2006–2008 || 2018
|-
| 17 || || WR || 1984 || 2020
|-
| 43 || || S || 1970–1979 || 2020
|-
| 88 || || WR || 1973–1983 || 2021
|-
| 54 || || LB || 1961–1973 || 2023
|-
| 55 || || LB || 2008 || 2023
|-
| 94 || || LB || 2005–2013 || 2023
|-
! colspan"5" style""|Coaches and Contributors
|-
! colspan=2|Name
! Position
! Seasons
! Inducted
|-
| colspan=2| || Coach || 1960–1988 || 1990
|-
| colspan=2| || President/GM || 1960–1988 || 1991
|-
| colspan=2| || Coach || 2003–2006 || 2013
|-
| colspan2| || Owner/Executive || 1989–present || 2017
|-
| colspan=2| || Executive || 1960–1988 || 2019
|-
| colspan2| || Coach || 1989–1993 || 2020
|-
|}
Super Bowl MVPs
The Cowboys have had seven players win Super Bowl MVP.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
|-
! colspan"3" style";"|Super Bowl MVP Winners
|-
! style=";"|Super Bowl
! style=";"|Player
! style=";"|Position
|-
| V || Chuck Howley || LB
|-
| VI || Roger Staubach || QB
|-
| rowspan=2|XII || Randy White || DT
|-
| Harvey Martin || DE
|-
| XXVII || Troy Aikman || QB
|-
| XXVIII || Emmitt Smith || RB
|-
| XXX || Larry Brown || CB
|}
Ring of Honor
Unlike many NFL teams, the Cowboys do not retire jersey numbers of past standouts as a matter of policy. Instead, the team has a "Ring of Honor", which is on permanent display encircling the field. Originally at Texas Stadium, the ring is now on display at AT&T Stadium in Arlington. The first inductee was Bob Lilly in 1975 and by 2005, the ring contained 17 names, all former Dallas players except for one head coach and one general manager/president.
The Ring of Honor has been a source of controversy over the years. Tex Schramm was believed to be a "one-man committee" in choosing inductees and many former Cowboys players and fans felt that Schramm deliberately excluded linebacker Lee Roy Jordan because of a bitter contract dispute the two had during Jordan's playing days. When Jerry Jones bought the team he inherited Schramm's Ring of Honor "power" and immediately inducted Jordan.
Jones also has sparked controversy regarding his decisions in handling the "Ring of Honor". For four years he was unsuccessful in convincing Tom Landry to accept induction. Meanwhile, he refused to induct Tex Schramm (even after Schramm's induction to the Pro Football Hall of Fame). In 1993, thanks in part to the efforts of Roger Staubach as an intermediary, Landry accepted induction and had a ceremony on the day of that year's Cowboys-Giants game (Landry had played and coached for the Giants). In 2003, Jones chose to induct Tex Schramm. Schramm and Jones held a joint press conference at Texas Stadium announcing the induction. Schramm did not live to see his ceremonial induction at the Cowboys-Eagles game that fall.
Troy Aikman, all-time NFL leading rusher Emmitt Smith, and Michael Irvin, known as "The Triplets", were inducted into the Ring of Honor during halftime at a Monday Night Football home game against the archrival Washington Redskins on September 19, 2005.
Defensive end Charles Haley, offensive lineman Larry Allen, and wide receiver Drew Pearson were inducted into the Ring of Honor during halftime of the Cowboys' game vs. the Seattle Seahawks on November 6, 2011.
Safety Darren Woodson was inducted on November 1, 2015. Executive Gil Brandt was inducted on November 29, 2018.
The most recent inductees were DeMarcus Ware, who was inducted on October 29, 2023, and Jimmy Johnson, who was inducted on December 30, 2023.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="background:#cfecec; width:3em;"|
|Pro Football Hall of Fame finalist
|-
| style="background:#ff9; width:3em;"|
|Inducted or Enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame
|-
|}
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
| style""|No. || style""|Name || style""|Position || style""|Years With Club || style""|Inducted
|-
| 74 ||style="background:#ff9"|Bob Lilly || DT || 1961–1974 || November 23, 1975
|-
| 17 || Don Meredith || QB || 1960–1968 || November 7, 1976
|-
| 43 || Don Perkins || FB || 1961–1968 || November 7, 1976
|-
| 54 || style="background:#ff9"|Chuck Howley || LB || 1961–1973 || October 30, 1977
|-
| 20 || style="background:#ff9"|Mel Renfro || CB || 1964–1977 || October 25, 1981
|-
| 12 || style="background:#ff9"|Roger Staubach || QB || 1969–1979 || October 9, 1983
|-
| 55 || style="background:#cfecec"|Lee Roy Jordan || LB, C || 1963–1976 || October 29, 1989
|-
| — || style="background:#ff9"|Tom Landry || Head Coach || 1960–1988 || November 7, 1993
|-
| 33 || style="background:#ff9"|Tony Dorsett || RB || 1977–1987 || October 9, 1994
|-
| 54 || style="background:#ff9"|Randy White || DT, LB, DE || 1975–1988 || October 9, 1994
|-
| 22 || style="background:#ff9"|Bob Hayes || WR || 1965–1974 || September 23, 2001
|-
| — || style="background:#ff9"|Tex Schramm || General Manager || 1960–1989 || October 12, 2003
|-
| 43 || style="background:#ff9"|Cliff Harris || S || 1970–1979 || October 10, 2004
|-
| 70 || style="background:#ff9"|Rayfield Wright || OT || 1967–1979 || October 10, 2004
|-
| 8 || style="background:#ff9"|Troy Aikman || QB || 1989–2000 || September 19, 2005
|-
| 88 || style="background:#ff9"|Michael Irvin || WR || 1988–1999 || September 19, 2005
|-
| 22 || style="background:#ff9"|Emmitt Smith || RB || 1990–2002 || September 19, 2005
|-
| 88 || style="background:#ff9"|Drew Pearson || WR || 1973–1983 || November 6, 2011
|-
| 94 || style="background:#ff9" | Charles Haley || DE || 1992–1996 || November 6, 2011
|-
| 73 || style="background:#ff9"|Larry Allen || OG, OT || 1994–2005 || November 6, 2011
|-
| 28 || style="background:#cfecec"|Darren Woodson || S || 1992–2004 || November 1, 2015
|-
| — || style="background:#ff9"|Gil Brandt || VP Player Personnel || 1960–1988 || November 29, 2018
|-
| 94 || style="background:#ff9"|DeMarcus Ware || LB || 2005–2013 || October 29, 2023
|-
| — || style="background:#ff9"|Jimmy Johnson || Head Coach || 1989–1993 || December 30, 2023
|-
|}
Retired numbers
The Dallas Cowboys do not officially retire jersey numbers; however, some are kept "unofficially inactive". As of 2022, six numbers have been kept out of circulation: Troy Aikman's No. 8, Roger Staubach's No. 12, Bob Hayes' and Emmitt Smith's No. 22, Bob Lilly's No. 74, and Jason Witten's No. 82. The Cowboys are one of three NFL teams that do not officially retire numbers, with the other two being the Atlanta Falcons and Las Vegas Raiders.Career leaders*Passing yards: 34,183 Tony Romo (2004–2016)
*Pass completions: 2,898 Troy Aikman (1989–2000)
*Rushing touchdowns: 153 Emmitt Smith (1990–2002)
*Receiving yards: 12,977 Jason Witten (2003–2017, 2019)
*Field goals made: 186 Dan Bailey (2011–2017)
*Total punt yardage: 24,542 Mike Saxon (1985–1992)
*Punting average: 45.3 Mat McBriar (2003–2011)
*Punt Return yards: 1,803 Kelvin Martin (1987–1992, 1996)
*Forced fumbles: 32 DeMarcus Ware (2005–2013)
*Passing touchdowns: 37 Dak Prescott (2021)
*Rushing touchdowns: 25 Emmitt Smith (1995)
*Receiving yards: 1,603 Michael Irvin (1995)
*Field goals made: 34 Richie Cunningham (1997)
*Total punt yardage: 3,665 Toby Gowin (2003)
*Punting average: 49.0 Mat McBriar (2008)
*Punt return yards: 548 James Jones, Jr. (1980)
*Sacks: 20.0 DeMarcus Ware (2008)
All-time first-round draft picks
The Cowboys have had the number one overall pick in the NFL Draft on three occasions.Head coaches and staffHead coachesCurrent staffRadio and television
, the Cowboys' flagship radio station is KRLD-FM. Brad Sham is the team's longtime play-by-play voice. Working alongside him is former Cowboy quarterback Babe Laufenberg, who returned in 2007 after a one-year absence to replace former safety Charlie Waters. The Cowboys, who retain rights to all announcers, chose not to renew Laufenberg's contract in 2006 and brought in Waters. However, Laufenberg did work as the analyst on the "Blue Star Network", which televises Cowboys preseason games not shown on national networks. The anchor station is KTVT, the CBS owned and operated station in Dallas. Previous stations which aired Cowboys games included KVIL-FM, KRLD, and KLUV-FM. Kristi Scales is the sideline reporter on the radio broadcasts.
During his tenure as Cowboys coach, Tom Landry co-hosted his own coach's show with late veteran sportscaster Frank Glieber and later with Brad Sham. Landry's show was famous for his analysis of raw game footage and for him and his co-host making their NFL "predictions" at the end of each show. Glieber is one of the original voices of the Cowboys Radio Network, along with Bill Mercer, famous for calling the Ice Bowl of 1967 and both Super Bowl V and VI. Mercer is perhaps best known as the ringside commentator of WCCW in the 1980s. Upon Mercer's departure, Verne Lundquist joined the network, and became their play-by-play announcer by 1977, serving eight years in that capacity before handing those chores permanently over to Brad Sham, who joined the network in 1977 as the color analyst and occasional fill-in for Lundquist.
Longtime WFAA-TV sports anchor Dale Hansen was the Cowboys color analyst with Brad Sham as the play-by-play announcer from 1985 to 1996.
Dave Garrett served as the Cowboys' play-by-play announcer from 1995 to 1997, when Brad Sham left the team and joined the Texas Rangers' radio network team as well as broadcast Sunday Night Football on Westwood One.
Seeking to expand its radio broadcasting scope nationally, the Cowboys began a five-year partnership with Compass Media Networks on February 2, 2011. The result was the America's Team Radio Network, a supplement to the franchise's regional one. Beginning with the 2011 season, Kevin Burkhardt and Danny White handled the broadcasts, with Jerry Recco as the studio host.
Fight song
The Dallas Cowboys fight song, "Cowboys Stampede March" by Tom Merriman Big Band was the official fight song of the Dallas Cowboys. The Cowboys now play We Dem Boyz by Wiz Khalifa for starting defensive line, because of the saying "How Bout Dem Cowboys". For every touchdown scored by the Cowboys at a home game the song "Cowboys and Cut Cigars" by The Burning of Rome is played after a train horn.
See also
* Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders
* List of Dallas Cowboys seasons
* List of Dallas Cowboys players
* America's Team
* Doomsday Defense
References
* NFL 2002 Record & Fact Book
Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
*
* [https://www.nfl.com/teams/dallas-cowboys/ NFL.com team page]
* [https://www.pro-football-reference.com/teams/dal/ Pro Football Reference team page]
|list =
}}
Category:NFL teams
Category:American football teams established in 1960
Category:1960 establishments in Texas
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas_Cowboys
|
2025-04-05T18:28:28.274361
|
8122
|
Denver Broncos
|
| first_season = 1960
| city = Empower Field at Mile High<br />Denver, Colorado
| misc Headquartered at Broncos Park Powered by CommonSpirit in Englewood, Colorado
| uniform = Denver Broncos Uniforms 2024-Present.png
| colors Sunset orange, midnight navy, summit white<br />
| nicknames =
* Orange Crush (defense, 1977–1983)
* No Fly Zone (defense, 2014–2018) <!-- Please read the dates in the infobox of the article about the No Fly Zone. Thank you. -->
| coach = Sean Payton
| owner = Rob Walton<!-- Please DO not vandalize this field. Thank you. -->
| ceo = Greg Penner<!-- Please DO not vandalize this field. Thank you. -->
| president = Damani Leech
| general manager = George Paton <!-- Please DO not vandalize this field. Thank you. -->
| mascot = Thunder (live horse)<br />Miles (costume suit)
| website =
| hist_yr = 1960
| affiliate_old =
American Football League (1960–1969)
* Western Division (1960–1969)
| NFL_start_yr = 1970
| division_hist =
* American Football Conference (1970–present)
** AFC West (1970–present)
| no_league_champs = 3
| no_sb_champs = 3
| no_conf_champs = 8
| no_div_champs = 15
| sb_champs = 1997 (XXXII), 1998 (XXXIII), 2015 (50)
| conf_champs =
* AFC: 1977, 1986, 1987, 1989, 1997, 1998, 2013, 2015
| div_champs =
* AFC West: 1977, 1978, 1984, 1986, 1987, 1989, 1991, 1996, 1998, 2005, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015
| playoff_appearances =
* NFL: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
| no_playoff_appearances = 23
| stadium_years =
* Mile High Stadium (1960–2000)
* Empower Field at Mile High (–present)
| team_owners =
* Bob Howsam (1959–1961)
* Gerald Phipps (1961–1981)
* Edgar Kaiser Jr. (1981–1984)
* Pat Bowlen (1984–2019)
* Bowlen estate (2019–2022)
* Rob Walton and Greg Penner (2022–present)
}}
The Denver Broncos are a professional American football team based in Denver. The Broncos compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member of the American Football Conference (AFC) West division. The team is headquartered in Englewood, Colorado. They have won eight AFC Championships (, , , , , , , ), and three Super Bowl championships ( (XXXII), (XXXIII), (50), and share the NFL record for most Super Bowl losses (5 – tied with the New England Patriots). The Broncos have nine primary members enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame: John Elway, Floyd Little, Shannon Sharpe, Gary Zimmerman, Terrell Davis, Champ Bailey, Steve Atwater, and Randy Gradishar, along with late club owner Pat Bowlen.
According to Forbes, the Broncos are valued at $4.65 billion in July 2022 making them the twelfth most-valuable team in the NFL.HistoryBob Howsam/Gerald Phipps era (1960–1980)The Denver Broncos were founded on August 14, 1959, when minor league baseball owner Bob Howsam was awarded an American Football League (AFL) charter franchise.
Denver came close to losing its franchise in 1965, until a local ownership group took control, and rebuilt the team. The team's first superstar, "Franchise" Floyd Little, was instrumental in keeping the team in Denver, due to his signing in 1967 as well as his Pro Bowl efforts on and off the field. The Broncos were the only original AFL team that never played in the title game, as well as the only original AFL team never to have a winning season while a member of the AFL during the upstart league's 10-year history.
In 1972, the Broncos hired former Stanford University coach John Ralston as their head coach. In 1973, he was the UPI's AFC Coach of the Year, after Denver achieved its first winning season at 7–5–2. In five seasons with the Broncos, Ralston guided the team to three winning seasons. Though Ralston finished the 1976 season with a 9–5 record, the team, as was the case in Ralston's previous winning seasons, still missed the playoffs. Following the season, several prominent players publicly voiced their discontent with Ralston, which soon led to his resignation.
AFC Championship Game to earn their first trip to the Super Bowl.]]
Red Miller, a long-time assistant coach, was hired and along with the Orange Crush Defense (a nickname originated in 1977, also the brand of the popular orange-flavored soft drink) and aging quarterback Craig Morton, took the Broncos to what was then a record-setting 12–2 regular-season record and their first playoff appearance in 1977, and ultimately made their first Super Bowl appearance in Super Bowl XII, in which they were defeated by the Dallas Cowboys (Morton's former team), 27–10.Edgar Kaiser/Pat Bowlen era (1981–2018)In 1981, Broncos' owner Gerald Phipps, who had purchased the team in May 1961 from the original owner Bob Howsam, sold the team to Canadian financier Edgar Kaiser Jr., grandson of shipbuilding industrialist Henry J. Kaiser. In 1984, the team was purchased by another Canadian, Pat Bowlen, who placed team ownership into a family trust sometime before 2004 and remained in day-to-day control until his battle with Alzheimer's disease forced him to cede the team to Joe Ellis in 2014.Dan Reeves years (1981–1992)Dan Reeves became the youngest head coach (37) in the NFL when he joined the Broncos in 1981 as vice president and head coach. Quarterback John Elway, who played college football at Stanford, arrived in 1983 via a trade. Originally drafted by the Baltimore Colts as the first pick of the draft, Elway proclaimed that he would shun football in favor of baseball (he was drafted by the New York Yankees to play center field and was also a pitching prospect), unless he was traded to a selected list of other teams, which included the Broncos. Prior to Elway, the Broncos had over 24 different starting quarterbacks in its 23 seasons to that point.
between the Browns and the Broncos.]]
Reeves and Elway guided the Broncos to six post-season appearances, five AFC West divisional titles, three AFC championships and three Super Bowl appearances (Super Bowl XXI, XXII and XXIV) during their 12-year span together. The Broncos lost Super Bowl XXI to the New York Giants, 39–20; Super Bowl XXII to the Washington Redskins, 42–10; and Super Bowl XXIV to the San Francisco 49ers, 55–10; the latter score remains the most lopsided scoring differential in Super Bowl history. The last year of the Reeves-Elway era were marked by feuding, due to Reeves taking on play-calling duties after ousting Elway's favorite offensive coordinator Mike Shanahan after the 1991 season, as well as Reeves drafting quarterback Tommy Maddox out of UCLA instead of going with a wide receiver to help Elway. Reeves was fired after the 1992 season and replaced by his protégé and friend Wade Phillips, who had been serving as the Broncos' defensive coordinator. Phillips was fired after a mediocre 1994 season, in which management felt he lost control of the team.Mike Shanahan years (1995–2008)In 1995, Mike Shanahan, who had formerly served under Reeves as the Broncos' offensive coordinator, returned as head coach. The team went 8–8 in 1995. Shanahan drafted rookie running back Terrell Davis. In 1996, the Broncos were the top seed in the AFC with a 13–3 record, dominating most of the teams that year. The fifth-seeded Jacksonville Jaguars, however, upset the Broncos 30–27 in the divisional round of the playoffs, ending the Broncos' 1996 run.
Super Bowl XXXII champions (1997)
During the 1997 season, Elway and Davis helped guide the Broncos to their first Super Bowl victory, a 31–24 win over the defending champion Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl XXXII. Though Elway completed only 13 of 22 passes, throwing one interception and no touchdowns (he did, however, have a rushing touchdown), Davis rushed for 157 yards and a Super Bowl-record three touchdowns to earn the Super Bowl Most Valuable Player Award—this while overcoming a severe migraine headache that caused him blurred vision.Super Bowl XXXIII champions (1998)The Broncos repeated as Super Bowl champions the following season, defeating the Atlanta Falcons (led by Elway's longtime head coach Dan Reeves) in Super Bowl XXXIII, 34–19. Elway was named Super Bowl MVP, completing 18 of 29 passes for 336 yards, with an 80-yard touchdown to wide receiver Rod Smith and one interception. in 2007.]]
John Elway retired following the 1998 season, and Brian Griese started at quarterback for the next four seasons. After a 6–10 record in 1999, mostly due to a season-ending injury to Terrell Davis, the Broncos recovered in 2000, earning a Wild Card playoff berth, but losing to the eventual Super Bowl champion Baltimore Ravens. After missing the playoffs the following two seasons, former Arizona Cardinals' quarterback Jake Plummer replaced Griese in 2003, and led the Broncos to two straight 10–6 seasons, earning Wild Card playoff berths both years. However, the Broncos went on the road to face the Indianapolis Colts in back-to-back seasons and were blown out by more than 20 points in each game, allowing a combined 90 points.
Plummer led the Broncos to a 13–3 record in 2005 and their first AFC West division title since 1998. After a first-round bye, the Broncos defeated the defending Super Bowl champion New England Patriots, 27–13, denying New England from becoming the first NFL team ever to win three consecutive Super Bowl championships. They were the first team to beat the Patriots in the playoffs during the Tom Brady era. The Broncos' playoff run came to an end the next week, after losing at home to the Pittsburgh Steelers in the AFC Championship game, 34–17.
The Broncos' defense began the first five games of the 2006 season allowing only one touchdown — an NFL record that still stands. ESPN commentator and Super Bowl-winning quarterback Joe Theismann gave the 2006 defense the name "Bad Blue" on Monday Night Football as they played the Ravens. However, the team struggled down the season stretch. Plummer led the team to a 7–2 record, but struggled individually with inconsistent performance and more interceptions than touchdown passes. As a result, he would be replaced by rookie quarterback Jay Cutler. Cutler went 2–3 as a starter, and the Broncos finished with a 9–7 record, losing the tiebreaker to the Kansas City Chiefs for the final playoff spot. Cutler's first full season as a starter in 2007 became the Broncos' first losing season since 1999, with a 7–9 record.
The 2008 season ended in a 52–21 loss at the San Diego Chargers, giving the Broncos an 8–8 record and their third straight season out of the playoffs. Mike Shanahan, the longest-tenured and most successful head coach in Broncos' franchise history, was fired after 14 seasons.Josh McDaniels years (2009–2010)On January 11, 2009, two weeks after Shanahan was fired, the Broncos hired former New England Patriots' offensive coordinator Josh McDaniels as the team's new head coach. Three months later, the team acquired quarterback Kyle Orton as part of a trade that sent Jay Cutler to the Chicago Bears.
Under McDaniels and Orton, the Broncos jumped out to a surprising 6–0 start in 2009. However, the team lost eight of their next ten games, finishing 8–8 for a second consecutive season and missing the playoffs. The next season (2010), the Broncos set a new franchise record for losses in a single season, with a 4–12 record. McDaniels was fired before the end of the 2010 season following a combination of the team's poor record and the fallout from a highly publicized videotaping scandal. Running backs coach Eric Studesville was named interim coach for the final four games of the 2010 season. He chose to start rookie first-round draft choice Tim Tebow at quarterback for the final three games.
John Fox years (2011–2014)
Following the 2010 season, Joe Ellis was promoted from chief operating officer to team president, while John Elway returned to the organization as the team's executive vice president of football operations. In addition, the Broncos hired John Fox as the team's 14th head coach. Fox previously served as the Carolina Panthers' head coach from 2002 to 2010.
Following a 1–4 start to the 2011 season, Tim Tebow replaced Kyle Orton as the Broncos' starting quarterback, and "Tebow Time" was born. Tebow led the Broncos with toughness, determination and miraculous come-from-behind victories which gave the Broncos hope and were the catalyst for better things to come. Tebow led the Broncos to an 8–8 record and garnered the team's first playoff berth and division title since 2005. The Broncos defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers in the Wild Card round on a memorable 80-yard touchdown pass from Tebow to wide receiver Demaryius Thomas on the first play of overtime, setting a record for the fastest overtime in NFL history. However, the Broncos lost to the New England Patriots in the Divisional round.
In March 2012, the Broncos reached an agreement on a five-year, $96 million contract with former longtime Indianapolis Colts' quarterback Peyton Manning, who had recently missed the entire season following multiple neck surgeries. This resulted in the Broncos subsequently trading incumbent quarterback Tim Tebow to the New York Jets. The Broncos finished with a 13–3 record and the AFC's No. 1 seed in the 2012 playoffs, but were defeated by the Baltimore Ravens in the Divisional round.
Like in 2012, the 2013 Broncos finished with a 13–3 record and the AFC's No. 1 seed. The Broncos broke all offensive records and QB Peyton Manning shattered many quarterback records that season as well. In the 2013 playoffs, they defeated the San Diego Chargers in the Divisional round and the New England Patriots in the AFC Championship. However, the Broncos lost to the Seattle Seahawks in Super Bowl XLVIII by a score of 43–8, the Broncos' first Super Bowl berth since winning back-to-back Super Bowls in 1997 and 1998.
Prior to the start of the 2014 season, the Broncos announced that Pat Bowlen, the team's owner since 1984, relinquished control of the team due to his battle with Alzheimer's disease, resulting in team president Joe Ellis and general manager John Elway assuming control of the team. However, the Broncos were defeated by the Indianapolis Colts in the Divisional round of the 2014 playoffs, marking the third time in four seasons that the Broncos lost in the Divisional round of the playoffs. Quarterback Peyton Manning had been playing with strained quadriceps for the final month of the 2014 season. won Super Bowl 50 in his first season as the Broncos head coach.]]Gary Kubiak years (2015–2016)On January 12, 2015, one day after the divisional playoff loss to the Colts, the Broncos and head coach John Fox mutually agreed to part ways. Fox left the Broncos with a .719 winning percentage in his four seasons as the Broncos' head coach—the highest in franchise history. One week later, the Broncos hired Gary Kubiak as the team's 15th head coach. Kubiak served as a backup quarterback to executive vice president/general manager John Elway from 1983 to 1991, as well as the Broncos' offensive coordinator from 1995 to 2005.
Shortly after Kubiak became head coach, the Broncos underwent numerous changes to their coaching staff and players, including the hiring of defensive coordinator, defensive mastermind Wade Phillips, under whom the Broncos' defense went from middle of the road to being ranked No. 1 in the NFL. By the 2015 season, it would go on to be considered one of the greatest NFL defenses of all time — along with the 1985 Bears, 2000 Ravens and 2002 Buccaneers. The Broncos finished with a 12–4 record and the AFC's No. 1 seed, despite Peyton Manning having his worst statistical season since his rookie year with the Indianapolis Colts in . Backup quarterback Brock Osweiler started the last six games of the regular season due to Manning suffering from a foot injury. Manning led the Broncos throughout the playoffs. The Broncos defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 23–16 in the Divisional Round and the New England Patriots 20–18 in the AFC Championship. They were victorious against the Carolina Panthers 24–10 in Super Bowl 50 for their third Super Bowl title.
On March 7, 2016, quarterback Peyton Manning retired after 18 NFL seasons during a press conference at the team's Dove Valley headquarters.
Following Manning's retirement, the Broncos scrambled to find the team's next starting quarterback after backup quarterback Brock Osweiler departed on a four-year contract to the Houston Texans. The Broncos acquired Mark Sanchez from the Philadelphia Eagles and selected Paxton Lynch during the 2016 draft. Sanchez, Lynch and second-year quarterback Trevor Siemian competed for the starting quarterback spot during the off-season and preseason. Prior to the regular season, Sanchez was released and Siemian was named the starter. The Broncos finished the season 9–7 and missed the playoffs for the first time since 2010.
On January 2, 2017, coach Gary Kubiak announced his retirement, citing health as the main reason for retiring. Vance Joseph years (2017–2018)The Broncos hired Miami Dolphins defensive coordinator Vance Joseph as head coach on January 11, 2017. The Broncos finished 5–11 in 2017 as a result of an unimpressive offense led by a quarterback committee of Trevor Siemian, Brock Osweiler, and Paxton Lynch.
In an effort to address poor production from the offense, the Broncos signed quarterback Case Keenum on March 14, 2018, and traded away Trevor Siemian to the Minnesota Vikings on March 19, 2018.
On May 1, 2018, the Broncos signed local undrafted free agent running back Phillip Lindsay, who became a fan favorite due to his underdog mentality, explosive play style and local roots. Lindsay became the first undrafted player in NFL history with 100+ scrimmage yards in each of their first two games and on December 18, 2018, Lindsay was voted to the 2019 Pro Bowl, making him the first undrafted offensive rookie in NFL history to be voted to a Pro Bowl.
After getting off to a strong start, their 2018 season was up and down, eventually finishing with a 6–10 record and placing third in the AFC West. Coupled with the 5–11 season in 2017, the Broncos had back-to-back losing seasons for the first time since 1971–1972. Shortly after the conclusion of the regular season, head coach Vance Joseph was fired after recording a poor 11–21 record in two seasons.Vic Fangio years (2019–2021)On January 10, 2019, the Broncos hired Chicago Bears defensive coordinator Vic Fangio to become the 17th head coach in franchise history. Fangio was chosen over Mike Munchak, the Broncos' offensive line coach. Fangio received a four-year contract with a team option for an additional season.
On February 13, 2019, Joe Flacco was traded to the Broncos from the Baltimore Ravens. On October 6, 2019, the Broncos defeated the Los Angeles Chargers for their 500th win, bringing their win–loss record to 500–432.
On December 1, 2019, the Broncos started Mizzou rookie quarterback Drew Lock for the first time. He led the Broncos to a 4–1 record to end the 2019 season. The Broncos finished 2nd place in the AFC West Division at 7–9, missing the playoffs for a fourth consecutive year. In five games, Lock finished with 1,020 passing yards, seven touchdowns, and three interceptions.
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2020 NFL season did not have a preseason or full training camps, which likely contributed to an abnormally large amount of injuries that plagued the Broncos and other NFL teams. Star linebacker Von Miller suffered a season-ending ankle tendon injury before the regular season started, and starting wide receiver Courtland Sutton suffered a season-ending torn ACL during a week two game.
On November 29, 2020, after all three of the Broncos' quarterbacks were placed in COVID-19 protocol, the Broncos were forced to turn to undrafted wide receiver and former college quarterback Kendall Hinton as the emergency quarterback. Hinton completed only one pass for 13 yards in 9 attempts—the fewest pass completions in a single game in franchise history—and was intercepted twice. The Broncos' only scoring play was a 58-yard field goal by placekicker Brandon McManus in a 31–3 loss to the New Orleans Saints. In July 2021, the Pro Football Hall of Fame announced that Hinton's quarterback wristband would be added to the Hall of Fame as part of a display.
The Broncos finished the 2020 season with a record of 5–11, last in the AFC West, and missed the playoffs for the fifth consecutive year.
Following another season of uninspiring quarterback performances, the Broncos were the subject of multiple quarterback trade rumors during the 2021 offseason. Aaron Rodgers and Deshaun Watson were two names rumored to be of interest for the Broncos, but ultimately the Broncos traded for quarterback Teddy Bridgewater on April 28, 2021. Bridgewater won the subsequent quarterback competition between himself and Drew Lock during the preseason, and he was named the Broncos' starting quarterback on August 25, 2021.
The Broncos also made notable improvements in the defensive secondary, signing former All-Pro cornerback Kyle Fuller and cornerback Ronald Darby, as well as drafting Alabama cornerback Patrick Surtain II with the ninth overall pick in the 2021 NFL draft. Running back Phillip Lindsay was replaced by UNC rookie running back Javonte Williams, who was drafted in the second round of the 2021 NFL draft by the Broncos.
On October 31, 2021, Peyton Manning (who won two AFC Championships, Super Bowl 50, and an NFL MVP during his four seasons as a Bronco) was inducted to the Broncos' Ring of Fame during a game against Washington.
On November 1, 2021, the Broncos traded franchise legend Von Miller to the Los Angeles Rams in exchange for a 2nd and 3rd round pick in the 2022 NFL draft. At the time of the trade, Miller was the longest-tenured Bronco on the team, and the only remaining non-special teams player from Denver's Super Bowl 50 roster.
After another mediocre performance in the 2021 season with the Broncos going 7–10, head coach Vic Fangio was dismissed on January 8, 2022, after losing to the Kansas City Chiefs.
Walton–Penner era (2022–present)
Nathaniel Hackett season (2022)
The Broncos announced the hiring of Green Bay Packers offensive coordinator Nathaniel Hackett as head coach on January 27, 2022.
The Broncos then announced on February 1, 2022, that they were now up for sale and that they would be parting ways with the Bowlen family, the former owners of the franchise.
Hackett's first hire as head coach was Justin Outten as offensive coordinator. He was hired on February 2, 2022.
On March 16, 2022, the Broncos traded Drew Lock, Noah Fant, Shelby Harris, Denver's 2022 first-round pick (No. 9), its 2022 second-round pick (No. 40), its 2023 first- and second-round picks, and its 2022 fifth-round pick for Russell Wilson and the Seattle Seahawks' 2022 fourth-round pick.
On June 7, 2022, the Broncos announced that the Walton-Penner Family Ownership Group, led by former Walmart chairman Rob Walton, had entered in an agreement to acquire the Denver Broncos for $4.65 billion. The NFL approved the bid on August 10, 2022, with the Broncos introducing Walton's daughter, Carrie Walton Penner, son-in-law and current Walmart chairman Greg Penner, Starbucks chairwoman Mellody Hobson, former Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice, and Formula One driver Lewis Hamilton to the ownership group. Walton delegated most of his authority to Penner, who became CEO and operating head of the franchise as well as the public face of the Walton-Penner Group. Penner was designated as the team's controlling owner by the NFL, and represents the Broncos at league meetings.
On December 26, with the Broncos sitting at 4–11 following a 51–14 Christmas Day loss to the Los Angeles Rams, Hackett was fired and replaced by interim head coach Jerry Rosburg. Hackett became the fifth head coach to not finish his first season after Lou Holtz in 1976, Pete McCulley in 1978, Bobby Petrino in 2007, and Urban Meyer in 2021.
Sean Payton years (2023–present)
On January 31, 2023, Sean Payton reported that he had accepted the head coaching job for the Denver Broncos, and he was officially hired as head coach for the 2023 season three days later.
The Broncos started the season off 1–5, including a 20–70 loss to the Miami Dolphins in week 3. However, after a 21–31 loss to the New York Jets, the team rallied off five straight wins, including victories over the Buffalo Bills, Green Bay Packers, and Kansas City Chiefs; their first win against the Chiefs since 2015, to get to 6–5. After a loss to the Houston Texans and a victory over the Los Angeles Chargers, the Broncos won just one of their final four games, including a 23–26 loss to the New England Patriots at home on Christmas Eve. After the loss, reports surfaced about contract disputes between Russell Wilson and Broncos management over an injury clause, causing Wilson to be benched by the team the final two games of the season. The Broncos finished the 2023 season 8–9, good enough for their best record since the 2016 season. However, the team finished under .500 for the seventh consecutive season, and missed the playoffs for the eighth consecutive season.
Following the season, the Broncos released Russell Wilson, taking on $85M in dead-cap money, the largest in NFL history.
On March 7, the Broncos released veteran safety Justin Simmons. Simmons was the longest tenured player on the Broncos following Brandon McManus' departure the previous offseason.
On April 22, The Broncos unveiled a new set of uniforms known as the "Mile High Collection," which was the teams first uniform change since the 1997 season. A throwback uniform also pays homage to the 1977 Orange Crush uniforms that feature the iconic royal blue "D" helmets.
In the 2024 NFL Draft, the Broncos selected Bo Nix with the team's first-round pick to succeed Russell Wilson as the teams quarterback. Nix was named the starter prior to the 2024 NFL season, beating out Zach Wilson and Jarrett Stidham, and becoming the first Broncos quarterback since John Elway in 1983 to start week 1 of his rookie season.
The Broncos started the season 0–2, before winning five of their next six games to get to 5–3. After back-to-back losses against the Baltimore Ravens and Kansas City Chiefs, the team won four straight games to improve to 9–5, marking an improvement over their 8-win campaign the previous season. Despite back-to-back losses to the Los Angeles Chargers and Cincinnati Bengals, the Broncos would defeat the Kansas City Chiefs in week 18 to finish the season with a record of 10–7, their first 10-win season since 2015, and the teams first winning season since 2016. With the victory, the Broncos clinched a playoff spot for the first time since winning Super Bowl 50. In the Wild Card Round of the NFL playoffs, the Broncos lost to the Buffalo Bills 7–31.
Rivalries
Divisional
The Denver Broncos have three AFC West rivals—the Kansas City Chiefs, Las Vegas Raiders, and Los Angeles Chargers. All teams, along with the Broncos, were charter members of the American Football League (AFL), with each team placed in the AFL Western Division, forerunner of today's AFC West. The four teams have played each other twice a year for over 60 years, making the entire division one huge rivalry. The Broncos were barely competitive during the AFL years (1960–69), going a combined 10–49–1 against the Chiefs, Raiders, and Chargers.
Kansas City Chiefs
The Broncos have had several memorable matchups with the Chiefs, particularly during the years in which John Elway was the Broncos' starting quarterback (1983–98). The Broncos defeated the Chiefs at Arrowhead Stadium in the divisional round of the 1997 NFL playoffs, en route to their first Super Bowl victory. As of the season, the Chiefs hold a 73–57 series lead over the Broncos, including the aforementioned 1997 divisional playoff game.
Las Vegas Raiders
Historically, the most heated divisional matchup for Denver is with the Raiders. The rivalry was ignited in its present form in , when the Broncos advanced to their first Super Bowl by defeating the defending champion Raiders in the 1977 AFC Championship. The rivalry intensified in the mid-1990s, when Mike Shanahan was hired as the Broncos' head coach in 1995. Shanahan coached the Raiders in before being fired four games into the season. As of the season, the Raiders hold a 73–56–2 series lead over the Broncos, including 1–1 in the playoffs.Los Angeles Chargers
Unlike their record against the Chiefs and Raiders, as of the season, the Broncos have a winning record against the Chargers, with a 73–57–1 series lead, including 1–0 in the playoffs. The Broncos pulled off one of the largest comebacks in Monday Night Football history, when Peyton Manning led the Broncos from a 24–0 halftime deficit to a 35–24 win at San Diego's Qualcomm Stadium during the season. The two teams met in the playoffs for the first time on January 12, 2014, at Denver's Sports Authority Field at Mile High, with the Broncos winning 24–17.ConferenceAside from the aforementioned AFC West teams, the Broncos have had intra-conference rivalries over the years with the Cleveland Browns, New England Patriots, and Pittsburgh Steelers.Cleveland Browns
The Broncos had a brief rivalry with the Browns that arose from three AFC championship matches in 1986, 1987 and 1989. In the 1986 AFC Championship, quarterback John Elway led The Drive to secure a tie in the waning moments at Cleveland Municipal Stadium; the Broncos went on to win in 23–20 in overtime. One year later, the two teams met again in the 1987 AFC Championship at Mile High Stadium. Denver took a 21–3 lead, but Browns' quarterback Bernie Kosar threw four touchdown passes to tie the game at 31–31 halfway through the 4th quarter. After a long drive, John Elway threw a 20-yard touchdown pass to running back Sammy Winder to give Denver a 38–31 lead. Cleveland advanced to Denver's 8-yard line with 1:12 left, but Broncos' safety Jeremiah Castille stripped Browns' running back Earnest Byner of the football at the 2-yard line—a play that has been called The Fumble by Browns' fans. The Broncos recovered it, gave Cleveland an intentional safety, and went on to win 38–33. The two teams met yet again in the 1989 AFC Championship at Mile High Stadium, which the Broncos easily won by a score of 37–21. The Broncos did not win the Super Bowl after any of the championship games where they defeated the Browns, losing by an aggregate of 136–40. As of the season, the Broncos lead the all-time series 26–7.New England Patriots
The Broncos and Patriots met twice annually during the American Football League (AFL) years from 1960 to 1969, and played in the first-ever AFL game on September 9, 1960. Since , the two teams have met frequently during the regular season, including nine consecutive seasons from 1995 to 2003. The teams' first playoff match on January 4, 1987, was John Elway's first career playoff win, while the teams' second playoff match on January 14, 2006, game was the Broncos' first playoff win since Elway's retirement after the 1998 season. The game was also notable for Champ Bailey's 100-yard interception that resulted in a touchdown-saving tackle by Benjamin Watson at the 1-yard line. On October 11, 2009, the two teams met with former Patriots' offensive coordinator, Josh McDaniels as the Broncos' head coach. Both teams wore their AFL 50th anniversary jerseys. The game featured a 98-yard drive in the fourth quarter, with a game-tying touchdown pass from Kyle Orton to Brandon Marshall, followed by an overtime drive led by Orton that resulted in a 41-yard game-winning field goal by Matt Prater. The two teams met in the Divisional round of the 2011 playoffs, with the Patriots blowing out Tim Tebow and the Broncos by a score of 45–10. until Manning's retirement after the season. Though Brady dominated Manning in regular season play, winning nine of twelve meetings, Manning won three of five playoff meetings, including the Broncos' 26–16 win in the 2013 AFC Championship and the Broncos' 20–18 win in the 2015 AFC Championship. As of the season, the Broncos lead the all-time series 31–24.Pittsburgh Steelers
As of the end of the season, the Broncos and Steelers have met in postseason play eight times, tied with five other pairings for the second–most frequent playoff matchups in NFL playoff history. The Broncos currently own a 5–3 playoff record vs. the Steelers. Perhaps the most memorable postseason matchup occurred in the 1997 AFC Championship, in which the Broncos defeated the Steelers 24–21 at Three Rivers Stadium, en route to their first Super Bowl victory. Eight years later, the Steelers returned the favor at INVESCO Field at Mile High, defeating the Broncos 34–17 in the 2005 AFC Championship, and subsequently won Super Bowl XL. In the Wild Card round of the 2011 playoffs, in a game dubbed The 3:16 game, the Broncos stunned the Steelers 29–23 on the first play of overtime, when quarterback Tim Tebow connected with wide receiver Demaryius Thomas on an 80-yard game-winning touchdown pass. The teams met again in the Divisional round of the 2015 playoffs at Denver, where the Broncos defeated the Steelers 23–16 on their way to a victory in Super Bowl 50. The Broncos lead the all-time series 20–14–1.
Historical
Seattle Seahawks
The Broncos had an old rivalry with the Seattle Seahawks, who were members of the AFC West from 1977 to 2001, prior to the Seahawks' move to the NFC West as part of the NFL's re-alignment. During the 25 years in which the Seahawks resided in the AFC West, the Broncos went 32–18 against the Seahawks, including a loss at Seattle in the 1983 NFL playoffs. Since 2002, the Broncos have won three of five interconference meetings, and the two teams met in Super Bowl XLVIII on February 2, 2014, with the Seahawks winning by a score of 43–8. As of the season, the Broncos lead the all-time series 35–23.Facilities
was the home of the Broncos from 1960 to 2000]]
For most of their history, the Denver Broncos played in Mile High Stadium. The AFL Broncos played at the University of Denver's Hilltop Stadium from time to time, including the first victory of an AFL team over an NFL team: The Broncos beat the Detroit Lions on August 5, 1967, in a preseason game. The team has sold out every home game (including post-season games) since the AFL–NFL merger in , with the exception of two replacement games during the strike (but both were sold out before the strike).
During home games, the attendance is announced to the crowd, along with the number of no-shows (the fans subsequently boo the no shows). The fans are also known to chant "IN-COM-PLETE!" every time the visiting team throws an incomplete pass. The stadium's legendary homefield advantage is regarded as one of the best in the NFL, especially during the playoffs. The Broncos had the best home record in pro football over a 32-year span from 1974 to 2006 (191–65–1). Mile High Stadium was one of the NFL's loudest stadiums, with steel flooring instead of concrete, which may have given the Broncos an advantage over opponents, plus the advantage of altitude conditioning for the Broncos. In , the team moved into then-named Invesco Field at Mile High, built next to the former site of the since-demolished Mile High Stadium. Sportswriter Woody Paige, along with many of Denver's fans, however, often refused to call the stadium by its full name, preferring to use "Mile High Stadium" because of its storied history and sentimental import. Additionally, The Denver Post had an official policy of referring to the stadium as simply "Mile High Stadium" in protest, but dropped this policy in 2004.
has been the Broncos' home since 2001]]
Prior to the 2011 season, Englewood-based sporting goods retailer Sports Authority claimed the naming rights of Invesco Field, which became known as Sports Authority Field at Mile High. However, in the summer of 2016, Sports Authority went bankrupt, the stadium was renamed Broncos Stadium at Mile High, and the Broncos sought out a naming rights sponsor until September 2019 when they agreed to rename the stadium Empower Field at Mile High.
The altitude has also been attributed as part of the team's home success. The stadium displays multiple references to the stadium's location of above sea level, including a prominent mural just outside the visiting team's locker room. The team training facility, Broncos Park Powered by CommonSpirit (formerly known as the Paul D. Bowlen Memorial Broncos Centre), is a state-of-the-art facility located in Dove Valley. With of property, the facility hosts three full-size fields, a complete weight and training facility, and a cafeteria.
In their more than half-century of existence, the Broncos have never been shut out at home, a streak of over 400 games as of the season.
In late 2012, the Broncos announced that the stadium would receive $30 million upgrades including a new video board in the south end zone three times larger than the previous display. The renovations were finished before kickoff of the 2013 season.Logos and uniforms1968–1996
When the Broncos debuted in , their original uniforms were said to have drawn as much attention as their play on the field. They featured white and mustard yellow jerseys, contrasting brown helmets, brown pants, and vertically striped socks. Two years later, the team unveiled a new logo featuring a bucking horse and changed their team colors to orange, royal blue and white. The uniform consisted of white pants, orange helmets, and either orange or white jerseys.
In , the Broncos debuted a design that became known as "Orange Crush". Their logo was redesigned so that the horse was coming out of a "D". Additionally, the helmets were changed to royal blue, and the sleeves had thin stripes with other minor modifications added. From 1969 to 1971, and again from 1978 to 1979, the team wore orange pants with their white jerseys. In 1975, the face masks were changed to white from grey.
The Broncos wore their white jerseys at home throughout the season, as well as for home games against the San Diego Chargers and Dallas Cowboys, the latter in hopes to bring out the "blue jersey jinx" which has followed the Cowboys for decades. (The Broncos won 41–20.) The Broncos wore their white jerseys for home games against the Philadelphia Eagles, Los Angeles Raiders and Cincinnati Bengals, but did not wear white at home again for two decades — see next section.
In , in honor of the 75th anniversary season of the NFL, the Broncos wore their throwback uniforms for two games—a Week 3 home game against the Raiders and a road game at the Buffalo Bills the following week. Navy blue replaced royal blue on the team's color scheme. The current logo is a profile of a horse's head, with an orange mane and navy blue outlines. During a February 4, 1997, press conference introducing the new logo, the team president and the art director for Nike, who were the creators of the new design, described it as "a powerful horse with a fiery eye and mane."
The Broncos began wearing navy blue jerseys, replacing their longtime orange jerseys that had been the team's predominant home jersey color since 1962. This new uniform design features a new word mark, numbering font and a streak that runs up and down the sides of both the jerseys and the pants. On the navy blue jerseys, the streak is orange, with an orange collar and white numerals trimmed in orange, while on the road white jerseys, the streak is navy blue, with a thin orange accent strip on both sides, a navy collar and navy numerals trimmed in orange; the helmet facemasks became navy blue. When they debuted, these uniforms were vilified by the press and fans, until the Broncos won their first-ever Super Bowl in the new design that same season. The navy blue jerseys served as the team's primary home jersey until the end of the season — see next section.
In , the Broncos introduced an alternate orange jersey that is a mirror image of the aforementioned navy blue jerseys, but with orange and navy trading places. Like the road white jerseys, the white pants with the navy blue streaks running down the sides are worn with this uniform. This jersey was used only once in the 2002 and seasons, and were used twice per season from 2008 to 2011. Mike Shanahan, the team's head coach from 1995 to 2008, was not a big fan of the alternate orange jerseys. The Broncos previously wore orange jerseys as a throwback uniform in a Thanksgiving Day game at the Dallas Cowboys in .
The team also introduced navy blue pants in , with orange side streaks to match with the navy blue jerseys. Though they were part of the uniform change in 1997 (in fact, they were worn for a couple of 1997 preseason games) and most players wanted to wear them, the only player who vetoed wearing them was John Elway, thereby delaying their eventual introduction. From 2003 to 2011, these pants were primarily used for select prime-time and late-season home games (excluding the season), and since , are used exclusively with the now-alternate navy blue jerseys — see next section.
On November 16, 2003, the Broncos wore their white jerseys at home for the first time since , in a game vs. the San Diego Chargers. This was compensation for a uniform mix-up, after the teams' first meeting at San Diego's Qualcomm Stadium in Week 2 earlier that season, when the Chargers were the team that was supposed to declare their uniform color. The Chargers were planning to wear their white jerseys, but the visiting Broncos came to the stadium in white, and were fined $25,000 by the NFL as a result. When the two teams met at INVESCO Field at Mile High later that season (Week 11), the NFL allowed the visiting Chargers to choose their uniform color in advance, and they chose navy blue, forcing the Broncos to wear their white jerseys at home.2012–2023Beginning in , the orange jerseys that served as the alternate colored jerseys from 2002 to 2011 became the primary home jersey, while the navy blue jerseys that served as the primary home jersey from 1997 to 2011 switched to alternate designation. The change was made due to overwhelming popularity with the fans, who pressured the Broncos to return to orange as the team's primary home jersey color. The team will either wear the navy blue or the white pants – with the orange side stripes – to match with the alternate navy blue jerseys. The team initially did not wear the white pants with the orange side stripes, until a November 1, 2015, game vs. the Green Bay Packers, in which the Broncos wore said design to match the uniform ensemble that was used during the team's Super Bowl XXXII win over the Packers. On October 30, 2022, the Broncos debuted a new combination of white jerseys and alternate navy blue pants in an NFL London Game at the Jacksonville Jaguars, with mismatched side stripes of navy blue (white jersey) and orange (navy blue pants).
As the designated home team in Super Bowl 50, the Broncos – who have a 0–4 Super Bowl record when using their standard orange jerseys – chose to wear their white jerseys as the designated "home" team.
In , the Broncos' unveiled a new Color Rush uniform, which the team wore for a Thursday Night game at the San Diego Chargers on October 13, 2016. The uniform kit contained the following features: orange pants, which the team wore for the first time since 1979, orange socks and shoes, along with block-style numerals trimmed in navy blue that mirrored the team's 1968–1996 uniform style. Due to the NFL's one-helmet rule implemented in 2013, the helmets remained the same, with the team temporarily replacing the modern primary logo with the throwback "D-horse" logo. The same uniform was used for a Thursday night game against the Indianapolis Colts during the season and again during a 2018 game against the Pittsburgh Steelers. In a Week 2 game vs. the Washington Commanders in 2023, the Broncos wore their white jerseys at home for the first time since 2003, to honor the 25th anniversary of the Super Bowl XXXIII team. In 2023, the Color Rush uniforms were paired with a white alternate helmet, again using the modernized "D-horse" logo, and were discontinued at the end of that season, with the arrival of a new uniform kit in 2024—see next section.
2024–present
On April 22, 2024, the Broncos unveiled a simpler uniform design, eliminating the mismatched jersey and pant stripes that characterized their 1997 redesign and reverting to a more vintage block number style and letters inspired by the signage of Colorado's national parks. The set consists of a primary home orange and road white uniform, and an alternate navy blue uniform; all uniforms could be worn with either orange, white or navy blue pants.Statistics and recordsSeason-by-season records
Since their first season in 1960, the Broncos have an all-time record of 518–472–10 as of the season.Players of noteCurrent rosterRetired numbers{| class"wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! colspan"5" style";"|Denver Broncos retired numbers
|-
! style=";"|No.
! style=";"|Player
! style=";"|Position
! style=";"|Career
! style=";"|Retired
|-
| 7 || John Elway || QB || 1983–1998 || September 13, 1999
|-
|rowspan=2| 18 || Frank Tripucka || QB || 1960–1963 || 1963–2012
|-
| || QB || ||
|-
| 44 || Floyd Little || RB || 1967–1975 || 1984
|}
† Note: No. 18 was re-issued for Peyton Manning after Tripucka gave his approval; it was used by Manning from the 2012 season until his retirement after the 2015 season. Manning's name was added to the retired number's banner as an honorable mention.Pro Football Hall of Famers
]]
]]
]]
]]
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center"
|-
! colspan"5" style";"|Denver Broncos Hall of Famers
|-
! colspan"5" style";"|Players
|-
! No.
! Name
! Position(s)
! Season(s)
! Inducted
|-
| 24 || <span style="display:none">Brown, Willie</span>Willie Brown || CB || 1963–1966 || 1984
|-
| 33|| || RB || 1988 || 1994
|-
| 7 || || QB || 1983–1998 || 2004
|-
| 65 || || OT || 1993–1997 || 2008
|-
| 44 || || RB || 1967–1975 || 2010
|-
| 84 || || TE || 1990–1999<br />2002–2003 || 2011
|-
| 30|| || RB || 1995–2001 || 2017
|-
| 20 || || SS || 2009–2011 || 2018
|-
| 24 || || CB || 2004–2013 || 2019
|-
| 26 || || CB || 2009 || 2019
|-
| 27 || || FS || 1989–1998 || 2020
|-
| 47 || ||SS || 2004–2007 || 2021
|-
| 18 || || QB || 2012–2015 || 2021
|-
| 94 || || LB || 2014–2016 || 2023
|-
| 52, 53 || || LB || 1974–1983 || 2024
|-
! colspan"5" style";"|Coaches and Contributors
|-
! colspan="2"|Name
! Position(s)
! Season(s)
! Inducted
|-
| colspan="2"| || Owner/CEO || 1984–2019 || 2019
|}
Ring of Fame
The Broncos have a Ring of Fame on the Level 5 facade of Empower Field at Mile High, which honors the following:
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center"
|-
! colspan"5" style""|Denver Broncos Ring of Fame
|-
! style=";"|No.
! style=";"|Name
! style=";"|Position(s)
! style=";"|Seasons
! style=";"|Inducted
|-
| 23 || Goose Gonsoulin || S || 1960–1966 || 1984
|-
| 87 || Rich Jackson || DE || 1967–1972 || 1984
|-
| 44 || Floyd Little || RB || 1967–1975 || 1984
|-
| 87 || Lionel Taylor || E|| 1960–1966 || 1984
|-
| — || Gerald Phipps || Owner || 1961–1981 || 1985
|-
| 12 || Charley Johnson || QB || 1972–1975 || 1986
|-
| 70 || Paul Smith || DT|| 1968–1978 || 1986
|-
| 18 || Frank Tripucka || QB || 1960–1963 || 1986
|-
| 36 || Billy Thompson || S || 1969–1981 || 1987
|-
| 7 || Craig Morton || QB || 1977–1982 || 1988
|-
| 25 || Haven Moses || WR || 1972–1981 || 1988
|-
| 15 || Jim Turner || K || 1971–1979 || 1988
|-
| 53 || Randy Gradishar || LB || 1974–1983 || 1989
|-
| 57 || Tom Jackson || LB || 1973–1986 || 1992
|-
| 20 || Louis Wright || CB || 1975–1986 || 1993
|-
| 7 || John Elway || QB, General manager|| 1983–1998<br />2011–2020 || 1999
|-
| 77 || Karl Mecklenburg || LB || 1983–1995 || 2001
|-
| 49 || Dennis Smith || S || 1981–1994 || 2001
|-
| 65 || Gary Zimmerman || T || 1993–1997 || 2003
|-
| 27 || Steve Atwater || S || 1989–1998 || 2005
|-
| 30 || Terrell Davis || RB || 1995–2001 || 2007
|-
| 84 || Shannon Sharpe || TE|| 1990–1999, 2002–2003 || 2009
|-
| 80 || Rod Smith || WR || 1994–2006 || 2012 <!--NOTE: Rod Smith did not play at all in 2007 due to hip replacement surgery, and he retired prior to the 2008 season.-->
|-
| 66 || Tom Nalen || C || 1994–2007 || 2013
|-
| 21 || Gene Mingo || HB, K || 1960–1964 || 2014
|-
| — || Dan Reeves || Head coach || 1981–1992 || 2014
|-
| 80 || Rick Upchurch || WR, PR, KR|| 1975–1983 || 2014
|-
| — || Pat Bowlen || Owner || 1984–2013 || 2015
|-
| 1 || Jason Elam || K || 1993–2007 || 2016
|-
| 73 || Simon Fletcher || LB || 1985–1995 || 2016
|-
| 47 || John Lynch || S || 2004–2007 || 2016
|-
| — || Red Miller || Head coach || 1977–1980 || 2017
|-
| 24 || Champ Bailey || CB || 2004–2013 || 2019
|-
| — || Mike Shanahan || Head coach || 1984–1987 (WR Coach / QB Coach / Offensive Coordinator)<br>1989–1991 (QB Coach / Offensive Coordinator)<br>1995–2008 (Head Coach) || 2020
|-
| 18 || Peyton Manning || QB || 2012–2015 || 2021
|-
|43
|Steve Foley
|S
|1976–1986
|2024
|-
|88
|Riley Odoms
|TE
|1972–1983
|2024
|}
50th Anniversary Team
The Denver Broncos announced the club's 50th anniversary team on September 15, 2009. The anniversary team was voted on by users at DenverBroncos.com from June 6 to September 4, 2009.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;"
|-
! scope="col" | Position
! scope="col" | Player
! scope="col" | Tenure
|-
! colspan"3" style"" | Offense
|-
| QB
| John Elway
| 1983–1998
|-
| rowspan="2" | RB
| Terrell Davis
| 1995–2001
|-
| Floyd Little
| 1967–1975
|-
| rowspan="2" | WR
| Ed McCaffrey
| 1995–2003
|-
| Rod Smith
| 1994–2007
|-
| TE
| Shannon Sharpe
| 1990–1999, <br> 2002–2003
|-
| rowspan="2" | OT
| Matt Lepsis
| 1997–2007
|-
| Gary Zimmerman
| 1993–1997
|-
| rowspan="2" | G
| Keith Bishop
| 1980–1989
|-
| Mark Schlereth
| 1995–2000
|-
| C
| Tom Nalen
| 1994–2008
|-
! colspan"3" style"" | Defense
|-
| rowspan="2" | DE
| Simon Fletcher
| 1985–1995
|-
| Rich Jackson
| 1967–1972
|-
| rowspan="2" | DT
| Trevor Pryce
| 1997–2005
|-
| Rubin Carter
| 1975–1986
|-
| rowspan="3" | LB
| Karl Mecklenburg
| 1983–1994
|-
| Randy Gradishar
| 1974–1983
|-
| Tom Jackson
| 1973–1986
|-
| rowspan="2" | CB
| Champ Bailey
| 2004–2013
|-
| Louis Wright
| 1975–1986
|-
| rowspan="2" | S
| Steve Atwater
| 1989–1998
|-
| Dennis Smith
| 1981–1994
|-
! colspan"3" style"" | Special teams
|-
| K
| Jason Elam
| 1993–2007
|-
| P
| Tom Rouen
| 1993–2002
|-
| RS
| Rick Upchurch
| 1975–1983
|-
| colspan"3" style"text-align: center;" | Source:
|}
Super Bowl MVPs
The Broncos have had three players win Super Bowl MVP in franchise history.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
|-
! colspan"3" style";"|Super Bowl MVP Winners
|-
! style=";"|Super Bowl
! style=";"|Player
! style=";"|Position
|-
| XXXII || Terrell Davis || RB
|-
| XXXIII || John Elway || QB
|-
| 50|| Von Miller || LB
|}
Colorado Sports Hall of Fame
Staff and head coaches
Head coaches
The Broncos have had 20 head coaches serve in the capacity in franchise history.Current staffIn the media and popular culture* Tim McKernan, a.k.a. Barrel Man, began wearing a barrel in 1977 after making a $10 (equivalent to $ in ) bet with his brother, Scott, that by wearing one he could get on television. McKernan won the bet, and the barrel he had painted to look like an Orange Crush soda can became his signature costume, and resulted in him becoming one of the Broncos' most recognized fans and a popular mascot. McKernan died on December 5, 2009.
* The animated television show South Park, set in Park County, often mentions the Denver Broncos; show creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone both grew up in Colorado as devout Broncos fans.
* In The Simpsons season 5 episode Cape Feare, when the family are to be given new identities, Homer imagines himself as John Elway, scoring a (consolation) touchdown against San Francisco. Conversely, in the 1996 episode "You Only Move Twice", Hank Scorpio gives Homer Simpson the Denver Broncos as a thank-you gift for helping him. However, Homer complains that he wanted to own the Dallas Cowboys, as the Broncos team that just arrived are playing very sloppy football on his front lawn (a reference to the team losing four Super Bowl appearances, three by significant margins including Super Bowl XII against Dallas). Incidentally, the Broncos were 13–3 in the 1996 season, and won the Super Bowl the next two seasons. Only two seasons later in the Super Bowl-centric episode "Sunday, Cruddy Sunday", Homer chooses Denver as his Super Bowl XXXIII pick over Moe's choice of the Atlanta Falcons. In the episode, "The Bonfire of the Manatees", Homer picks the Broncos to win the Super Bowl over the Seattle Seahawks. The two teams later did play against each other in Super Bowl XLVIII which aired on Fox, the U.S. home of The Simpsons; but the result was a Seahawks victory instead.
* In the 1979 Mork & Mindy episode "Hold That Mork", Mork's character, played by Robin Williams, became the first male cheerleader in Broncos' history. As a member of the "Pony Express", he trotted out on the field at Mile High Stadium during an actual Broncos' game vs. the New England Patriots on November 11, 1979. The episode aired exactly two weeks later.
* Many former Broncos are now in broadcasting, including Shannon Sharpe, Mark Schlereth, Alfred Williams, Tom Jackson, Ed McCaffrey, Brian Griese, David Diaz-Infante, Terrell Davis and Brandon Stokley. Some former Broncos work in radio, KKFN and KDFD in Denver, Colorado.
* Former tight end and wide receiver Nate Jackson has written and published two nonfiction books, Slow Getting Up and Fantasy Man. His writing about the NFL has appeared in Slate, Deadspin, The Daily Beast, The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, and BuzzFeed, among others. Jackson also co-hosts the Caveman Poet Society.
Radio and television
The Broncos' flagship radio station is currently KOA, 850AM, a 50,000-watt station owned by iHeartMedia. Dave Logan is the play-by-play announcer, with former Broncos' wide receiver Ed McCaffrey serving as the color commentator beginning in 2012, replacing Brian Griese. Ed McCaffrey was replaced by Rick Lewis. Until 2010, preseason games not selected for airing on national television were shown on KCNC, channel 4, which is a CBS owned-and-operated station, as well as other CBS affiliates around the Rocky Mountain region. On May 26, 2011, the Broncos announced that KUSA channel 9, an NBC affiliate also known as 9NEWS in the Rocky Mountain region, will be the team's new television partner for preseason games.
In 2011, the Broncos began a partnership with KJMN, 92.1 FM, a leading Spanish language radio station owned by Entravision Communications (EVC). The partnership also includes broadcasting rights for a half-hour weekly TV show on KCEC, the local Univision affiliate operated by Entravision Communications.<ref name"BroadcastPartners"/>NotesReferences
Notes
Further reading
* Dater, Adrian (2007) The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly Denver Broncos: Heart-Pounding, Jaw-Dropping, and Gut-Wrenching Moments from Denver Broncos History. Triumph Books.
* Frei, Terry (2009) 77: Denver, The Broncos, and A Coming of Age . Taylor Trade Publishing.
* Morton, Craig and Dater, Adrian (2008) Then Morton Said to Elway...: The Best Denver Broncos Stories Ever Told, Triumph Books.
* Saccomano, Jim (2007) Game of My Life: Denver Broncos: Memorable Stories of Broncos Football. Sports Publishing LLC.
* Saccomano, Jim and Elway, John (2009) Denver Broncos: The Complete Illustrated History. MBI Publishing Company,
* Sandler, Michael (2007) John Elway and the Denver Broncos: Super Bowl XXXIII. Bearport Publishing Company.
* Stewart, Mark (2006)The Denver Broncos. Norwood House Press.
* Zimmer, Larry (2004) Denver Broncos: Colorful Tales of the Orange and Blue. Globe Pequot Press.
External links
*
* [https://www.nfl.com/teams/denver-broncos/ Denver Broncos] at the National Football League official website
*[https://www.pro-football-reference.com/teams/den/ Franchise Encyclopedia] at Pro Football Reference
|list =
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Category:American Football League teams
Category:NFL teams
Category:American football teams in Denver
Category:Companies based in Arapahoe County, Colorado
Category:American football teams established in 1960
Category:1960 establishments in Colorado
Category:2022 mergers and acquisitions
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D
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]|[]|[]|[~j]|[]|[]|[]|[~~ð̠˕ˠ]|}}
|unicode=U+0044, U+0064
|alphanumber=4
|number=4
|fam1=<hiero>K1</hiero><hiero>K2</hiero><hiero>O31</hiero>
|fam2|fam3
|fam4|fam5Δ δ
|fam6=𐌃
|usageperiod=~−700 – present
|children=
|sisters=
|equivalents|associatesd(x)
|direction=Left-to-right
|image=Latin_letter_D.svg
|imageclass=skin-invert-image
}}
D, or d, is the fourth letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is dee (pronounced ), plural dees.History{| class"wikitable"
|- style="background-color:#EEEEEE; text-align:center;"
! Egyptian hieroglyph <br>door, fish
! Phoenician <br/>daleth
! Western Greek<br/>Delta
! Etruscan <br/>D
! Latin <br/>D
|- style="background-color:white; background-color:light-dark(white,black); text-align:center;"
|<hiero>O31</hiero><hiero>K1</hiero><hiero>K2</hiero>
|
|
|
|
|}
The Semitic letter Dāleth may have developed from the logogram for a fish or a door. There are many different Egyptian hieroglyphs that might have inspired this. In Semitic, Ancient Greek and Latin, the letter represented ; in the Etruscan alphabet the letter was archaic but still retained. The equivalent Greek letter is delta, Δ.
Use in writing systems
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
|+ Pronunciation of by language
! Orthography
! Phonemes
|-
! (Pinyin)
|
|-
! Dungan
|
|-
! English
|
|-
! French
| , silent
|-
! German
| ,
|-
! Portuguese
|
|-
! Spanish
|
|-
! Turkish
|
|-
! Vietnamese
| ,
|}
English
In English, generally represents the voiced alveolar plosive .
The letter is the tenth most frequently used in the English language.
Other languages
for "Germany"), on a boundary stone at the border between Austria and Germany.]]
In most languages that use the Latin alphabet, generally represents the voiced alveolar or voiced dental plosive .
In the Vietnamese alphabet, it represents the sound in northern dialects or in southern dialects. In Fijian, it represents a prenasalized stop .
In some languages where voiceless unaspirated stops contrast with voiceless aspirated stops, represents an unaspirated , while represents an aspirated . Examples of such languages include Icelandic, Scottish Gaelic, Navajo and the pinyin transliteration of Mandarin.
Other systems
In the International Phonetic Alphabet, represents the voiced alveolar plosive .
Other uses
* In the hexadecimal (base 16) numbering system, D is a number that corresponds to the number 13 in decimal (base 10) counting.
* The Roman numeral D represents the number 500.
* Unit prefix d, meaning one tenth.
* D is the grade below C but above E/F in the school grading system.
* D is the international vehicle registration code for Germany (also .de as its top-level domain).
* In Cantonese: Because the lack of Unicode CJK support in early computer systems, many Hong Kongers and Singaporeans used the capitalized D to represent ().
* In the Gregory-Aland system for cataloging Biblical manuscripts, D can refer to documents in the Western text-type tradition, either Codex Bezae or Codex Claromontanus.
* d. is the standard abbreviation for the Penny (British pre-decimal coin) (from )
Related characters
<!-- Please only list characters (symbols in a writing system, but not just convenience code points in Unicode) that are actually related in terms of origin to the letter that is the topic of this article. Characters that merely look subjectively similar need not apply. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources before adding more. -->
Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet
* Ɖ ɖ : African D
* Ð ð : Latin letter Eth
* D with diacritics: Đ đ Ꟈ ꟈ Ɗ ɗ Ḋ ḋ Ḍ ḍ Ḑ ḑ Ḓ ḓ Ď ď Ḏ ḏ
* Phonetic symbols related to D:
** Symbols related to D used in the IPA:
** Symbols related to D used in the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet:
** Superscript IPA letters: 𐞋 𐞌 𐞍
** Other phonetic symbols related to D: ȡ ᵭ ᶁ ᶑ
* Ꝺ ꝺ: Insular D is used in various phonetic contexts
Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets
* 𐤃: Semitic letter Dalet, from which the following symbols originally derive:
** Δ δ: Greek letter Delta, from which the following symbols originally derive:
*** : Coptic letter Delta
*** Д д: Cyrillic letter De
*** 𐌃: Old Italic D, the ancestor of modern Latin D
**** : Runic letter dagaz, which is possibly a descendant of Old Italic D
**** : Runic letter thurisaz, another possible descendant of Old Italic D
*** : Gothic letter daaz, which derives from Greek Delta
Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations
* ₫: Đồng sign
* ⅆ: Unicode symbol for d used as derivative symbol
* ∂: the partial derivative symbol, <math>\partial</math>
Other representations
Computing <span class"anchor" id"Computing codes"></span>
The Latin letters and have Unicode encodings and . These are the same code points as those used in ASCII and ISO 8859. There are also precomposed character encodings for and with diacritics, for most of those listed above; the remainder are produced using combining diacritics.
Variant forms of the letter have unique code points for specialist use: the alphanumeric symbols set in mathematics and science, plosive sounds in linguistics and halfwidth and fullwidth forms for legacy CJK font compatibility.
Other
In British Sign Language (BSL), the letter 'd' is indicated by signing with the right hand held with the index and thumb extended and slightly curved, and the tip of the thumb and finger held against the extended index of the left hand.
References
External links
*
*
Category:ISO basic Latin letters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D
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Delta (letter)
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Delta ( ; uppercase Δ, lowercase δ; , délta, ) is the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of four. It was derived from the Phoenician letter dalet 𐤃. Letters that come from delta include the Latin D and the Cyrillic Д.
A river delta (originally, the delta of the Nile River) is named so because its shape approximates the triangular uppercase letter delta. Contrary to a popular legend, this use of the word delta was not coined by Herodotus.PronunciationIn Ancient Greek, delta represented a voiced dental plosive . In Modern Greek, it represents a voiced dental fricative , like the "th" in "that" or "this" (while in foreign words is instead commonly transcribed as ντ). Delta is romanized as d or dh.Uppercase
The uppercase letter Δ is used to denote:
* Change of any changeable quantity, in mathematics and the sciences (in particular, the difference operator); for example, in <math>
\frac{y_2-y_1}{x_2-x_1}=\frac{\Delta y}{\Delta x}
</math>, the average change of y per unit x (i.e. the change of y over the change of x). Delta is the initial letter of the Greek word , diaphorá, "difference". (The small Latin letter d is used in much the same way for the notation of derivatives and differentials, which also describe change by infinitesimal amounts.)
* The Laplace operator:
*: <math>\Delta f\sum_{i1}^n{\frac{\partial^2f}{\partial x_i^2}}</math>.
* The discriminant of a polynomial equation, especially the quadratic equation:
*: <math>\Delta=b^2-4ac</math>.
* The area of a triangle:
*: <math>\Delta\tfrac{1}{2}ab\sin{C}</math>.
* The symmetric difference of two sets.
* A macroscopic change in the value of a variable in mathematics or science.
* Uncertainty in a physical variable as seen in the uncertainty principle.
* An interval of possible values for a given quantity.
* Any of the delta particles in particle physics.
* The determinant of the matrix of coefficients of a set of linear equations (see Cramer's rule).
* That an associated locant number represents the location of a covalent bond in an organic compound, the position of which is variant between isomeric forms.
* A simplex, simplicial complex, or convex hull.
* In chemistry, the addition of heat in a reaction.
* In legal shorthand, it represents a defendant.
* In the financial markets, one of the Greeks, describes the rate of change of an option price for a given change in the underlying benchmark.
* A major seventh chord in jazz music notation.
* In genetics, it can stand for a gene deletion (e.g. the CCR5-Δ32, a 32 nucleotide/bp deletion within CCR5).
* The American Dental Association cites it (together with omicron for "odont") as the symbol of dentistry.
* The anonymous signature of James David Forbes.
* Determinacy (having a definite truth-value) in philosophical logic.
* In mathematics, the symbol ≜ (delta over equals) is occasionally used to define a new variable or function.
Lowercase
on a black figure vessel, with a D-shaped delta.]]
The lowercase letter δ (or 𝛿) can be used to denote:
* A change in the value of a variable in calculus.
* A functional derivative in functional calculus.
* The (ε, δ)-definition of limits, in mathematics and more specifically in calculus.
* The Kronecker delta in mathematics.
* The central difference for a function.
* The degree of a vertex in graph theory.
* The Dirac delta function in mathematics.
* The transition function in automata.
* Deflection in engineering mechanics.
* The force of interest in actuarial science.
* The chemical shift of nuclear magnetic resonance in chemistry.
* The relative electronegativity of different atoms in a molecule, δ<sup>−</sup> being more electronegative than δ<sup>+</sup>.
* Text requiring deletion in proofreading; the usage is said to date back to classical times.
* In some of the manuscripts written by Dr. John Dee, the character of delta is used to represent Dee.
* A subunit of the F1 sector of the F-ATPase.
* The declination of an object in the equatorial coordinate system of astronomy.
* The dividend yield in the Black–Scholes option pricing formula.
* Ratios of environmental isotopes, such as <sup>18</sup>O/<sup>16</sup>O and D/<sup>1</sup>H from water are displayed using delta notation – δ<sup>18</sup>O and δD, respectively.
* The rate of depreciation of the aggregate capital stock of an economy in an exogenous growth model in macroeconomics.
* In a system that exhibits electrical reactance, the angle between voltage and current.
* Partial charge in chemistry.
* The maximum birefringence of a crystal in optical mineralogy.
* An Old Irish voiced dental or alveolar fricative of uncertain articulation, the ancestor of the sound represented by Modern Irish dh.
* Silver ratioUnicode*
* ( in TeX)
* ( in TeX)
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* codes should only be used in math. Stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup and formatting to indicate text style.}}
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
See also
* Arrow (symbol)
* Chevron (insignia)
* ∆ (disambiguation)
* D, d
* Д, д
* ẟ – Latin delta
* ∂ – the partial derivative symbol, a curved d, sometimes mistaken for a lowercase Greek letter Delta.
* ð – the small eth appears similar to a small delta and also represents a d sound in some contexts
* Th (digraph)
* Thorn (letter)
* Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering
* ∇ – Nabla symbol
* Delta Air Lines
* SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant
References
<references />
Category:Greek letters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_(letter)
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Digamma
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Digamma or wau (uppercase: Ϝ, lowercase: ϝ, numeral: ϛ) is an archaic letter of the Greek alphabet. It originally stood for the sound but it has remained in use principally as a Greek numeral for 6. Whereas it was originally called waw or wau, its most common appellation in classical Greek is digamma; as a numeral, it was called episēmon during the Byzantine era and is now known as stigma after the Byzantine ligature combining σ-τ as ϛ.
Digamma or wau was part of the original archaic Greek alphabet as initially adopted from Phoenician. Like its model, Phoenician waw, it represented the voiced labial-velar approximant and stood in the 6th position in the alphabet between epsilon and zeta. It is the consonantal doublet of the vowel letter upsilon (), which was also derived from waw but was placed near the end of the Greek alphabet. Digamma or wau is in turn the ancestor of the Latin letter F. As an alphabetic letter, it is attested in archaic and dialectal ancient Greek inscriptions until the classical period.
The shape of the letter went through a development from <span style"background-color: white;"></span> through <span style"background-color: white;"></span>, <span style"background-color: white;"></span>, <span style"background-color: white;"></span>, <span style"background-color: white;"></span> to <span style"background-color: white;"></span> or <span style"background-color: white;"></span>, which at that point was conflated with the σ-τ ligature <span style"background-color: white;"></span>. In modern print, a distinction is made between the letter in its original alphabetic role as a consonant sign, which is rendered as "Ϝ" or its modern lowercase variant "ϝ", and the numeric symbol, which is represented by "ϛ". In modern Greek, this is often replaced by the digraph .
Greek w
Mycenaean Greek
for iota).]]
The sound existed in Mycenean Greek, as attested in Linear B and archaic Greek inscriptions using digamma. It is also confirmed by the Hittite name of Troy, Wilusa, corresponding to the Greek name *Wilion, classical (Ilium).
Classical Greek
The sound was lost at various times in various dialects, mostly before the classical period.
In Ionic, had probably disappeared before Homer's epics were written down (7th century BC), but its former presence can be detected in many cases because its omission left the meter defective. For example, the word ("(tribal) king, lord, (military) leader"), found in the Iliad, would have originally been (and is attested in this form in Mycenaean Greek) and the word ("wine"), are sometimes used in the meter where a word starting with a consonant would be expected. Further evidence coupled with cognate-analysis shows that was earlier (compare Cretan Doric and Latin , which is the origin of English wine). There have been editions of the Homeric epics where the wau was re-added, particularly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but these have largely fallen out of favour.
Aeolian was the dialect that kept the sound longest. In discussions by ancient Greek grammarians of the Hellenistic era, the letter is therefore often described as a characteristic Aeolian feature.
Loanwords that entered Greek before the loss of lost that sound when Greek did. For instance, Oscan ('land of the male calves', compare 'yearling, male calf') gave rise to the Greek word . The Adriatic tribe of the Veneti was called in . In loanwords that entered the Greek language after the drop of , the phoneme was once again registered, compare for example the spelling of for vates.
Pamphylian digamma
In some local (epichoric) alphabets, a variant glyph of the letter digamma existed that resembled modern Cyrillic И. In one local alphabet, that of Pamphylia, this variant form existed side by side with standard digamma as two distinct letters. It has been surmised that in this dialect the sound may have changed to labiodental in some environments. The F-shaped letter may have stood for the new sound, while the special И-shaped form signified those positions where the old sound was preserved.
Numeral
Digamma/wau remained in use in the system of Greek numerals attributed to Miletus, where it stood for the number 6, reflecting its original place in the sequence of the alphabet. It was one of three letters that were kept in this way in addition to the 24 letters of the classical alphabet, the other two being koppa (ϙ) for 90, and sampi (ϡ) for 900. During their history in handwriting in late antiquity and the Byzantine era, all three of these symbols underwent several changes in shape, with digamma ultimately taking the form of "ϛ".
It has remained in use as a numeral in Greek to the present day, in contexts comparable to those where Latin numerals would be used in English, for instance in regnal numbers of monarchs or in enumerating chapters in a book, although in practice the letter sequence ΣΤ΄ is much more common.
Glyph development
vessel, with a square-C digamma.]]
Epigraphy
Digamma was derived from Phoenician waw, which was shaped roughly like a Y (<span style"background-color: white;"></span>). Of the two Greek reflexes of waw, digamma retained the alphabetic position, but had its shape modified to <span style"background-color: white;"></span>, while the upsilon retained the original shape but was placed in a new alphabetic position. Early Crete had an archaic form of digamma somewhat closer to the original Phoenician, <span style"background-color: white;"></span>, or a variant with the stem bent sidewards (<span style"background-color: white;"></span>). The shape <span style"background-color: white;"></span>, during the archaic period, underwent a development parallel to that of epsilon (which changed from <span style"background-color: white;"></span> to "E", with the arms becoming orthogonal and the lower end of the stem being shed off). For digamma, this led to the two main variants of classical "F" and square <span style"background-color: white;"></span>.
The latter of these two shapes became dominant when used as a numeral, with "F" only very rarely employed in this function. However, in Athens, both of these were avoided in favour of a number of alternative numeral shapes (<span style"background-color: white;"></span>, <span style"background-color: white;"></span>, <span style"background-color: white;"></span>, <span style"background-color: white;"></span>, <span style"background-color: white;"></span>, <span style"background-color: white;"></span>).
Early handwriting
, showing the number "}}" (616, the "Number of the Beast"), with a C-shaped digamma.]]
In cursive handwriting, the square-C form developed further into a rounded form resembling a "C" (found in papyrus manuscripts as <span style"background-color: white;"></span>, on coins sometimes as <span style"background-color: white;"></span>). It then developed a downward tail at the end (<span style"background-color: white;"></span>, <span style"background-color: white;"></span>) and finally adopted a shape like a Latin "s" (<span style"background-color: white;"></span>) These cursive forms are also found in stone inscriptions in late antiquity. The στ-ligature had become common in minuscule handwriting from the 9th century onwards. Both closed (<span style"background-color: white;"></span>) and open (<span style"background-color: white;"></span>) forms were subsequently used without distinction both for the ligature and for the numeral. The ligature took on the name of "stigma" or "sti", and the name stigma is today applied to it both in its textual and in the numeral function. The association between its two functions as a numeral and as a sign for "st" became so strong that in modern typographic practice in Greece, whenever the ϛʹ sign itself is not available, the letter sequences στʹ or ΣΤʹ are used instead for the number 6. Typography
In western typesetting during the modern era, the numeral symbol was routinely represented by the same character as the stigma ligature (ϛ). In normal text, this ligature together with numerous others continued to be used widely until the early nineteenth century, following the style of earlier minuscule handwriting, but ligatures then gradually dropped out of use. The stigma ligature was among those that survived longest, but it too became obsolete in print after the mid-19th century. Today it is used only to represent the numeric digamma, and never to represent the sequence στ in text.
Along with the other special numeric symbols koppa and sampi, numeric digamma/stigma normally has no distinction between uppercase and lowercase forms, (while other alphabetic letters can be used as numerals in both cases). Distinct uppercase versions were occasionally used in the 19th century. Several different shapes of uppercase stigma can be found, with the lower end either styled as a small curved S-like hook (<span style"background-color: white;"></span>), or as a straight stem, the latter either with a serif (<span style"background-color: white;"></span>) or without one (<span style"background-color: white;"></span>). An alternative uppercase stylization in some twentieth-century fonts is <span style="background-color: white;"></span>, visually a ligature of Roman-style uppercase C and T.
The characters used for numeric digamma/stigma are distinguished in modern print from the character used to represent the ancient alphabetic digamma, the letter for the [w] sound. This is rendered in print by a Latin "F", or sometimes a variant of it specially designed to fit in typographically with Greek (<span style"font-family:serif">Ϝ</span>). It has a modern lowercase form (<span style"font-family:serif">ϝ</span>) that typically differs from Latin "f" by having two parallel horizontal strokes like the uppercase character, with the vertical stem often being somewhat slanted to the right or curved, and usually descending below the baseline. This character is used in Greek epigraphy to transcribe the text of ancient inscriptions that contain "Ϝ", and in linguistics and historical grammar when describing reconstructed proto-forms of Greek words that contained the sound .
Glyph confusion
Throughout much of its history, the shape of digamma/stigma has often been very similar to that of other symbols, with which it can easily be confused. In ancient papyri, the cursive C-shaped form of numeric digamma is often indistinguishable from the C-shaped ("lunate") form that was then the common form of sigma. The similarity is still found today, since both the modern stigma (ϛ) and modern final sigma (ς) look identical or almost identical in most fonts; both are historically continuations of their ancient C-shaped forms with the addition of the same downward flourish. If the two characters are distinguished in print, the top loop of stigma tends to be somewhat larger and to extend farther to the right than that of final sigma. The two characters are, however, always distinguishable from the context in modern usage, both in numeric notation and in text: the final form of sigma never occurs in numerals (the number 200 being always written with the medial sigma, σ), and in normal Greek text the sequence "στ" can never occur word-finally.
The medieval s-like shape of digamma (<span style="background-color: white;"></span>) has the same shape as a contemporary abbreviation for ("and").
Yet another case of glyph confusion exists in the printed uppercase forms, this time between stigma and the other numeral, koppa (90). In ancient and medieval handwriting, koppa developed from <span style"background-color: white;"></span> through <span style"background-color: white;"></span>, <span style"background-color: white;"></span>, <span style"background-color: white;"></span> to <span style"background-color: white;"></span>. The uppercase forms <span style"background-color: white;"></span> and <span style"background-color: white;"></span> can represent either koppa or stigma. Frequent confusion between these two values in contemporary printing was already noted by some commentators in the eighteenth century. The ambiguity continues in modern fonts, many of which continue to have glyph similar to <span style"background-color: white;"></span> for either koppa or stigma.
Names
The symbol has been called by a variety of different names, referring either to its alphabetic or its numeral function or both.
Wau
Wau (variously rendered as vau, waw or similarly in English) is the original name of the alphabetic letter for in ancient Greek. In later Greek, where both the letter and the sound it represented had become inaccessible, the name is rendered as or . In the 19th century, vau in English was a common name for the symbol ϛ in its numerical function, used by authors who distinguished it both from the alphabetic "digamma" and from ϛ as a στ ligature.
Digamma
The name digamma was used in ancient Greek and is the most common name for the letter in its alphabetic function today. It literally means "double gamma" and is descriptive of the original letter's shape, which looked like a Γ (gamma) placed on top of another.
Episemon
The name episēmon was used for the numeral symbol during the Byzantine era and is still sometimes used today, either as a name specifically for digamma/stigma, or as a generic term for the whole group of extra-alphabetic numeral signs (digamma, koppa and sampi). The Greek word "", from (epi-, "on") and (sēma, "sign"), literally means "a distinguishing mark", "a badge", but is also the neuter form of the related adjective "" ("distinguished", "remarkable"). This word was connected to the number "six" through early Christian mystical numerology. According to an account of the teachings of the heretic Marcus given by the church father Irenaeus, the number six was regarded as a symbol of Christ, and was hence called "" ("the outstanding number"); likewise, the name (Jesus), having six letters, was "" ("the outstanding name"), and so on. The sixth-century treatise About the Mystery of the Letters, which also links the six to Christ, calls the number sign to Episēmon throughout. The same name is still found in a fifteenth-century arithmetical manual by the Greek mathematician Nikolaos Rabdas. It is also found in a number of western European accounts of the Greek alphabet written in Latin during the early Middle Ages. One of them is the work De loquela per gestum digitorum, a didactic text about arithmetics attributed to the Venerable Bede, where the three Greek numerals for 6, 90 and 900 are called "episimon", "cophe" and "enneacosis" respectively. From Beda, the term was adopted by the seventeenth century humanist Joseph Justus Scaliger. However, misinterpreting Beda's reference, Scaliger applied the term episēmon not as a name proper for digamma/6 alone, but as a cover term for all three numeral letters. From Scaliger, the term found its way into modern academic usage in this new meaning, of referring to complementary numeral symbols standing outside the alphabetic sequence proper, in Greek and other similar scripts.
Gabex or Gamex
In one remark in the context of a biblical commentary, the 4th century scholar Ammonius of Alexandria is reported to have mentioned that the numeral symbol for 6 was called gabex by his contemporaries. The same reference in Ammonius has alternatively been read as gam(m)ex by some modern authors. Ammonius as well as later theologians discuss the symbol in the context of explaining the apparent contradiction and variant readings between the gospels in assigning the death of Jesus either to the "third hour" or "sixth hour", arguing that the one numeral symbol could easily have been substituted for the other through a scribal error.Stigma
The name "stigma" () was originally a common Greek noun meaning "a mark, dot, puncture" or generally "a sign", from the verb στίζω ("to puncture"). It had an earlier writing-related special meaning, being the name for a dot as a punctuation mark, used for instance to mark shortness of a syllable in the notation of rhythm. It was then co-opted as a name specifically for the στ ligature, evidently because of the acrophonic value of its initial st- as well as the analogy with the name of sigma. Other names coined according to the same analogical principle are sti or stau.
Unicode
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
References
Sources
* Peter T. Daniels – William Bright (edd.), ''The World's Writing Systems, New York, Oxford University Press, 1996.
* Jean Humbert, Histoire de la langue grecque, Paris, 1972.
* Michel Lejeune, Phonétique historique du mycénien et du grec ancien'', Klincksieck, Paris, 1967.
* "In Search of The Trojan War", pp. 142–143,187 by Michael Wood, 1985, published by BBC.
External links
*Perseus Project: lexicon search for words [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/resolveform?typestart&lookupv&langgreek starting with] or [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/resolveform?typesubstring&lookupv&langgreek containing] digamma
Category:Greek letters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digamma
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Dose
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Dose or Dosage may refer to:
Music
Dose (Gov't Mule album), 1998
Dose (Latin Playboys album)
Dosage (album), by the band Collective Soul
"Dose" (song), a 2018 song by Ciara
"Dose", song by Filter from the album Short Bus
Science
Dose (biochemistry), a measured quantity of a medicine, nutrient, or pathogen which is delivered as a unit.
Dosage (pharmacology), prescribed regimen of medication administration, including amount, frequency, and duration
Dosage form, a mixture of active and inactive components used to administer a medication
Dosing, feeding chemicals or medicines when used in small quantities
Effective dose (pharmacology), a dose or concentration of a drug that produces a biological response
Absorbed dose, a measure of energy deposited in matter from ionizing radiation
Equivalent dose, a measure of cancer/heritable health risk in tissue from ionizing radiation
Effective dose (radiation), a measure of cancer/heritable health risk to the whole body from ionizing radiation
Median lethal dose, a measure of the lethal dose of a chemical agent, toxin, radiation, or pathogen
DOSE, an acronym for dopamine, oxytocin, serotonin, and endorphins, the four main chemicals associated with happiness in humans
Other
Dosa or dose, a thin pancake or crepe originating from South India
Dose (magazine), a free daily Canadian magazine
Döse, town in Lower Saxony, Germany
Gerd Dose (1942–2010), professor of English literature at the University of Hamburg
See also
Double Dose (disambiguation)
Effective dose (disambiguation)
Overdose (disambiguation)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dose
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Dilbert
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(subscription only)
| status = Running
| first =
| last (no longer syndicated; still running as a webcomic)
| altnames | syndicate United Feature Syndicate (United Media, 1989–June 2011)<br />(Universal Uclick/Andrews McMeel Syndication, June 2011–March 2023)
| publisher = Andrews McMeel Publishing (until March 2023)<br>Self-distributed through Locals (since March 2023)
| genre = Satire,<br /> observational comedy,<br />
surreal comedy
| rating | preceded by
| followed by = Daily Dilbert Reborn
}}
Dilbert is an American comic strip written and illustrated by Scott Adams, first published on April 16, 1989. It is known for its satirical office humor about a white-collar, micromanaged office with engineer Dilbert as the title character. It has led to dozens of books, an animated television series, a video game, and hundreds of themed merchandise items. Dilbert Future and The Joy of Work are among the best-selling books in the series. In 1997, Adams received the National Cartoonists Society Reuben Award and the Newspaper Comic Strip Award for his work. Dilbert appears online and as of 2013 was published daily in 2,000 newspapers in 65 countries and 25 languages.
In 2023, Dilbert was dropped by numerous independent newspapers as well as its distributor, Andrews McMeel Syndication (which owns GoComics, from where the comic was also removed), after Adams published a video where he called Black Americans that disagreed with "It's okay to be white" a "hate group" and said white Americans should "get the hell away from" them. The video was widely described by sources such as The Economist and Reuters as containing "racist comments" and being a "racist rant". The following month, Adams relaunched the strip as a webcomic on Locals under the name Daily Dilbert Reborn.
Publication history
Dilbert began syndication by United Feature Syndicate (a division of United Media) in April 1989.
On June 3, 2010, United Media sold its licensing arm, along with the rights to Dilbert, to Iconix Brand Group. This led to Dilbert leaving United Media. In late December 2010, it was announced that Dilbert would move to Universal Uclick (a division of Andrews McMeel Universal, known as Andrews McMeel Syndication) beginning in June 2011, where it remained until 2023.
In September 2022, Lee Enterprises ceased running the strip in what Scott Adams reported as 77 newspapers as the publisher declined to include the strip in a new comics page that was instituted throughout the company. He said that he had received complaints about Dilbert mocking the environmental, social, and corporate governance movement, but that he was not sure if that was the reason for the cancellation. The San Francisco Chronicle, owned by Hearst Media dropped Dilbert in October 2022 saying the move came after strips joked that reparations for slavery could be claimed by underperforming office workers.
In February 2023, hundreds of newspapers owned by media conglomerates including Andrews McMeel Syndication dropped the comic in response to a YouTube video published by Adams on February 22, 2023, during which he advised white people to "get the hell away from black people" following publication of a Rasmussen Reports poll which Adams said showed that African-American people collectively form a "hate group". The poll found that 53% of African-Americans agree with the statement "It's okay to be White", while 26% disagreed, and 21% responded they were "not sure". Gannett, including its USA Today network (including the Detroit Free Press, The Indianapolis Star, The Cincinnati Enquirer, and The Arizona Republic) also dropped the strip following Adams's comments. Such major newspapers as The Washington Post, the Los Angeles Times, The Seattle Times, The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, and The Plain Dealer all ceased to syndicate Dilbert and published editorials denouncing Adams. The Los Angeles Times also stated it had removed four Dilbert cartoons from its pages in the preceding nine months when they did not meet the newspaper's standards. Themes The comic strip originally revolved around the character Dilbert and his "pet" dog Dogbert in their home. Many early plots revolved around Dilbert's engineer nature, bizarre inventions, and megalomaniacal ambitions. Later, the setting of most of the strips was changed to Dilbert's workplace and the strip began to satirize technology, workplace, and company issues. The strip's popular success is attributable to its workplace setting and themes, which are familiar to a large and appreciative audience. Adams said that switching the setting from Dilbert's home to his office was "when the strip really started to take off". The workplace location is Silicon Valley.
Dilbert portrays corporate culture as a Kafkaesque world of bureaucracy for its own sake, where office politics preclude productivity, employees' skills and efforts are not rewarded, and busy work is praised. Much of the humor involves characters making ridiculous decisions in reaction to mismanagement.
Characters
Dilbert
The strip's central character, Dilbert is depicted as a technically minded engineer. Until October 2014, he was usually depicted wearing a white dress shirt, black trousers and a red-and-black striped tie that inexplicably curved upward. After October 13, 2014, his standard apparel changed to a red polo shirt with a name badge on a lanyard around his neck. He is a skilled engineer but has poor social and romantic lives.
Pointy-Haired Boss (PHB)
Dilbert's boss, known only as the Pointy-Haired Boss, is the unnamed, oblivious manager of the engineering division of Dilbert's company. Adams states that he never named him so that people can imagine him to be their boss. In earlier strips he was depicted as a stereotypical late-middle-aged balding middle manager with jowls; it was not until later that he developed his signature pointy hair and the jowls disappeared. He is hopelessly incompetent at management, and he often tries to compensate for his lack of skills with countless group therapy sessions and business strategies that rarely bear fruit. He does not understand technical issues but always tries to disguise this ineptitude, usually by using buzzwords he also does not understand. The Boss treats his employees alternately with enthusiasm or neglect; he often uses them to his own ends regardless of the consequences to them. Adams himself wrote that "he's not sadistic, just uncaring". His level of intelligence varies from near-vegetative to perceptive and clever, depending on the strip's comic needs. His utter lack of consistent business ethics, however, is perfectly consistent. His brother is a demon named "Phil, the Prince of Insufficient Light", and according to Adams, the pointy hair is intended to remind one of devil horns.
Wally
One of the longest-serving engineers, Wally was originally a worker trying to get fired to obtain a large severance package. He hates work and avoids it whenever he can. He often carries a cup of coffee, calmly sipping from it even in the midst of chaos or office-shaking revelations. Wally is extremely cynical. He is even more socially inept than Dilbert (though far less self-aware of the fact). Like the Pointy-Haired Boss, Wally is utterly lacking in ethics and will take advantage of any situation to maximize his personal gain while doing the least possible amount of honest work. Until the change to "business dorky" wear of a polo shirt, Wally was invariably portrayed wearing a short sleeved dress shirt and tie. Adams has stated that Wally was based on a Pacific Bell coworker of his who was interested in a generous employee buy-out program—for the company's worst employees. This had the effect of causing this man—whom Adams describes as "one of the more brilliant people I've met"—to work hard at being incompetent, rude, and generally poor at his job to qualify for the buy-out program. Adams has said that this inspired the basic laziness and amorality of Wally's character. Despite these personality traits, Wally is accepted as part of Dilbert, Ted, Alice, and Asok's clique. Although his relationship with Alice is often antagonistic and Dilbert occasionally denies being his friend, their actions show at least a certain acceptance of him. For Asok, Wally serves as something of a guru of counterintuitive "wisdom". Wally exasperates Dilbert at times but is also sometimes the only other co-worker who understands Dilbert's frustrations with company idiocy and bureaucracy. While Dilbert rages at the dysfunction of the policies of the company, Wally has learned to use the dysfunction to cloak, even justify, his laziness.
Alice
One of the more competent and highest paid engineers. She is often frustrated at work because she does not get proper recognition, which she believes is because she is female. She has a quick, often violent temper, sometimes putting her "Fist of Death" to use, even with the Pointy-haired Boss. Alice is based on a woman that Adams worked with named Anita, who is described as sharing Alice's "pink suit, fluffy hair, technical proficiency, coffee obsession, and take-no-crap attitude."
Dogbert
Dilbert's anthropomorphic pet dog is the smartest dog on Earth. Dogbert is a megalomaniac intellectual dog, planning to one day conquer the world. He once succeeded, but became bored with the ensuing peace, and quit. Often seen in high-ranking consultant or technical support jobs, he constantly abuses his power and fools the management of Dilbert's company, though considering the intelligence of the company's management in general and Dilbert's boss in particular, this is not very hard to do. He also enjoys pulling scams on unsuspecting and usually dull customers to steal their money. Despite Dogbert's cynical exterior, he has been known to pull his master out of some tight jams. Dogbert's nature as a pet was more emphasized during the earlier years of the strip; as the strip progressed, references to his acting like a dog became less common, although he still wags his tail when he perpetrates his scams. When an older Dilbert arrives while time-traveling from the future, he refers to Dogbert as "majesty", indicating that Dogbert will one day indeed rule the world again, and make worshipping him retroactive so he could boss around time travelers.
Catbert
Catbert is the "evil director of human resources" in the Dilbert comic strip. He was supposed to be a one-time character but resonated with readers so well that Adams brought him back as the HR director. Catbert's origins with the company are that he was hired by Dogbert. Dogbert hired him because he wanted an H.R. Director that appeared cute while secretly downsizing employees.
Asok
A young intern, Asok works very hard but does not always get proper recognition. He is intensely intelligent but naive about corporate life; the shattering of his optimistic illusions becomes frequent comic fodder. He is Indian and graduated from the Indian Institutes of Technology (IIT). The other workers, especially the Boss, often unwittingly trample on his cultural beliefs. On the occasions when Asok mentions this, he is normally ignored. His test scores (a perfect 1600 on the old SAT) and his IQ of 240 show that he is the smartest member of the engineering team. Nonetheless, he is often called upon by the Boss to do odd jobs, and in meetings his ideas are usually left hanging. He is also seen regularly at the lunch table with Wally and Dilbert, experiencing jarring realizations of the nature of corporate life. There are a few jokes about his psychic powers, which he learned at the IIT. Yet despite his intelligence, ethics, and mystical powers, Asok sometimes takes advice from Wally in the arts of laziness, and from Dilbert in surviving the office. As of February 7, 2014, Asok is officially gay, which never affects any storylines but merely commemorates a decision by the Indian Supreme Court to uphold a British-era anti-gay law, a decision which was overturned on September 6, 2018. The CEO The CEO of the company is bald and has an extremely tall, somewhat pointed cranium. He is only slightly less clueless than the Pointy-Haired Boss. Ted An engineer who is often seen hanging out with Wally. He is referenced by name more often in older comics, but he is still seen occasionally. He has been accepted into Dilbert's clique. He has been fired and killed numerous times (for example, being pushed down a flight of stairs and becoming possessed), in which case a new Ted is apparently hired. In addition to this, he is often promoted and given benefits over the other employees. Ted has a wife and children who are referenced multiple times and seen on at least one occasion. Adams refers to him as Ted the Generic Guy, because whenever he needs to fire or kill someone he uses Ted, but slowly over time Ted has become his own character. Tina Also known as Tina the Tech Writer. She has a less forceful personality than Alice and often seems to get taken advantage of by the other employees. Her job of writing technical directions for her company's software cannot be an easy one as none of their products work as designed. Carol Carol is the long-suffering secretary (she prefers the title Executive Assistant) to the Pointy-haired Boss. Her hair style is a much smaller triangle than that of Alice. She hates her job, but once told Dilbert that spending time with her family of a husband and two children is like fighting porcupines in a salt mine, although when the job gets to be too much she is glad to get back to them. Dave Introduced in 2022, Dave is the strip's first black character, although he identifies as white, messing up the company's ESG and diversity scores, possibly deliberately, as it is not clear whether he is serious or not. Dave has proved controversial, with at least one newspaper chain deciding not to run the strips featuring him. Elbonia Elbonia is a fictional non-specific under-developed country used when Adams wants "to involve a foreign country without hurting overseas sales". He says "People think I have some specific country in mind when I write about Elbonia, but I don't. It represents the view that Americans have of any country that doesn't have cable television—we think they all wear fur hats and wallow around waist-deep in mud". The entire country wears the same clothing and hats, and all men and women
have full beards. They are occasionally bitter towards their wealthier western neighbors, but are quite happy to trade with them. The whole country is covered in mud, and has limited technology.
Elbonia is located somewhere in the former Eastern Bloc: a strip dated April 2, 1990, refers to the "Tiny East European country of Elbonia." It is an extremely poor, fourth-world country that "has abandoned Communism". The national bird of Elbonia is the Frisbee.
Phil
The Pointy-Haired Boss's brother Phil. His full title is Phil, the Prince of Insufficient Light & Supreme Ruler of Heck. His job, one step down from Satan, is to punish those who commit minor sins. His 'Pitch-Spoon' is feared by those who do. He is known to 'Darn to Heck' people who do things like using cell phones in the bathroom, steal office supplies, or those who simply do something annoying. In one strip, it was mentioned that being in Heck is not as bad as being in a cubicle.
Ratbert
Ratbert is an escaped lab rat who lives in Dilbert's house. Ratbert was not originally intended to be a regular, instead being part of a series of strips featuring a lab scientist's cruel experiments. The character is often seen in strips set in Dilbert's home and is frequently a foil / co-conspirator in Dogbert's machinations.
Legacy
The popularity of the comic strip within the corporate sector led to the Dilbert character being used in many business magazines and publications, including several appearances on the cover of Fortune Magazine. Many newspapers ran the comic in their business section rather than in the regular comics section—similar to the way that Doonesbury is often featured in the editorial section, due to its pointed commentary.Criticism and parodyMedia analyst Norman Solomon and cartoonist Tom Tomorrow said Adams's caricatures of corporate culture seem to project empathy for white-collar workers, but the satire ultimately plays into the hands of upper corporate management itself. Solomon describes the characters of Dilbert as dysfunctional, none of whom occupies a position higher than middle management, and whose inefficiencies detract from general corporate values such as productivity and growth<!-- -the following clause removed for lack of sense:, a very favorable outlook for managers- -->. Dilbert and his coworkers often find themselves baffled or victimized by the whims of managerial behavior, but they never seem to question it openly. Solomon cites the Xerox corporation's use of Dilbert strips and characters in internally distributed pamphlets:
Adams responded in the February 2, 1998, strip and in his book The Joy of Work with a sarcastic reiteration.
In 1997, Tom Vanderbilt wrote in a similar vein in The Baffler magazine:
In 1998, Bill Griffith, creator of Zippy the Pinhead, chided Dilbert for crude drawings and simplistic humor. He wrote,
Adams responded by creating two comic strips called Pippy the Ziphead, in which Dogbert creates a comic by "cramming as much artwork in [it] as possible so no one will notice there's only one joke", and it's "on the reader". Dilbert says that the strip is "nothing but a clown with a small head who says random things", and Dogbert responds that he is "maintaining [his] artistic integrity by creating a comic that no one will enjoy." In September of the same year, Griffith mocked Adams's Pippy the Ziphead with a strip of the same name drawn in a simplistic, stiff, Dilbert-like style set in an office setting and featuring the characters Zippy and Griffy retorting, "I sense a joke was delivered." "Yes. It was. My one joke. Ha."
In the late 1990s, amateur cartoonist Karl Hörnell began submitting a comic strip to Savage Dragon creator Erik Larsen that parodied both Dilbert and the Image Comics series The Savage Dragon. This became a regular feature in the Savage Dragon comic book, titled ''The Savage Dragonbert and Hitler's Brainbert''—"Hitler's Brainbert" being a loose parody of both Dogbert and the Savage Dragon villain identified as Adolf Hitler's disembodied, superpowered brain. The strip began as a specific parody of the comic book itself, set loosely within the office structure of Dilbert, with Hörnell doing an emulation of Adams's cartooning style. Its coining is explained in Dilbert Newsletter #6. The strip has also popularized the usage of the terms cow-orker and PHB.Management
In 1997, Adams masqueraded as a management consultant to Logitech executives (as Ray Mebert), with the cooperation of the company's vice-chairman. He acted in much the way that he portrays management consultants in the comic strip, with an arrogant manner and bizarre suggestions, such as comparing mission statements to broccoli soup. He convinced the executives to change their existing mission statement for their New Ventures Group from "provide Logitech with profitable growth and related new business areas" to "scout profitable growth opportunities in relationships, both internally and externally, in emerging, mission-inclusive markets, and explore new paradigms and then filter and communicate and evangelize the findings".
Adams has worked with companies to develop "dream" products for Dilbert and company. In 2001, he collaborated with design company IDEO to come up with the "perfect cubicle", since many of the Dilbert strips make fun of the standard cubicle desk and the environment that it creates.
This project was followed in 2004 with designs for Dilbert's Ultimate House (abbreviated as DUH). An energy-efficient building was the result, designed to prevent many of the little problems that seem to creep into a normal building. For instance, to save time spent buying and decorating a Christmas tree every year, the house has a large (yet unapparent) closet adjacent to the living room where the tree can be stored from year to year.
Webcomics
In 1995, Dilbert was the first syndicated comic strip to be published for free on the Internet. Putting his email address in each Dilbert strip, Adams created a "direct channel to [his] customers", allowing him to modify the strip based on their feedback.
In April 2008, United Media instituted an interactive feature on Dilbert.com, allowing fans to write speech bubbles. Adams has spoken positively about the change, saying, "This makes cartooning a competitive sport."Awards
Adams was named best international comic strip artist of 1995 in the Adamson Awards given by the Swedish Academy of Comic Art.
Dilbert won the National Cartoonists Society's Reuben Award in 1997, and was also named the best syndicated strip of 1997 in the Harvey Awards. In 1998, Dilbert won the Max & Moritz Prize as best international comic strip.
Media
Comic strip compilations
Chronological
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Title !! Strips collected !! Date published !! Pages !! ISBN !! Notes
|-
| Always Postpone Meetings with Time-Wasting Morons || April 16, 1989 – October 21, 1989 || October 1992 || 112 || ||
|-
| Shave the Whales || October 22, 1989 – August 4, 1990 || April 1994 || 128 || ||
|-
| Bring Me the Head of Willy the Mailboy! || August 5, 1990 – May 18, 1991 || March 1995 || 128 || || The strip dated March 31, 1991, was not included.
|-
| ''It's Obvious You Won't Survive by Your Wits Alone || May 19, 1991 – December 13, 1992 || August 1995 || 224 || ||
|-
| Still Pumped from Using the Mouse || December 14, 1992 – September 27, 1993 || March 1996 || 128 || ||
|-
| Fugitive From the Cubicle Police || September 28, 1993 – February 4, 1995 || September 1996 || 224 || ||
|-
| Casual Day Has Gone Too Far || February 5, 1995 – November 19, 1995 || March 1997 || 128 || ||
|-
| I'm Not Anti-Business, I'm Anti-Idiot || November 20, 1995 – August 31, 1996 || March 1998 || 128 || ||
|-
| Journey to Cubeville || September 1, 1996 – January 4, 1998 || August 1998 || 224 || ||
|-
| Don't Step in the Leadership || January 12, 1998 – October 18, 1998 || March 1999 || 128 || ||
|-
| Random Acts of Management || October 19, 1998 – July 25, 1999 || March 2000 || 128 || ||
|-
| Excuse Me While I Wag || July 26, 1999 – April 30, 2000 || April 2001 || 128 || ||
|-
| When Did Ignorance Become a Point of View? || May 1, 2000 – February 4, 2001 || September 2001 || 128 || ||
|-
| Another Day in Cubicle Paradise || February 5, 2001 – November 11, 2001 || March 2002 || 128 || ||
|-
| When Body Language Goes Bad || November 12, 2001 – August 18, 2002 || March 2003 || 128 || ||
|-
| Words You Don't Want to Hear During Your Annual Performance Review || August 19, 2002 – May 25, 2003 || October 2003 || 128 || ||
|-
| Don't Stand Where the Comet is Assumed to Strike Oil || May 26, 2003 – February 29, 2004 || May 2004 || 128 || ||
|-
| The Fluorescent Light Glistens Off Your Head || March 1, 2004 – December 5, 2004 || May 2005 || 128 || ||
|-
| Thriving on Vague Objectives || December 6, 2004 – September 11, 2005 || November 2005 || 128 || ||
|-
| Try Rebooting Yourself || September 12, 2005 – June 18, 2006 || October 2006 || 128 || ||
|-
| Positive Attitude || June 19, 2006 – March 25, 2007 || July 2007 || 128 || ||
|-
| This is the Part Where You Pretend to Add Value || March 26, 2007 – January 5, 2008 || May 2008 || 128 || ||
|-
| Freedom's Just Another Word for People Finding Out You're Useless || January 6, 2008 – October 12, 2008 || April 2009 || 128 || ||
|-
| 14 Years of Loyal Service in a Fabric-Covered Box || October 13, 2008 – July 25, 2009 || October 2009 || 128 || ||
|-
| I'm Tempted to Stop Acting Randomly || July 26, 2009 – May 2, 2010 || December 2010 || 128 || ||
|-
| How's That Underling Thing Working Out for You? || May 3, 2010 – February 12, 2011 || November 2011 || 128 || ||
|-
| Teamwork Means You Can't Pick the Side that's Right || February 13, 2011 – November 20, 2011 || April 2012 || 128 || ||
|-
| Your New Job Title Is "Accomplice" || November 21, 2011 – August 26, 2012 || May 2013 || 128 || || rowspan=2| Strips from August 27, 2012, to October 7, 2012, were not collected.
|-
| I Sense a Coldness to Your Mentoring || October 8, 2012 – July 14, 2013 || October 2013 || 128 ||
|-
| Go Add Value Someplace Else || July 15, 2013 – July 20, 2014 || October 2014 || 168 || ||
|-
| Optimism Sounds Exhausting || July 21, 2014 – August 1, 2015 || November 2015 || 168 || ||
|-
| I'm No Scientist, But I Think Feng Shui Is Part of the Answer || August 2, 2015 – July 23, 2016 || November 2016 || 208 || ||
|-
| Dilbert Gets Re-accommodated || July 24, 2016 – June 10, 2017 || November 2017 || 144 || ||
|-
| Cubicles That Make You Envy the Dead || June 11, 2017 – April 29, 2018 || November 2018 || 144 || ||
|-
| Dilbert Turns 30 || April 30, 2018 – February 24, 2019 || October 2019 || 159 || || Features the top 50 Dilbert comics of the last decade.
|-
| Eagerly Awaiting Your Irrational Response || February 25, 2019 – January 12, 2020 || October 2020 || 144 || ||
|-
| The Office Is a Beautiful Place When Everyone Else Works from Home || January 13, 2020 – November 29, 2020 || December 2021 || 144 || ||
|-
| Not Remotely Working || November 30, 2020 – October 17, 2021 || December 2022 || 144 || || The October 18, 2021 through March 12, 2023 strips will not be published in collection by Andrews McMeel.
|}
Special
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Title !! Date published !! Pages !! ISBN !! Notes
|-
| Build a Better Life by Stealing Office Supplies: Dogbert's Big Book of Business || November 1991 || 112 || ||
|-
| Dogbert's Clues for the Clueless || August 1993 || 112 || ||
|-
| Seven Years of Highly Defective People || August 1997 || 256 || || strips from 1989 to 1995 with handwritten notes by Adams
|-
| Dilbert Gives You the Business || August 1999 || 224 || || collection of favorites before 1999
|-
| A Treasury of Sunday Strips: Version 00 || August 2000 || 224 || || color version of all Sunday strips from 1995 to 1999
|-
| What Do You Call a Sociopath in a Cubicle? Answer: A Coworker'' || August 2002 || 224 || || compilation of strips featuring Dilbert's coworkers
|-
| ''It's Not Funny If I Have to Explain It'' || October 2004 || 240 || || strips from 1997 to 2004 with more of Adams's handwritten notes
|-
| What Would Wally Do? || June 2006 || 224 || || strips focused on Wally
|-
| Cubes and Punishment || November 2007 || 224 || || collection of comic strips on workplace cruelty
|-
| ''Problem Identified: And You're Probably Not Part of the Solution || July 2010 || 224 || ||
|-
| Your Accomplishments Are Suspiciously Hard to Verify || August 2011 || 208 || ||
|-
| I Can't Remember If We're Cheap or Smart || October 2012 || 208 || ||
|}
Business books
* The Dilbert Principle
* Dogbert's Top Secret Management Handbook
* The Dilbert Future
* The Joy of Work
* Dilbert and the Way of the Weasel
* Slapped Together: The Dilbert Business Anthology (The Dilbert Principle, The Dilbert Future, and The Joy of Work, published together in one book)
Other books
* Telling It Like It Isn't — 1996;
* You Don't Need Experience If You've Got Attitude — 1996;
* Access Denied: Dilbert's Quest for Love in the Nineties — 1996;
* Conversations With Dogbert — 1996;
* Work is a Contact Sport — 1997;
* The Boss: Nameless, Blameless and Shameless — 1997;
* The Dilbert Bunch — 1997;
* No You'd Better Watch Out — 1997
* Please Don't Feed The Egos — 1997;
* Random Acts of Catness — 1998;
* You Can't Schedule Stupidity — 1998;
* Dilbert Meeting Book Exceeding Tech Limits — 1998;
* Trapped In A Dilbert World – Book Of Days — 1998;
* Work—The Wally Way — 1999;
* Alice in Blunderland — 1999;
* All Dressed Down And Nowhere To Go — 2002;
* Dilbert's Guide to the Rest of Your Life: Dispatches from Cubicleland — 2007;
* Dilbert Sudoku Comic Digest: 200 Puzzles Plus 50 Classic Dilbert Cartoons — 2008;
* Dilbert 2.0: 20 Years of Dilbert'' — 2008; 576 pages, ≈6500 strips, and Adams's notes from 1989 to 2008.
Merchandise
* Corporate Shuffle by Richard Garfield — 1997; A Dilbert-branded card game similar to Wizards of the Coast's The Great Dalmuti and the drinking game President.
* The Dilberito, a vegan microwave burrito offered in four flavors: Barbecue with barbecue sauce, Garlic & Herb with sauce, Indian with mango chutney, and Mexican with salsa.
* Totally Nuts — 1998; A limited edition Ben & Jerry's ice cream flavor whose description was listed as: "Butter almond ice cream with roasted hazelnuts, praline pecans & white fudge coated almonds".
* A line of Dilbert mints that possessed the names Accomplish-mints, Appease-mints, Appoint-mints, Empower-mints, Harass-mints, Improve-mints, Invest-mints, Manage-mints, Pay-mints, Perform-mints, and Postpone-mints.
* Dilbert: the Board Game — 2006; by Hyperion Games; A Dilbert-branded board game that was named one of Games magazine's Top 100 Games
* Day-by-Day calendars featuring the comic strip are available every year.
* Dilbert: Escape From Cubeville — 2010; A Dilbert-branded board game released in the Dilbert store section of dilbert.com.
Animated series
Dilbert was adapted into a UPN animated television series starring Daniel Stern as Dilbert, Chris Elliott as Dogbert, and Kathy Griffin as Alice. The series ran for two seasons from January 25, 1999, to July 25, 2000. The first season centered around the creation of a new product called the "Gruntmaster 6000". It was critically acclaimed and won an Emmy Award, leading to its renewal for a second season. The second season did away with the serial format and was composed entirely of standalone episodes, many of which shifted focus away from the workplace and involved absurdist plots such as Wally being mistaken for a religious leader ("The Shroud of Wally") and Dilbert being accused of mass murder ("The Trial"). The second season's two-episode finale included Dilbert getting pregnant with the child of a cow, a hillbilly, robot DNA, "several dozen engineers", an elderly billionaire, and an alien, eventually ending up in a custody battle with Stone Cold Steve Austin as the Judge.
When UPN declined to renew the series for its third season, Adams stated, "I lost my TV show for being white when UPN decided it would focus on an African-American audience." Adams wrote on Twitter in 2020. "That was the third job I lost for being white. The other two in corporate America." The four-disc DVD called "Dilbert: The Complete Series" was released and contains thirty episodes. The first disc contains episodes 1–7, the second disc contains episodes 8–13, the third disc contains episodes 14–21, and the fourth disc contains episodes 22–30.Animated web shortsOn April 7, 2008, dilbert.com presented its first Dilbert animation. The new Dilbert animations are animated versions of original comic strips produced by RingTales and animated by Powerhouse Animation Studios. The animation videos run for around 30 seconds each and are added every weekday. The comic shorts have a different voice cast than the television series, with Washington-based radio personality Dan Roberts providing the voice of the title character. On December 10, 2009, the RingTales produced animations were made available as a calendar application for mobile devices.Cancelled film adaptationAs early as 2006, Adams and United Media had been struggling to get a film adaptation of the comic strip off the ground. Adams envisioned the idea as a live-action film, with Dogbert and Catbert as animated characters. Film director Chris Columbus was in talks to direct the film in 2007, with Tariq Jalil on board as producer.
In May 2010, it was announced that a live-action Dilbert film was in development. Ken Kwapis was announced as director, fresh off the heels of ''He's Just Not That Into You'' and directing several episodes for NBC's The Office. Jahil remained as producer, with Phoenix Entertainment and Intrigue Entertainment joining the producing team.
But in December 2017, in an interview by The Mercury News, Adams said that it would be impossible to make the film after his public support of Donald Trump.
Video games
* ''Dilbert's Desktop Games — 1997; a video game designed for the PC.
* Young Dilbert in Hi-Tech Hijinks — 1997; A Dilbert-branded computer game aimed at teaching young children about technology.
* Dilberito — 2000; a Flash game.
"Drunken lemurs" case
In October 2007, the Catfish Bend Casino in Burlington, Iowa notified its staff that the casino would soon be closing for business. David Steward, an employee of seven years, then posted on an office bulletin board the Dilbert strip of October 26, 2007, that compared management decisions to those of "drunken lemurs". The casino called this "very offensive"; they identified him from a surveillance tape, fired him, and tried to prevent him from receiving unemployment benefits. However, an administrative law judge ruled in December 2007 that he would receive benefits, as his action was deemed as justified protest and not intentional misbehavior. Adams stated that it might be the first confirmed case of an employee being fired for posting a Dilbert'' cartoon. On February 20, 2008, the first of a series of Dilbert strips showed Wally being caught posting a comic strip that "compares managers to drunken lemurs". Adams later stated that fans of his work should "stick to posting Garfield strips, as no one gets fired for that."Guest artistsOn February 29, 2016, Adams posted on his blog that he would be taking a six-week vacation. During that time, strips would be written by him but drawn by guest artists who work for Universal Uclick. Jake Tapper drew the strip on the week of May 23. The other guest artists were John Glynn, Eric Scott, Josh Shipley, Joel Friday, Donna Oatney and Brenna Thummler. Jake Tapper also drew the cartoon strip the week of September 23–28, 2019.See also
* Dilbert principle
* Peter principle, the opposite (and original basis) of the Dilbert principle
* Plop: The Hairless Elbonian, another comic series by Adams
Notes
ReferencesExternal links
*
*
*
Category:Comic strips set in the United States
Category:Computer humour
Category:American comic strips
Category:Workplace webcomics
Category:Workplace comics
Category:Black comedy comics
Category:Satirical comics
Category:Gag-a-day comics
Category:1989 comics debuts
Category:1990s webcomics
Category:Comics adapted into animated series
Category:Comics adapted into television series
Category:Comics adapted into video games
Category:1995 webcomic debuts
Category:Office work in popular culture
Category:Race-related controversies in comics
Category:Comics about anthropomorphic dogs
Category:Comics about talking animals
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Dialect
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A dialect, Classical Latin , and Ancient Greek (), 'discourse', in turn derived from (), 'through', and (), 'I speak'.}} is a variety of language spoken by a particular group of people. It can also refer to a language subordinate in status to a dominant language, and is sometimes used to mean a vernacular language.
The more common usage of the term in English refers to a variety of a language that is a characteristic of a particular group of the language's speakers. The dialects or varieties of a particular language are closely related and, despite their differences, are most often largely mutually intelligible, especially if geographically close to one another in a dialect continuum. The term is applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as social class or ethnicity. A dialect associated with a particular social class is called a sociolect; one associated with a particular ethnic group is an ethnolect; and a geographical or regional dialect is a regiolect (alternative terms include 'regionalect', 'geolect', and 'topolect'). Any variety of a given language can be classified as a "dialect", including standardized ones.
A second usage, which refers to colloquial settings, typically diglossic, exists in a few countries like Italy, such as dialetto, patois in France, much of East Central Europe, and the Philippines, and may carry a pejorative undertone and underlines the politically and socially subordinated status of an autochthonous non-national language to the country's official language(s). Dialects in this sense do not derive from a dominant language and are therefore not one of its varieties, though they may have evolved in a separate and parallel way. While they may be historically cognate with and share genetic roots in the same subfamily as the dominant national language and may, to a varying degree, share some mutual intelligibility with the latter, "dialects" under this second definition are separate languages from the standard or national language. Under this definition, the standard or national language would not itself be considered a dialect, as it is the dominant language in terms of linguistic prestige, social or political (e.g. official) status, predominance or prevalence, or all of the above. Dialect used this way implies a political connotation, often being used to refer to non-standardized "low-prestige" languages (regardless of their actual degree of distance from the national language) of limited geographic distribution, languages lacking institutional support, or even those considered to be "unsuitable for writing".
Occasionally, in a third usage, dialect refers to the unwritten or non-codified languages of developing countries or isolated areas, where the term "vernacular language" would be preferred by linguists.
Features that distinguish dialects from each other can be found in lexicon (vocabulary) and grammar (morphology, syntax) as well as in pronunciation (phonology, including prosody). In instances where the salient distinctions are only or mostly to be observed in pronunciation, the more specific term accent may be used instead of dialect. Differences that are largely concentrated in lexicon may be classified as creoles. When lexical differences are mostly concentrated in the specialized vocabulary of a profession or other organization, they are jargons. Differences in vocabulary that are deliberately cultivated to exclude outsiders or to serve as shibboleths are known as cryptolects or cant, and include slangs and argots. The particular speech patterns used by an individual are referred to as that person's idiolect.
Languages are classified as dialects based on linguistic distance. The dialects of a language with a writing system will operate at different degrees of distance from the standardized written form. Some dialects of a language are not mutually intelligible in spoken form, leading to debate as to whether they are regiolects or separate languages.
Standard and nonstandard dialects
A standard dialect, also known as a "standardized language", is supported by institutions. Such institutional support may include any or all of the following: government recognition or designation; formal presentation in schooling as the "correct" form of a language; informal monitoring of everyday usage; published grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks that set forth a normative spoken and written form; and an extensive formal literature (be it prose, poetry, non-fiction, etc.) that uses it. An example of a standardized language is the French language which is supported by the institution. A nonstandard dialect also has a complete grammar and vocabulary, but is usually not the beneficiary of institutional support.
The distinction between the "standard" dialect and the "nonstandard" (vernacular) dialects of the same language is often arbitrary and based on social, political, cultural, or historical considerations or prevalence and prominence. In a similar way, the definitions of the terms "language" and "dialect" may overlap and are often subject to debate, with the differentiation between the two classifications often grounded in arbitrary or sociopolitical motives, and the term "dialect" is sometimes restricted to mean "non-standard variety", particularly in non-specialist settings and non-English linguistic traditions.
Dialect as linguistic variety of a language
The term is applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as social class or ethnicity. Conversely, some dialectologists have reserved the term "dialect" for forms that they believed (sometimes wrongly) to be purer forms of the older languages, as in how early dialectologists of English did not consider the Brummie of Birmingham or the Scouse of Liverpool to be real dialects, as they had arisen fairly recently in time and partly as a result of influences from Irish migrants.
Difference between dialects and languages
There is no universally accepted criterion for distinguishing two different languages from two dialects (i.e. varieties) of the same language. A number of rough measures exist, sometimes leading to contradictory results. The distinction between dialect and language is therefore subjective <!-- Because not the same criterions are used it is arbitrary? --> and depends upon the user's preferred frame of reference. For example, there has been discussion about whether or not the Limón Creole English should be considered "a kind" of English or a different language. This creole is spoken in the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica (Central America) by descendants of Jamaican people. The position that Costa Rican linguists support depends upon which university they represent. Another example is Scanian, which even, for a time, had its own ISO code. Linguistic distance
An important criterion for categorizing varieties of language is linguistic distance. For a variety to be considered a dialect, the linguistic distance between the two varieties must be low. Linguistic distance between spoken or written forms of language increases as the differences between the forms are characterized. For example, two languages with completely different syntactical structures would have a high linguistic distance, while a language with very few differences from another may be considered a dialect or a sibling of that language. Linguistic distance may be used to determine language families and language siblings. For example, languages with little linguistic distance, like Dutch and German, are considered siblings. Dutch and German are siblings in the West-Germanic language group. Some language siblings are closer to each other in terms of linguistic distance than to other linguistic siblings. French and Spanish, siblings in the Romance Branch of the Indo-European group, are closer to each other than they are to any of the languages of the West-Germanic group. However, this definition has often been criticized, especially in the case of a dialect continuum (or dialect chain), which contains a sequence of varieties, where each mutually intelligible with the next, but may not be mutually intelligible with distant varieties. though mutuality may not be as relevant as initially thought. The requirement for mutuality is abandoned by the Language Survey Reference Guide of SIL International, publishers of the Ethnologue and the registration authority for the ISO 639-3 standard for language codes. They define a dialect cluster as a central variety together with all those varieties whose speakers understand the central variety at a specified threshold level or higher. If the threshold level is high, usually between 70% and 85%<!-- So over 85 %, same language, but different dialects? Under 70 % > different languages? -->, the cluster is designated as a language. Sociolinguistic definitions Another occasionally used criterion for discriminating dialects from languages is the sociolinguistic notion of linguistic authority. According to this definition, two varieties are considered dialects of the same language if (under at least some circumstances) they would defer to the same authority regarding some questions about their language. For instance, to learn the name of a new invention, or an obscure foreign species of plant, speakers of Westphalian and East Franconian German might each consult a German dictionary or ask a German-speaking expert in the subject. Thus these varieties are said to be dependent on, or heteronomous with respect to, Standard German, which is said to be autonomous.
In contrast, speakers in the Netherlands of Low Saxon varieties similar to Westphalian would instead consult a dictionary of Standard Dutch, and hence is categorized as a dialect of Dutch instead. Similarly, although Yiddish is classified by linguists as a language in the High German group of languages and has some degree of mutual intelligibility with German, a Yiddish speaker would consult a Yiddish dictionary rather than a German dictionary in such a case, and is classified as its own language.
Within this framework, W. A. Stewart defined a language as an autonomous variety in addition to all the varieties that are heteronomous with respect to it, noting that an essentially equivalent definition had been stated by Charles A. Ferguson and John J. Gumperz in 1960. A heteronomous variety may be considered a dialect of a language defined in this way.
Dialect and language clusters
In other situations, a closely related group of varieties possess considerable (though incomplete) mutual intelligibility, but none dominates the others. To describe this situation, the editors of the Handbook of African Languages introduced the term dialect cluster as a classificatory unit at the same level as a language. A similar situation, but with a greater degree of mutual unintelligibility, has been termed a language cluster.
In the Language Survey Reference Guide issued by SIL International, who produce Ethnologue, a dialect cluster is defined as a central variety together with a collection of varieties whose speakers can understand the central variety at a specified threshold level (usually between 70% and 85%) or higher. It is not required that peripheral varieties be understood by speakers of the central variety or of other peripheral varieties. A minimal set of central varieties providing coverage of a dialect continuum may be selected algorithmically from intelligibility data. Political factors
In many societies, however, a particular dialect, often the sociolect of the elite class, comes to be identified as the "standard" or "proper" version of a language by those seeking to make a social distinction and is contrasted with other varieties. As a result of this, in some contexts, the term "dialect" refers specifically to varieties with low social status. In this secondary sense of "dialect", language varieties are often called dialects rather than languages:
* if they have no standard or codified form,
* if they are rarely or never used in writing (outside reported speech),
* if the speakers of the given language do not have a state of their own,
* if they lack prestige with respect to some other, often standardised, variety.
The status of "language" is not solely determined by linguistic criteria, but it is also the result of a historical and political development. Romansh came to be a written language, and therefore it is recognized as a language, even though it is very close to the Lombardic alpine dialects and classical Latin. An opposite example is Chinese, whose variations such as Mandarin and Cantonese are often called dialects and not languages in China, despite their mutual unintelligibility.
National boundaries sometimes make the distinction between "language" and "dialect" an issue of political importance. A group speaking a separate "language" may be seen as having a greater claim to being a separate "people", and thus to be more deserving of its own independent state, while a group speaking a "dialect" may be seen as a sub-group, part of a bigger people, which must content itself with regional autonomy.
The Yiddish linguist Max Weinreich published the expression, A shprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot (: "A language is a dialect with an army and navy") in YIVO Bleter 25.1, 1945, p. 13. The significance of the political factors in any attempt at answering the question "what is a language?" is great enough to cast doubt on whether any strictly linguistic definition, without a socio-cultural approach, is possible. This is illustrated by the frequency with which the army-navy aphorism is cited.
Terminology<span class"anchor" id"languoid"></span>
By the definition most commonly used by linguists, any linguistic variety can be considered a "dialect" of some language—"everybody speaks a dialect". According to that interpretation, the criteria above merely serve to distinguish whether two varieties are dialects of the same language or dialects of different languages.
The terms "language" and "dialect" are not necessarily mutually exclusive, although they are often perceived to be. Thus there is nothing contradictory in the statement "the language of the Pennsylvania Dutch is a dialect of German".
There are various terms that linguists may use to avoid taking a position on whether the speech of a community is an independent language in its own right or a dialect of another language. Perhaps the most common is "variety"; "lect" is another. A more general term is "languoid", which does not distinguish between dialects, languages, and groups of languages, whether genealogically related or not.
Colloquial meaning of dialect
The colloquial meaning of dialect can be understood by example, e.g. in Italy
Dialect and accent
John Lyons writes that "Many linguists [...] subsume differences of accent under differences of dialect." In general, accent refers to variations in pronunciation, while dialect also encompasses specific variations in grammar and vocabulary.Examples
Arabic
There are three geographical zones in which Arabic is spoken (Jastrow 2002). Zone I is categorized as the area in which Arabic was spoken before the rise of Islam. It is the Arabian Peninsula, excluding the areas where southern Arabian was spoken. Zone II is categorized as the areas to which Arabic speaking peoples moved as a result of the conquests of Islam. Included in Zone II are the Levant, Egypt, North Africa, Iraq, and some parts of Iran. The Egyptian, Sudanese, and Levantine dialects (including the Syrian dialect) are well documented, and widely spoken and studied. Zone III comprises the areas in which Arabic is spoken outside of the continuous Arabic Language area.
Spoken dialects of the Arabic language share the same writing system and share Modern Standard Arabic as their common prestige dialect used in writing.
German
When talking about the German language, the term German dialects is only used for the traditional regional varieties. That allows them to be distinguished from the regional varieties of modern standard German. The German dialects show a wide spectrum of variation. Some of them are not mutually intelligible. German dialectology traditionally names the major dialect groups after Germanic tribes from which they were assumed to have descended.
The extent to which the dialects are spoken varies according to a number of factors: In Northern Germany, dialects are less common than in the South. In cities, dialects are less common than in the countryside. In a public environment, dialects are less common than in a familiar environment.
The situation in Switzerland and Liechtenstein is different from the rest of the German-speaking countries. The Swiss German dialects are the default everyday language in virtually every situation, whereas standard German is only spoken in education, partially in media, and with foreigners not possessing knowledge of Swiss German. Most Swiss German speakers perceive standard German to be a foreign language.
The Low German and Low Franconian varieties spoken in Germany are often counted among the German dialects. This reflects the modern situation where they are roofed by standard German. This is different from the situation in the Middle Ages when Low German had strong tendencies towards an ausbau language.
The Frisian languages spoken in Germany and the Netherlands are excluded from the German dialects.
Italy
Italy is an often quoted example of a country where the second definition of the word "dialect" (dialetto
During the Risorgimento, Italian still existed mainly as a literary language, and only 2.5% of Italy's population could speak Italian. Proponents of Italian nationalism, like the Lombard Alessandro Manzoni, stressed the importance of establishing a uniform national language in order to better create an Italian national identity. With the unification of Italy in the 1860s, Italian became the official national language of the new Italian state, while the other ones came to be institutionally regarded as "dialects" subordinate to Italian, and negatively associated with a lack of education.
In the early 20th century, the conscription of Italian men from all throughout Italy during World War I is credited with having facilitated the diffusion of Italian among the less educated conscripted soldiers, as these men, who had been speaking various regional languages up until then, found themselves forced to communicate with each other in a common tongue while serving in the Italian military. With the popular spread of Italian out of the intellectual circles, because of the mass-media and the establishment of public education, Italians from all regions were increasingly exposed to Italian. with some degree of influence from the local or regional native languages and accents.
Lebanon
In Lebanon, a part of the Christian population considers "Lebanese" to be in some sense a distinct language from Arabic and not merely a dialect thereof. During the civil war, Christians often used Lebanese Arabic officially, and sporadically used the Latin script to write Lebanese, thus further distinguishing it from Arabic.<!-- Are languages defined by their spelling systems? --> All Lebanese laws are written in the standard literary form of Arabic, though parliamentary debate may be conducted in Lebanese Arabic.
Malay
Malay has a long history as a lingua franca (Indonesian and Malay: basantara) in the Malay Archipelago which currently includes Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei Darussalam, Singapore, East Timor, and the southern part of Thailand. This geographical variation, which then spread widely even to South Africa, finally led to the formation of a Malay language cluster which spread and had differences due to geographical conditions.
The Malay language is pluricentric and a macrolanguage, i.e., several varieties of it are standardized as the national language ( or ) of several nation states with various official names: in Malaysia, it is designated as either <!-- vide Asmah (1992), pp. 403-4 --> ("Malaysian") or also ("Malay language"); in Singapore and Brunei, it is called ("Malay language"); in Indonesia, an autonomous normative variety called ("Indonesian language") is designated the ("unifying language" or lingua franca) whereas the term "Malay" () is domestically restricted to vernacular varieties of Malay indigenous to areas of Central to Southern Sumatra and West Kalimantan.
North Africa
In Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco, the Darijas translated as literally meaning Dialect in Arabic (spoken North African languages) are sometimes considered more different from other Arabic dialects. Officially, North African countries prefer to give preference to the Literary Arabic and conduct much of their political and religious life in it (adherence to Islam), and refrain from declaring each country's specific variety to be a separate language, because Literary Arabic is the liturgical language of Islam and the language of the Islamic sacred book, the Qur'an. Although, especially since the 1960s, the Darijas are occupying an increasing use and influence in the cultural life of these countries. Examples of cultural elements where Darijas' use became dominant include: theatre, film, music, television, advertisement, social media, folk-tale books and companies' names.
Ukraine
by Mykola Kostomarov]]
The Modern Ukrainian language has been in common use since the late 17th century, associated with the establishment of the Cossack Hetmanate. In the 19th century, the Tsarist Government of the Russian Empire claimed that Ukrainian (or Little Russian, per official name) was merely a dialect of Russian (or Polonized dialect) and not a language on its own (same concept as for Belarusian language). That concepted was enrooted soon after the partitions of Poland. According to these claims, the differences were few and caused by the conquest of western Ukraine by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. However, in reality the dialects in Ukraine were developing independently from the dialects in the modern Russia for several centuries, and as a result they differed substantially.
Following the Spring of Nations in Europe and efforts of the Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius, across the so-called "Southwestern Krai" of Russian Empire started to spread cultural societies of Hromada and their Sunday schools. Themselves "hromadas" acted in same manner as Orthodox fraternities of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth back in 15th century. Around that time in Ukraine becoming popular political movements Narodnichestvo (Narodniks) and Khlopomanstvo.
Moldova
There have been cases of a variety of speech being deliberately reclassified to serve political purposes. One example is Moldovan. In 1996, the Moldovan Parliament, citing fears of "Romanian expansionism", rejected a proposal from President Mircea Snegur to change the name of the language to Romanian, and in 2003 a Moldovan–Romanian dictionary was published, purporting to show that the two countries speak different languages. Linguists of the Romanian Academy reacted by declaring that all the Moldovan words were also Romanian words; while in Moldova, the head of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Ion Bărbuţă, described the dictionary as a politically motivated "absurdity". On 22 March 2023, the president of Moldova, Maia Sandu, promulgated a law passed by Parliament that named the national language as Romanian in all legislative texts and the constitution.
Greater China
Unlike languages that use alphabets to indicate their pronunciation, Chinese characters have developed from logograms that do not always give hints to their pronunciation. Although the written characters have remained relatively consistent for the last two thousand years, the pronunciation and grammar in different regions have developed to an extent that the varieties of the spoken language are often mutually unintelligible. As a series of migration to the south throughout the history, the regional languages of the south, including Gan, Xiang, Wu, Min, Yue and Hakka often show traces of Old Chinese or Middle Chinese.
From the Ming dynasty onward, Beijing has been the capital of China and the dialect spoken in Beijing has had the most prestige among other varieties. With the founding of the Republic of China, Standard Mandarin was designated as the official language, based on the spoken language of Beijing. Since then, other spoken varieties are regarded as fangyan (regional speech). Cantonese is still the most commonly-used language in Guangzhou, Hong Kong, Macau and among some overseas Chinese communities, whereas Hokkien has been accepted in Taiwan as an important local language alongside Mandarin. Then starting in the 1950s, the written language also diverged when the People's Republic of China introduced simplified characters, which are now used throughout the country. Traditional characters are still the norm in Taiwan and some other overseas communities.
Hindi and Urdu
Hindi is one of the official languages of India, alongside English, and an official language in nine states (including Gujarat, where Gujarati is the most spoken language). Urdu is the national and official language of Pakistan, as well as being an additional official language in 5 states of India (3 of the 8 Hindi speaking states plus Andhra Pradesh and Telangana). While it is the second language for most Pakistanis (outside of muhajirs who immigrated during partition and their descendants) in favor of languages like Punjabi and Sindhi, it is the first language of most Indian Muslims in North India and the Deccan Plateau.
The two languages in their colloquially spoken form are mutually intelligible, but in written form, Hindi uses the Devanagari script while Urdu uses the Perso-Arabic script. For formal vocabulary, the two languages diverge, with Hindi drawing more from Sanskrit and Urdu more from Persian or Arabic.
In addition, several other dialects or languages are classified under Hindi that did not descend from it. Standard Hindi and Urdu are based on Khari Boli, the dialect spoken around Delhi. Other dialects with high mutual intelligibility spoken in surrounding areas include Haryanvi and languages from Western Uttar Pradesh, like Braj Bhasha. But many languages less similar to Standard Hindi do not have official status under the 8th Schedule to the Constitution of India and are instead classified as dialects of Hindi. This includes Bhojpuri, spoken in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, which does not have official status in either state or in the 8th Schedule, despite being spoken by over 50 million people. But over time, more languages have been recognized as distinct from Hindi. Maithili was made a scheduled language of India in 2003, and Chhattisgarhi was made official in Chhattisgarh.
See also
* Accent perception
* Chronolect
* Colloquialism
* Creole language
* Dialect levelling
* Dialectology
* Dialectometry
* Ethnolect
* Eye dialect
* Idiolect
* Isogloss
* Koiné language
* Register (sociolinguistics)
* Literary language
* Nation language
* Regional language
* Sprachbund
Selected list of articles on dialects
* Varieties of Arabic
* Bengali dialects
* Catalan dialects
* Varieties of Chinese
* Cypriot Greek
* Cypriot Turkish
* Danish dialects
* Dutch dialects
* English dialects
* Finnish dialects
* Varieties of French
* Georgian dialects
* German dialects
* Malayalam languages
* Varieties of Malay
* Connacht Irish, Munster Irish, Ulster Irish
* Italian dialects
* Japanese dialects
* Korean dialects
* Norwegian dialects
* Nguni languages
* Dialects of Polish
* Portuguese dialects
* Romanian dialects
* Russian dialects
* Slavic microlanguages
* Slovenian dialects
* Spanish dialects
* Swedish dialects
* Sri Lankan Tamil dialects
* Yiddish dialects
Notes
References External links
* [http://www.bl.uk/soundsfamiliar Sounds Familiar?] – Listen to regional accents and dialects of the UK on the British Library's 'Sounds Familiar' website
* [http://web.ku.edu/idea/ International Dialects of English Archive Since 1997]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181224033902/http://www.thedialectdictionary.com/ thedialectdictionary.com] – Compilation of Dialects from around the globe
* [http://www.unii.ac.jp/~chitsuko/english/index.html A site for announcements and downloading the SEAL System]
*
Category:Language
Category:Language varieties and styles
Category:Lexicology
Category:Linguistics terminology
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Digitalis
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Digitalis ( or ) is a genus of about 20 species of herbaceous perennial plants, shrubs, and biennials, commonly called foxgloves.
Digitalis is native to Europe, Western Asia, and northwestern Africa. The flowers are tubular in shape, produced on a tall spike, and vary in colour with species, from purple to pink, white, and yellow. The name derives from the Latin word for "finger". The genus was traditionally placed in the figwort family, Scrophulariaceae, but phylogenetic research led taxonomists to move it to the Veronicaceae in 2001. More recent phylogenetic work has placed it in the much enlarged family Plantaginaceae.
The best-known species is the common foxglove, Digitalis purpurea. This biennial is often grown as an ornamental plant due to its vivid flowers, which range in colour from various purple tints through pink and purely white. The flowers can also possess various marks and spottings. Other garden-worthy species include D. ferruginea, D. grandiflora, D. lutea, and D. parviflora.
The term digitalis is also used for drug preparations that contain cardiac glycosides, particularly one called digoxin, extracted from various plants of this genus. Foxglove has medicinal uses but is also very toxic to humans and other animals, and consumption can even lead to death.
Etymology
, NGA 94900]]
The generic epithet Digitalis is from the Latin digitus (finger). Leonhart Fuchs first invented the name for this plant in his 1542 book De historia stirpium commentarii insignes (Notable comments on the history of plants), based upon the German vernacular name Fingerhut, which translates literally as 'finger hat', but actually means 'thimble'.
The name is recorded in Old English as 'foxes glofe/glofa' or 'fox's glove'. Over time, folk myths obscured the literal origins of the name, insinuating that foxes wore the flowers on their paws to silence their movements as they stealthily hunted their prey. The woody hillsides where the foxes made their dens were often covered with the toxic flowers. Some of the more menacing names, such as "witch's glove", reference the toxicity of the plant. As of 2017, Plants of the World Online recognises the following 27 species (and a number of hybrids): but it was considered a hybrid of D. grandiflora and D. laevigata by the German botanist in 1960.
Systematics
The first full monograph regarding this genus was written by Lindley in 1821. He included two sections, a section Isoplexis including two species, and the main section Digitalis with three subsections, including 2Y species, a number of which are now seen as synonyms or hybrids.
*In the section Digitalis, along with the type species D. purpurea, four other species (as recognised as the time) were placed: D. thapsi, D. dubia, D. heywoodii and D. mariana.
*The monotypic section Frutescentes contained only D. obscura.
*The section Grandiflorae, which was also called section Macranthae by Vernon Hilton Heywood. It included, along with the type species D. grandiflora, also D. atlantica, D. ciliata and D. davisiana.
*Globiflorae included five species: D. laevigata, D. nervosa, D. ferruginea, D. cariensis and D. lanata.
*Tubiflorae included four species: D. subalpina, D. lutea, D. viridiflora and D. parviflora.
In their 2000 book about Digitalis, Luckner and Wichtl continued to uphold Werner's classification of the 19 species, but molecular studies into the phylogeny of the genus published in 2004 found that although four of Werner's sections were supported by the genetics, the section Tubiflorae was polyphyletic, and that the species D. lutea and D. viridiflora should be placed in the section Grandiflorae. This study, as well as a number of other studies published around that time, reunited the genus Isoplexis with Digitalis, increasing the number of species to 23. The shape of the foxglove's flowers makes it especially attractive to long-tongued bees, such as the common carder bee. The bright flowers attract the bee, which lands on the lower lip of the bloom before climbing up the tube. This means that the bee is likely to drop any pollen it may have collected from other foxgloves, thereby facilitating propagation.
Uses
Historical uses
Nicholas Culpeper included Foxglove in his 1652 herbal medicine guide, The English Physician. He cited its use for healing wounds (both fresh and old), as a purgative, for "the King's Evil" (mycobacterial cervical lymphadenitis), for "the falling sickness" (epilepsy), and for "a scabby head". There is no empirical evidence for these claims, and it is not used for these conditions in modern medicine, only for slowing excessive heart rate in certain circumstances and/or strengthening heart muscle contraction in heart failure.
Medicinal uses
Digitalis is an example of a drug derived from a plant that was formerly used by herbalists; herbalists have largely abandoned its use because of its narrow therapeutic index and the difficulty of determining the amount of active drug in herbal preparations. Once the usefulness of digitalis in regulating the human pulse was understood, it was employed for a variety of purposes, including the treatment of epilepsy and other seizure disorders, which are now considered to be inappropriate treatments.
A group of medicines extracted from foxglove plants are called digitalin. The use of D. purpurea extract containing cardiac glycosides for the treatment of heart conditions was first described in the English-speaking medical literature by William Withering, in 1785, which is considered the beginning of modern therapeutics. In contemporary medicine, digitalis (usually digoxin) is obtained from D. lanata. It is used to increase cardiac contractility (it is a positive inotrope) and as an antiarrhythmic agent to control the heart rate, particularly in the irregular (and often fast) atrial fibrillation. Digitalis is hence often prescribed for patients in atrial fibrillation, especially if they have been diagnosed with congestive heart failure. Digoxin was approved for heart failure in 1998 under current regulations by the Food and Drug Administration on the basis of prospective, randomized study and clinical trials. It was also approved for the control of ventricular response rate for patients with atrial fibrillation. American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association guidelines recommend digoxin for symptomatic chronic heart failure for patients with reduced systolic function, preservation of systolic function, and/or rate control for atrial fibrillation with a rapid ventricular response. Heart Failure Society of America guidelines for heart failure provide similar recommendations. Despite its relatively recent approval by the Food and Drug Administration and the guideline recommendations, the therapeutic use of digoxin is declining in patients with heart failure—likely the result of several factors. The main factor is the more recent introduction of several drugs shown in randomised controlled studies to improve outcomes in heart failure. Safety concerns regarding a proposed link between digoxin therapy and increased mortality seen in observational studies may have contributed to the decline in therapeutic use of digoxin, however a systematic review of 75 studies including four million patient years of patient follow-up showed that in properly designed randomised controlled studies, mortality was no higher in patients given digoxin than in those given placebo.
Romani people use foxglove to treat eczema.VariationsA group of pharmacologically active compounds are extracted mostly from the leaves of the second year's growth, and in pure form are referred to by common chemical names, such as digitoxin or digoxin, or by brand names such as Crystodigin and Lanoxin, respectively. The two drugs differ in that digoxin has an additional hydroxyl group at the C-3 position on the B-ring (adjacent to the pentane). This results in digoxin having a half-life of about one day (and increasing with impaired kidney function), whereas digitoxin's is about 7 days and not affected by kidney function. Both molecules include a lactone and a triple-repeating sugar called a glycoside.Mechanism of actionDigitalis works by inhibiting sodium-potassium ATPase. This results in an increased intracellular concentration of sodium ions and thus a decreased concentration gradient across the cell membrane. This increase in intracellular sodium causes the Na/Ca exchanger to reverse potential, i.e., transition from pumping sodium into the cell in exchange for pumping calcium out of the cell, to pumping sodium out of the cell in exchange for pumping calcium into the cell. This leads to an increase in cytoplasmic calcium concentration, which improves cardiac contractility. Under normal physiological conditions, the cytoplasmic calcium used in cardiac contractions originates from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, an intracellular organelle that stores calcium. Human newborns, some animals, and patients with chronic heart failure lack well developed and fully functioning sarcoplasmic reticula and must rely on the Na/Ca exchanger to provide all or a majority of the cytoplasmic calcium required for cardiac contraction. For this to occur, cytoplasmic sodium must exceed its typical concentration to favour a reversal in potential, which naturally occurs in human newborns and some animals primarily through an elevated heart rate; in patients with chronic heart failure it occurs through the administration of digitalis. As a result of increased contractility, stroke volume is increased. Ultimately, digitalis increases cardiac output (cardiac output stroke volume x heart rate). This is the mechanism that makes this drug a popular treatment for congestive heart failure, which is characterized by low cardiac output.
Digitalis also has a vagal effect on the parasympathetic nervous system, and can be used to slow the ventricular rate during atrial fibrillation (unless there's an accessory pathway, when it can paradoxically increase the heart rate). The dependence on the vagal effect means digitalis is not effective when a patient has a high sympathetic nervous system drive, which is the case with acutely ill persons, and also during exercise.
Molecular probes
Digoxigenin (DIG) is a steroid found in the flowers and leaves of Digitalis species, and is extracted from D. lanata. Digoxigenin can be used as a molecular probe to detect mRNA in situ and label DNA, RNA, and oligonucleotides. It can easily be attached to nucleotides such as uridine by chemical modifications. DIG molecules are often linked to nucleotides; DIG-labelled uridine can then be incorporated into RNA via in vitro transcription. Once hybridisation occurs, RNA with the incorporated DIG-U can be detected with anti-DIG antibodies conjugated to alkaline phosphatase. To reveal the hybridised transcripts, a chromogen can be used which reacts with the alkaline phosphatase to produce a coloured precipitate.Toxicity
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Depending on the species, the digitalis plant may contain several deadly physiological and chemically related cardiac and steroidal glycosides. Thus, the digitalis plants have earned several, more sinister, names: dead man's bells and witch's gloves. The toxins can be absorbed via the skin or ingestion.
Digitalis intoxication, known as digitalism, results from an overdose of digitalis and can cause gastrointestinal, cardiac and neurological effects. The former include appetite loss, nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea; the cardiac symptoms include both tachycardia, and bradycardia (either of which, if severe enough, can result in syncope—see below); and the neurological effects include fatigue, delirium, and rarely xanthopsia (jaundiced or yellow vision). Other oculotoxic effects of digitalis include generalized blurry vision, as well as the appearance of blurred outlines ('halos'). Other things mentioned are dilated pupils, drooling, weakness, collapse, seizures, and even death.
Digitalis poisoning can cause indirect inhibition of the atrioventricular node via a direct effect on the vagal nucleus. This results in bradycardia (decreased heart rate) or if severe enough, heart block. The direct effect of cardiac glycosides on heart muscle cells is to increase contraction of the cells, both in force and frequency, tending to produce tachycardia (increased heart rate), depending on the dose, the condition of one's heart, and the prevailing chemistry of the blood (specifically any of: low potassium, high calcium and low magnesium). Electrical cardioversion (to "shock" the heart) is generally not indicated in ventricular fibrillation in digitalis toxicity, as it can make the rhythm disturbance more complicated or sustained. Furthermore, the classic drug of choice for ventricular fibrillation in emergency setting, amiodarone, can worsen the dysrhythmia caused by digitalis, therefore, the second-choice drug lidocaine is more commonly used. Mild toxicity is treated by stopping the medication and general supportive measures; severe toxicity is treated with anti-digoxin antibody fragments.
The entire plant is toxic (including the roots and seeds). Mortality is rare, but case reports do exist. Most plant exposures occur in children younger than six years and are usually unintentional and without associated significant toxicity. More serious toxicity occurs with intentional ingestion by adolescents and adults.
In some instances, people have confused foxglove with the relatively harmless comfrey (Symphytum) plant, which is sometimes brewed into a tea, with fatal consequences. Other fatal accidents involve children drinking the water in a vase containing digitalis plants. Drying does not reduce the toxicity of the plant. The plant is toxic to animals, including all classes of livestock and poultry, as well as felines and canines.In popular cultureAccording to 1981 speculation, Vincent van Gogh's "Yellow Period" may have been influenced by digitalis, because it had been proposed as a therapy to control epilepsy around this time, and there are two paintings by the artist where the plant is present. Other studies immediately questioned this: there are a large number of other possible explanations for van Gogh's choice of palette, there is no evidence that van Gogh was ever given the drug or that his physician prescribed it, he was tested and had no xanthopsia, and in his many letters of the time he makes it clear that he simply liked using the colour yellow, but it has remained a popular theory.ReferencesExternal links
*[http://www.bris.ac.uk/Depts/Chemistry/MOTM/digitalis/digtalis.htm Molecule of the Month - Digitalis]
*[http://www.emedicine.com/PED/topic590.htm eMedicine link]
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Category:Antiarrhythmic agents
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Dendrite
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A dendrite (from Greek δένδρον déndron, "tree") or dendron is a branched cytoplasmic process that extends from a nerve cell that propagates the electrochemical stimulation received from other neural cells to the cell body, or soma, of the neuron from which the dendrites project. Electrical stimulation is transmitted onto dendrites by upstream neurons (usually via their axons) via synapses which are located at various points throughout the dendritic tree.
Dendrites play a critical role in integrating these synaptic inputs and in determining the extent to which action potentials are produced by the neuron. The dendrite of a large pyramidal cell receives signals from about 30,000 presynaptic neurons. Excitatory synapses terminate on dendritic spines, tiny protrusions from the dendrite with a high density of neurotransmitter receptors. Most inhibitory synapses directly contact the dendritic shaft.
Synaptic activity causes local changes in the electrical potential across the plasma membrane of the dendrite. This change in membrane potential will passively spread along the dendrite, but becomes weaker with distance without an action potential. To generate an action potential, many excitatory synapses have to be active at the same time, leading to strong depolarization of the dendrite and the cell body (soma). The action potential, which typically starts at the axon hillock, propagates down the length of the axon to the axon terminals where it triggers the release of neurotransmitters, but also backwards into the dendrite (retrograde propagation), providing an important signal for spike-timing-dependent plasticity (STDP). An autapse is a synapse in which the axon of one neuron transmits signals to its own dendrite.
The general structure of the dendrite is used to classify neurons into multipolar, bipolar and unipolar types. Multipolar neurons are composed of one axon and many dendritic trees. Pyramidal cells are multipolar cortical neurons with pyramid-shaped cell bodies and large dendrites that extend towards the surface of the cortex (apical dendrite). Bipolar neurons have two main dendrites at opposing ends of the cell body. Many inhibitory neurons have this morphology. Unipolar neurons, typical for insects, have a stalk that extends from the cell body that separates into two branches with one containing the dendrites and the other with the terminal buttons. In vertebrates, sensory neurons detecting touch or temperature are unipolar. Dendritic branching can be extensive and in some cases is sufficient to receive as many as 100,000 inputs to a single neuron. German anatomist Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters is generally credited with the discovery of the axon by distinguishing it from the dendrites.
Some of the first intracellular recordings in a nervous system were made in the late 1930s by Kenneth S. Cole and Howard J. Curtis. Swiss Rüdolf Albert von Kölliker and German Robert Remak were the first to identify and characterize the axonal initial segment. Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley also employed the squid giant axon (1939) and by 1952 they had obtained a full quantitative description of the ionic basis of the action potential, leading to the formulation of the Hodgkin–Huxley model. Hodgkin and Huxley were awarded jointly the Nobel Prize for this work in 1963. The formulas detailing axonal conductance were extended to vertebrates in the Frankenhaeuser–Huxley equations. Louis-Antoine Ranvier was the first to describe the gaps or nodes found on axons and for this contribution these axonal features are now commonly referred to as the Nodes of Ranvier. Santiago Ramón y Cajal, a Spanish anatomist, proposed that axons were the output components of neurons. He also proposed that neurons were discrete cells that communicated with each other via specialized junctions, or spaces, between cells, now known as a synapse. Ramón y Cajal improved a silver staining process known as Golgi's method, which had been developed by his rival, Camillo Golgi.Dendrite developmentDuring the development of dendrites, several factors can influence differentiation. These include modulation of sensory input, environmental pollutants, body temperature, and drug use. For example, rats raised in dark environments were found to have a reduced number of spines in pyramidal cells located in the primary visual cortex and a marked change in distribution of dendrite branching in layer 4 stellate cells. Experiments done in vitro and in vivo have shown that the presence of afferents and input activity per se can modulate the patterns in which dendrites differentiate.
This synapse formation is required for the development of neuronal structure in the functioning brain. A balance between metabolic costs of dendritic elaboration and the need to cover the receptive field presumably determine the size and shape of dendrites. A complex array of extracellular and intracellular cues modulates dendrite development including transcription factors, receptor-ligand interactions, various signaling pathways, local translational machinery, cytoskeletal elements, Golgi outposts and endosomes. These contribute to the organization of the dendrites on individual cell bodies and the placement of these dendrites in the neuronal circuitry. For example, it was shown that β-actin zipcode binding protein 1 (ZBP1) contributes to proper dendritic branching.
Other important transcription factors involved in the morphology of dendrites include CUT, Abrupt, Collier, Spineless, ACJ6/drifter, CREST, NEUROD1, CREB, NEUROG2 etc. Secreted proteins and cell surface receptors include neurotrophins and tyrosine kinase receptors, BMP7, Wnt/dishevelled, EPHB 1–3, Semaphorin/plexin-neuropilin, slit-robo, netrin-frazzled, reelin. Rac, CDC42 and RhoA serve as cytoskeletal regulators, and the motor protein includes KIF5, dynein, LIS1. Dendritic arborization has been found to be induced in cerebellum Purkinje cells by substance P. Important secretory and endocytic pathways controlling the dendritic development include DAR3 /SAR1, DAR2/Sec23, DAR6/Rab1 etc. All these molecules interplay with each other in controlling dendritic morphogenesis including the acquisition of type specific dendritic arborization, the regulation of dendrite size and the organization of dendrites emanating from different neurons.
Dendrites were once thought to merely convey electrical stimulation passively. This passive transmission means that voltage changes measured at the cell body are the result of activation of distal synapses propagating the electric signal towards the cell body without the aid of voltage-gated ion channels. Passive cable theory describes how voltage changes at a particular location on a dendrite transmit this electrical signal through a system of converging dendrite segments of different diameters, lengths, and electrical properties. Based on passive cable theory one can track how changes in a neuron's dendritic morphology impact the membrane voltage at the cell body, and thus how variation in dendrite architectures affects the overall output characteristics of the neuron. Dendrite radius has notable effects on resistance to electrical current, which in turn affects conduction time and speed. Dendrite branching optimizes of energy efficiency while maintaining functional connectivity by minimizing power and emphasizing effective signal transmission, supporting their roles in signal integration over longer times. This behavior seen in dendrites differs from that in axons, which give more priority to conduction time (and speed). Such tradeoffs influence overall neuronal structures, leading to a scaling relationship between conduction time and body size.
Action potentials initiated at the axon hillock propagate back into the dendritic arbor. These back-propagating action potentials depolarize the dendritic membrane and provide a crucial signal for synapse modulation and long-term potentiation. Back-propagation is not completely passive, but modulated by the presence of dendritic voltage-gated potassium channels. Furthermore, in certain types of neurons, a train of back-propagating action potentials can induce a calcium action potential (a dendritic spike) at dendritic initiation zones. Neurotransmitter Release Dendrites release a multitude of neuroactive substances that are not confined to specific neurotransmitter class, signaling molecule, or brain area. Dendrites are seen releasing neurotransmitters such as dopamine, GABA and glutamate in a retrograde fashion. In the hypothalamo-neurohypophysial peptide system, oxytocin and vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone or ADH), are notable neuropeptides that are released from the dendrites of magnocellular neurosecretory cells (MCNs), allowing them to quickly enter the bloodstream. Paraventricular nuclei also release oxytocin and ADH from dendrites, allowing for the regulation of the anterior pituitary gland, as well as modulation of the parasympathetic and sympathetic changes in organs such as the heart and kidneys; this is done by Parvocellular neurosecretory and Parvocellular preautonomic neurons, respectively. In the nigrostriatal and mesolimbic systems, dopamine is released from dendrites in midbrain dopamine neurons, influencing reward and emotion processing, as well as learning and memory. Loss of dopamine from in the nigrostriatal pathway affects neuronal activity from the basal ganglia, therefore playing a role in the onset of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's. Dendritic release of oxytocin, ADH and dopamine have been found to have both autocrine and paracrine effects on the neuron itself (and nearby glia), as well as on afferent nerve terminals.Plasticity Dendrites themselves appear to be capable of plastic changes during the adult life of animals, including invertebrates. Neuronal dendrites have various compartments known as functional units that are able to compute incoming stimuli. These functional units are involved in processing input and are composed of the subdomains of dendrites such as spines, branches, or groupings of branches. Therefore, plasticity that leads to changes in the dendrite structure will affect communication and processing in the cell. During development, dendrite morphology is shaped by intrinsic programs within the cell's genome and extrinsic factors such as signals from other cells. But in adult life, extrinsic signals become more influential and cause more significant changes in dendrite structure compared to intrinsic signals during development. In females, the dendritic structure can change as a result of physiological conditions induced by hormones during periods such as pregnancy, lactation, and following the estrous cycle. This is particularly visible in pyramidal cells of the CA1 region of the hippocampus, where the density of dendrites can vary up to 30%. Certain machine learning architectures based on dendritic trees have been shown to simplify the learning algorithm without affecting performance. Other Functions and Properties
Most excitatory neurons receive synaptic inputs across their dendritic branches, which results in electrical and biochemical compartmentalization, allowing for a phenomenon known as dendritic spikes, where local regenerative potentials contribute to plasticity. In pyramidal neurons dendritic trees have two main functions that allow them to demonstrate an electrical and biochemical compartmentalization that may integrate synaptic inputs prior to transmission to the soma, as well as make up computation units in the brain. The first main function allows for differential synaptic processing due to distribution of synaptic inputs across the dendritic branches. The processing of these synaptic inputs often involve feedforward or feedback mechanisms that vary based on the type of neuron or brain region. The opposite but combined functions of feedforward and feedback processes at different times is proposed to associate different information streams that determine neural selectivity to different stimuli.
The second function of dendritic trees in this regard is their ability to shape signal propagation that allows for sub-cellular compartmentalization. Large depolarizations can lead to local regenerative potentials, which may allow neurons to transition from stages of isolated dendritic events (segregation) to combined dendritic events (integration). Dendritic compartmentalization has implications in information processing, where it serves as a foundation of trans-neuron signaling, processing stimuli, computation, neuronal expressivity, and mitigating neuronal noise. Likewise, this phenomenon also underlies the storage of information by optimizing learning capacity and storage capacity. In other types of neurons, such as those of the medial superior olive, have differing dendritic properties that allow for coincidence detection. In contrast, in retinal ganglion cells, dendritic integration is used for computing directional selectivity, allowing neurons to respond to direction of movement. Therefore dendritic trees serve various purposes in integrating and processing various different types of stimuli and underly various neurological processes.
Overview of Clinical Implications of Dendrite Dysfunction
Dendrite dysfunction and alterations in dendrite morphology may contribute to many neuropathies and diseases. Changes in dendrite morphology may include alterations in branching patterns, fragmentation, loss of branching, and alterations in spine morphology and number. Such abnormalities contribute to a wide range of neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders such as autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), schizophrenia, down syndrome, fragile X syndrome, Alzheimer's disease (AD), and more. For example, subjects with ASD were observed to have reduced dendrite branching in the CA1 and CA4 regions of the hippocampus, in addition to increased spine density. In Rett Syndrome, researchers have observed less dendrite branching in the basal dendrites of the motor cortex and subiculum. In schizophrenic patients, reduced dendritic arbor (the tree-like network of dendrites) and spine density were observed. In addition to psychological and neurodevelopmental disorders, dendrite dysfunction has also been seen to have implications in onset of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's. Alzheimer's patients have been observed to have significant changes in dendritic arbor, as well as smaller dendrite lengths in the apical and basal trees of the CA1a and CA1b areas of the hippocampus. As such, there is much continuous research exploring the effects of dysfunction in dendritic branching and morphology, and scientists continue to expand their study in this field to better understand the basis of various neurological disorders.
References
External links
* - "Slide 3 Spinal cord"
* [http://ccdb.ucsd.edu/sand/main?stypelite&keyworddendritic%20tree&SubmitGo&eventdisplay&start=1 Dendritic Tree - Cell Centered Database]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120402103223/http://www.detraditie.nl/sdt_sdtreferenceseries/sdt_rsi_2011_dendrites.pdf Stereo images of dendritic trees in Kryptopterus electroreceptor organs]
Category:Neurohistology
Category:Neuroplasticity
Category:1880s neologisms
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Dalai Lama
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| incumbent = Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama
| image = Tenzin Gyatso - 14th Dalai Lama (2012).jpg
| first = Gendün Drubpa, 1st Dalai Lama<br />(posthumously awarded after 1578)
| formation = 1391
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The Dalai Lama (, ; ) is the head of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism. The term is part of the full title "Holiness Knowing Everything Vajradhara Dalai Lama" (圣 识一切 瓦齐尔达喇 达赖 喇嘛) given by Altan Khan, the first Shunyi King of Ming China. He offered it in appreciation to the Gelug school's then-leader, Sonam Gyatso, who received it in 1578 at Yanghua Monastery. At that time, Sonam Gyatso had just given teachings to the Khan, and so the title of Dalai Lama was also given to the entire tulku lineage. Sonam Gyatso became the 3rd Dalai Lama, while the first two tulkus in the lineage, the 1st Dalai Lama and the 2nd Dalai Lama, were posthumously awarded the title.
All tulkus in the lineage of the Dalai Lamas are considered manifestations of Avalokiteshvara,
Since the time of the 5th Dalai Lama in the 17th century, the Dalai Lama has been a symbol of unification of the state of Tibet. The Dalai Lama was an important figure of the Gelug tradition, which was dominant in Central Tibet, but his religious authority went beyond sectarian boundaries, representing Buddhist values and traditions not tied to a specific school. The Dalai Lama's traditional function as an ecumenical figure has been taken up by the fourteenth Dalai Lama, who has worked to overcome sectarian and other divisions in the exile community and become a symbol of Tibetan nationhood for Tibetans in Tibet and in exile. He is Tenzin Gyatso, who escaped from Lhasa in 1959 during the Tibetan diaspora and lives in exile in Dharamshala, India.
From 1642 and the 5th Dalai Lama until 1951 and the 14th Dalai Lama, the lineage was enjoined with the secular role of governing Tibet. During this period, the Dalai Lamas or their Kalons (or regents) led the Tibetan government in Lhasa, known as the Ganden Phodrang. The Ganden Phodrang government officially functioned as a protectorate under Qing China rule and governed all of the Tibetan Plateau while respecting varying degrees of autonomy. After the Qing dynasty collapsed in 1912, the Republic of China (ROC) claimed succession over all former Qing territories, but struggled to establish authority in Tibet. The 13th Dalai Lama declared that Tibet's relationship with China had ended with the Qing dynasty's fall and proclaimed independence, though this was not formally recognized under international law. In 1951, the 14th Dalai Lama ratified the Seventeen Point Agreement with China. In 1959, he revoked the agreement. He initially supported the Tibetan independence movement, but in 1974, he rejected calls for Tibetan independence. Since 2005 he has publicly agreed that Tibet is part of China and not supported separatism.
There is a concept in Tibetan history known as "mchod yon" (མཆོད་ཡོན), often translated as "priest and patron relationship". It describes the historical alliance between Tibetan Buddhist leaders and secular rulers, such as the Mongols, Manchus, and Chinese authorities. In this relationship, the secular patron (yon bdag) provides political protection and support to the religious figure, who in turn offers spiritual guidance and legitimacy. Proponents of this theory argue that it allowed Tibet to maintain a degree of autonomy in religious and cultural matters while ensuring political stability and protection.
Critics, including Sam van Schaik, contend that the theory oversimplifies the situation and often obscures the political dominance more powerful states exert over Tibet. Historians such as Melvyn Goldstein have called Tibet a vassal state or tributary, subject to external control. During the Yuan dynasty, Tibetan lamas held significant religious influence, but the Mongol Khans had ultimate political authority. Similarly, under the Qing Dynasty, which established control over Tibet in 1720, the region enjoyed a degree of autonomy, but all diplomatic agreements recognized Qing China's sovereign right to negotiate and conclude treaties and trade agreements involving Tibet. Since the 18th century, Chinese authorities have asserted the right to oversee the selection of Tibetan spiritual leaders, including the Dalai and Panchen Lamas. This practice was formalized in 1793 through the "29-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet".
According to Tibetan Buddhist doctrine, the Dalai Lama chooses his reincarnation. In recent times, the 14th Dalai Lama has opposed Chinese government involvement, emphasizing that his reincarnation should not be subject to external political influence.
Names
The title "Dalai Lama" is part of the full title "圣 识一切 瓦齐尔达喇 达赖 喇嘛" (Holiness Knowing Everying Vajradhara Dalai Lama) given by Altan Khan. "Dalai Lama" is a combination of the Mongolic word () and the Tibetan word () (). The word corresponds to the Tibetan word gyatso or rgya-mtsho, The Dalai Lama is also known in Tibetan as the Rgyal-ba Rin-po-che () or simply as the Rgyal-ba.
As requested by the third Shunyi King of Ming China, Chelike, Sonam Gyatso was given title Duǒ Er Zhǐ Chàng (朵儿只唱) by the Wanli Emperor.
In 1616, the Ming Government granted the title "Universally Holding Vajra Buddha (普持金刚佛)".
In 1654 AD, the Qing government granted the title "Freedom Buddha of the Great Goodness of the Western Paradise Leading the World of Buddhism Knowing Everything Vajradhara Dalai Lama (西天大善自在佛所领天下释教普通瓦赤喇怛喇达赖喇嘛)".
In 1908, the Qing Government granted the title "Sincere Obedient and Praised the Freedom Buddha of the Great Goodness of the Western Paradise (诚顺赞化西天大善自在佛)".
Revocation of the Dalai Lama title
In 1705, the Kangxi Emperor revoked Tsangyang Gyatso's Dalai Lama title. Tsangyang Gyatso died while being sent to Beijing.
In 1904, the Qing Government temporarily revoked Thubten Gyatso's Dalai Lama title.
History
Origins in myth and legend
Since the 11th century, it has been widely believed in Central Asian Buddhist countries that Avalokiteśvara, the bodhisattva of compassion, has a special relationship with the people of Tibet and intervenes in their fate by incarnating as benevolent rulers and teachers such as the Dalai Lamas. The Book of Kadam, the main text of the Kadampa school from which the 1st Dalai Lama hailed, is said to have laid the foundation for the Tibetans' later identification of the Dalai Lamas as incarnations of Avalokiteśvara. It traces the legend of the bodhisattva's incarnations as early Tibetan kings and emperors such as Songtsen Gampo and later as Dromtönpa (1004–1064). This lineage has been extrapolated by Tibetans up to and including the Dalai Lamas.
Thus, according to such sources, an informal line of succession of the present Dalai Lamas as incarnations of Avalokiteśvara stretches back much further than the 1st Dalai Lama, Gendun Drub; as many as sixty persons are enumerated as earlier incarnations of Avalokiteśvara and predecessors in the same lineage leading up to Gendun Drub. These earlier incarnations include a mythology of 36 Indian personalities, ten early Tibetan kings and emperors all said to be previous incarnations of Dromtönpa, and fourteen further Nepalese and Tibetan yogis and sages. In fact, according to the "Birth to Exile" article on the 14th Dalai Lama's website, he is "the seventy-fourth in a lineage that can be traced back to a Brahmin boy who lived in the time of Buddha Shakyamuni."
Avalokiteśvara's "Dalai Lama master plan"
According to the 14th Dalai Lama, long ago Avalokiteśvara had promised the Buddha to guide and defend the Tibetan people. In the late Middle Ages, his master plan to fulfill this promise was the stage-by-stage establishment of the Dalai Lama institution in Tibet.
First, Tsongkhapa established three great monasteries around Lhasa in the province of Ü before he died in 1419. The 1st Dalai Lama soon became Abbot of the greatest one, Drepung, and developed a large popular power base in Ü. He later extended this to cover Tsang, where he constructed a fourth great monastery, Tashi Lhunpo, at Shigatse. The 2nd studied there before returning to Lhasa, Having reactivated the 1st's large popular followings in Tsang and Ü, the 2nd then moved on to southern Tibet and gathered more followers there who helped him construct a new monastery, Chokorgyel. He established the method by which later Dalai Lama incarnations would be discovered through visions at the "oracle lake", Lhamo Lhatso.
The 3rd built on his predecessors' fame by becoming Abbot of the two great monasteries of Drepung and Sera. After being given the Mongolian name 'Dalai', he returned to Tibet to found the great monasteries of Lithang in Kham, eastern Tibet and Kumbum in Amdo, north-eastern Tibet.
The 4th was then born in Mongolia as the great-grandson of Altan Khan, cementing strong ties between Central Asia, the Dalai Lamas, the Gelugpa and Tibet. The 5th in the succession used the vast popular power base of devoted followers built up by his four predecessors. By 1642, with the strategy provided by his chagdzo (manager) Sonam Rapten and the military assistance of Khoshut chieftain Gushri Khan, the 'Great 5th' founded the Dalai Lamas' religious and political reign over Tibet that survived for over 300 years.
Establishment of the Dalai Lama lineage
Gendun Drup (1391–1474), a disciple of Je Tsongkapa, would eventually be known as the 'First Dalai Lama', but he would not receive this title until 104 years after he died.
There was resistance to naming him as such, since he was ordained a monk in the Kadampa tradition
Despite this, 55 years after Tsongkhapa, the Tashilhunpo monks heard accounts that an incarnation of Gendun Drup had appeared nearby and repeatedly announced himself from the age of two. The monastic authorities saw compelling evidence that convinced them the child in question was indeed the incarnation of their founder and felt obliged to break with their own tradition, and in 1487, the boy was renamed Gendun Gyatso and installed at Tashilhunpo as Gendun Drup's tulku, albeit informally.
Gendun Gyatso died in 1542, but the lineage of Dalai Lama tulkus became firmly established with the third incarnation, Sonam Gyatso (1543–1588), who was formally recognised and enthroned at Drepung in 1546. Gendun Gyatso was given the title "Dalai Lama" by the Tümed Altan Khan in 1578, and his two predecessors were then accorded the title posthumously, making Gendun now the third in the lineage. Pema Dorje was sent to Narthang, a major Kadampa monastery near Shigatse, which ran the largest printing press in Tibet. Its celebrated library attracted many scholars, so Pema Dorje received an education beyond the norm at the time as well as exposure to diverse spiritual schools and ideas.
He studied Buddhist philosophy extensively. In 1405, ordained by Narthang's abbot, he took the name of Gendun Drup.
In 1415, Gendun Drup met Tsongkhapa, founder of the Gelugpa school, and became his student. After the death of Tsongkhapa's successor, the Panchen Lama Khedrup Je, Gendun Drup became the leader of the Gelugpa. Taking advantage of good relations with the nobility and a lack of determined opposition from rival orders, he founded Tashilhunpo Monastery at Shigatse, on the very edge of Karma Kagyu-dominated territory, This monastery became the fourth great Gelugpa monastery in Tibet, after Ganden, Drepung, and Sera, all founded in Tsongkhapa's time,
By establishing it at Shigatse in the middle of Tsang, Gendun Drup expanded the Gelugpa sphere of influence, and his own, from the Lhasa region of Ü to this province, which was the stronghold of the Karma Kagyu school and their patrons, the rising Tsangpa dynasty. Tashilhunpo eventually become 'Southern Tibet's greatest monastic university' with a complement of 3,000 monks. Through hard work he became a leading lama, known as 'Perfecter of the Monkhood', 'with a host of disciples'. he was accorded the honorary title Tamchey Khyenpa meaning "The Omniscient One", an appellation that was later assigned to all Dalai Lama incarnations.
At the age of 50, he entered meditation retreat at Narthang. As he grew older, Karma Kagyu adherents, finding their sect was losing too many recruits to the monkhood to burgeoning Gelugpa monasteries, tried to contain Gelug expansion by launching military expeditions against them. This led to decades of military and political power struggles between Tsangpa dynasty forces and others across central Tibet. In an attempt to ameliorate these clashes, Gendun Drup issued a poem of advice to his followers advising restraint from responding to violence with more violence and urged compassion and patience instead. The poem, entitled Shar Gang Rima, "The Song of the Eastern Snow Mountains", became one of his most enduring popular literary works.
Gendun Drup's spiritual accomplishments brought him substantial donations from devotees which he used to build and furnish new monasteries, as well as to print and distribute Buddhist texts and to maintain monks and meditators. In 1474, at the age of 84, he went on a final teaching tour by foot to visit Narthang Monastery. Returning to Tashilhunpo he died 'in a blaze of glory, recognised as having attained Buddhahood'. declared himself at the age of three to be Gendun Drup and asked to be 'taken home' to Tashilhunpo. He spoke in mystical verses, quoted classical texts spontaneously, and claimed to be Dromtönpa, an earlier incarnation of the Dalai Lamas. When he saw monks from Tashilhunpo, he greeted the disciples of the late Gendun Drup by name. Convinced by the evidence, the Gelugpa elders broke with the traditions of their school and recognised him as Gendun Drup's tulku at the age of eight. At twelve he was installed at Tashilhunpo as Gendun Drup's incarnation, ordained, enthroned, and renamed Gendun Gyatso Palzangpo (1475–1542). Two years later, he met some opposition from the Tashilhunpo establishment when tensions arose over conflicts between advocates of the two types of succession: the traditional abbatial election through merit and incarnation. He therefore moved to central Tibet, where he was invited to Drepung and where his reputation as a brilliant young teacher quickly grew. This move had the effect of shifting central Gelug authority back to Lhasa.
He was afforded all the loyalty and devotion that Gendun Drup had earned and the Gelug school remained as united as ever. Gendun Gyatso's popularity in Ü-Tsang grew as he went on pilgrimage, teaching and studying from masters such as the adept Khedrup Norzang Gyatso in the Olklha mountains. He also stayed in Kongpo and Dagpo and became known all over Tibet.
In 1509, he moved to southern Tibet to build Chokorgyel Monastery near the 'Oracle Lake', Lhamo Latso, That year he saw visions in the lake and 'empowered' it to impart clues to help identify incarnate lamas. All Dalai Lamas from the 3rd on were found with the help of such visions granted to regents. He was invited back to Tashilhunpo and given the residence built for Gendun Drup, to be occupied later by the Panchen Lamas. and stayed there teaching in Tsang for nine months.
Gendun Gyatso continued to travel widely and teach while based at Tibet's largest monastery, Drepung and became known as 'Drepung Lama', his fame and influence spreading all over Central Asia as the best students from hundreds of lesser monasteries in Asia were sent to Drepung for education. In 1498, the Ringpung army captured Lhasa and banned the Gelugpa annual New Year Monlam Prayer Festival. Gendun Gyatso was promoted to abbot of Drepung in 1517 Gendun Gyatso then went to the Gongma (King) Drakpa Jungne to obtain permission for the festival to be held again. As abbot, he made Drepung the largest monastery in the whole of Tibet. He attracted many students and disciples 'from Kashmir to China' as well as major patrons and disciples such as Gongma Nangso Donyopa of Droda who built a monastery at Zhekar Dzong in his honour and invited him to name it and be its spiritual guide. He died in meditation at Drepung in 1542 at the age of 67 and his reliquary stupa was constructed at Khyomorlung. It was said that, by the time he died, through his disciples and their students, his personal influence covered the whole of Buddhist Central Asia where 'there was nobody of any consequence who did not know of him.'
as predicted by his predecessor. Unlike his predecessors, he came from a noble family, connected with the Sakya and the Phagmo Drupa (Karma Kagyu affiliated) dynasties, he had the spiritual maturity to be made Abbot of Drepung, taking responsibility for the material and spiritual well-being of Tibet's largest monastery at the age of nine. At 10 he led the Monlam Prayer Festival, giving daily discourses to the assembly of all Gelugpa monks. His influence grew so quickly that soon the monks at Sera Monastery also made him their Abbot His popularity and renown became such that in 1564 when the Nedong King died, it was Sonam Gyatso at the age of 21 who was requested to lead his funeral rites, rather than his own Kagyu lamas. In 1569, at age 26, he went to Tashilhunpo to study the layout and administration of the monastery built by his predecessor Gendun Drup. Invited to become the Abbot he declined, already being Abbot of Drepung and Sera, but left his deputy there in his stead. From there he visited Narthang, the first monastery of Gendun Drup and gave numerous discourses and offerings to the monks in gratitude. and swore allegiance to Ming, Although he remained de facto quite independent, China was also happy to help Altan Khan by providing necessary translations of holy scripture, and also lamas.
At the second invitation, in 1577–78 Sonam Gyatso travelled 1,500 miles to Mongolia to see him. They met in an atmosphere of intense reverence and devotion and their meeting resulted in the re-establishment of strong Tibet-Mongolia relations after a gap of 200 years.
Altan Khan and his followers quickly adopted Buddhism as their state religion, replacing the prohibited traditional Shamanism.
In October 1587, as requested by the family of Altan Khan, Gyalwa Sonam Gyatso was promoted to Duǒ Er Zhǐ Chàng (Chinese:朵儿只唱) by the emperor of China, seal of authority and golden sheets were granted.
The name "Dalai Lama", by which the lineage later became known throughout the non-Tibetan world, was thus established and it was applied to the first two incarnations retrospectively. Returning eventually to Tibet by a roundabout route and invited to stay and teach all along the way, in 1580 Sonam Gyatso was in Hohhot [or Ningxia], not far from Beijing, when the Chinese Emperor summoned him to his court.
By then he had established a religious empire of such proportions that it was unsurprising the Emperor wanted to summon him and grant him a diploma. In 1582, he heard Altan Khan had died and invited by his son Dhüring Khan he decided to return to Mongolia. Passing through Amdo, he founded a second great monastery, Kumbum, at the birthplace of Tsongkhapa near Kokonor.
Arriving in Mongolia in 1585, he stayed 2 years with Dhüring Khan, teaching Buddhism to his people As he was dying, his Mongolian converts urged him not to leave them, as they needed his continuing religious leadership. He promised them he would be incarnated next in Mongolia, as a Mongolian. who was a descendant of Kublai Khan and leader of the Tümed Mongols who had already been converted to Buddhism by the Third Dalai Lama, Sonam Gyatso (1543–1588).
At the age of 10 with a large Mongol escort he travelled to Lhasa where he was enthroned. He studied at Drepung and became its abbot but being a non-Tibetan he met with opposition from some Tibetans, especially the Karma Kagyu who felt their position was threatened by these emerging events; there were several attempts to remove him from power. Seal of authority was granted in 1616 by Wanli Emperor of Ming. Yonten Gyatso died at the age of 27 under suspicious circumstances and his chief attendant Sonam Rapten went on to discover the 5th Dalai Lama, became his chagdzo or manager and after 1642 he went on to be his regent, the Desi. 5th Dalai Lama
The death of the Fourth Dalai Lama in 1617 led to open conflict breaking out between various parties. However, in 1618 Sonam Rabten, the former attendant of the 4th Dalai Lama who had become the Ganden Phodrang treasurer, secretly identified the child, who had been born to the noble Zahor family at Tagtse castle, south of Lhasa. Then, the Panchen Lama, in Shigatse, negotiated the lifting of the ban, enabling the boy to be recognised as Lobsang Gyatso, the 5th Dalai Lama. to seek more active Mongol patronage and military assistance for the Gelugpa while the Fifth was still a boy. As a young man, being 22 years his junior, the Dalai Lama addressed him reverentially as "Zhalngo", meaning "the Presence".
During the 1630s Tibet was deeply entangled in rivalry, evolving power struggles and conflicts, not only between the Tibetan religious sects but also between the rising Manchus and the various rival Mongol and Oirat factions, who were also vying for supremacy amongst themselves and on behalf of the religious sects they patronised.
His vassal Choghtu Khong Tayiji, continued to advance against the Gelugpas, even having his own son Arslan killed after Arslan changed sides, submitted to the Dalai Lama and become a Gelugpa monk. By the mid-1630s, thanks again to the efforts of Sonam Rabten, The intercepted letter was sent to Güshi Khan who used it as a pretext to invade central Tibet in 1639 to attack them both, the Bönpo and the Tsangpa. By 1641 he had defeated Donyo Dorje and his allies in Kham and then he marched on Shigatse where after laying siege to their strongholds he defeated Karma Tenkyong, broke the power of the Tsang Karma Kagyu in 1642 and ended the Tsangpa dynasty.
Güshi Khan's attack on the Tsangpa was made on the orders of Sonam Rapten while being publicly and robustly opposed by the Dalai Lama, who, as a matter of conscience, out of compassion and his vision of tolerance for other religious schools, refused to give permission for more warfare in his name after the defeat of the Beri king. Sonam Rabten deviously went behind his master's back to encourage Güshi Khan, to facilitate his plans and to ensure the attacks took place; However, after a few months, Norbu betrayed him and led a rebellion against the Ganden Phodrang Government. With his accomplices he seized Samdruptse fort at Shigatse and tried to raise a rebel army from Tsang and Bhutan, but the Dalai Lama skilfully foiled his plans without any fighting taking place and Norbu had to flee. Four other Desis were appointed after Depa Norbu: Trinle Gyatso, Lozang Tutop, Lozang Jinpa and Sangye Gyatso.
Re-unification of Tibet
Having thus defeated all the Gelugpa's rivals and resolved all regional and sectarian conflicts Güshi Khan became the undisputed patron of a unified Tibet and acted as a "Protector of the Gelug", establishing the Khoshut Khanate which covered almost the entire Tibetan plateau, an area corresponding roughly to 'Greater Tibet' including Kham and Amdo, as claimed by exiled groups (see maps). At an enthronement ceremony in Shigatse he conferred full sovereignty over Tibet on the Fifth Dalai Lama, unified for the first time since the collapse of the Tibetan Empire exactly eight centuries earlier. Güshi Khan then retired to Kokonor with his armies
Güshi Khan died in 1655 and was succeeded by his descendants Dayan, Tenzin Dalai Khan and Tenzin Wangchuk Khan. However, Güshi Khan's other eight sons had settled in Amdo but fought amongst themselves over territory so the Fifth Dalai Lama sent governors to rule them in 1656 and 1659, thereby bringing Amdo and thus the whole of Greater Tibet under his personal rule and Gelugpa control. The Mongols in Amdo became absorbed and Tibetanised.
Visit to Beijing
In 1636 the Manchus proclaimed their dynasty as the Qing dynasty and by 1644 they had completed their conquest of China under the prince regent Dorgon. The following year their forces approached Amdo on northern Tibet, causing the Oirat and Khoshut Mongols there to submit in 1647 and send tribute. In 1648, after quelling a rebellion of Tibetans of Gansu-Xining, the Qing invited the Fifth Dalai Lama to visit their court at Beijing since they wished to engender Tibetan influence in their dealings with the Mongols. The Qing were aware the Dalai Lama had extraordinary influence with the Mongols and saw relations with the Dalai Lama as a means to facilitate submission of the Khalka Mongols, traditional patrons of the Karma Kagyu sect.
Similarly, since the Tibetan Gelugpa were keen to revive a priest-patron relationship with the dominant power in China and Inner Asia, the Qing invitation was accepted. After five years of complex diplomatic negotiations about whether the emperor or his representatives should meet the Dalai Lama inside or outside the Great Wall, when the meeting would be astrologically favourable, how it would be conducted and so on, it eventually took place in Beijing in 1653. The 5th Dalai Lama wanted to use the golden seal of authority right away.
However, despite such patronising attempts by Chinese officials and historians to symbolically show for the record that they held political influence over Tibet, the Tibetans themselves did not accept any such symbols imposed on them by the Chinese with this kind of motive. For example, concerning the above-mentioned 'golden seal', the Fifth Dalai Lama comments in Dukula, his autobiography, on leaving China after this courtesy visit to the emperor in 1653, that "the emperor made his men bring a golden seal for me that had three vertical lines in three parallel scripts: Chinese, Mongol and Tibetan". He also criticised the words carved on this gift as being faultily translated into Tibetan, writing that "The Tibetan version of the inscription of the seal was translated by a Mongol translator but was not a good translation". Relations with the Qing dynasty The 17th-century struggles for domination between the Manchu-led Qing dynasty and the various Mongol groups spilled over to involve Tibet because of the Fifth Dalai Lama's strong influence over the Mongols as a result of their general adoption of Tibetan Buddhism and their consequent deep loyalty to the Dalai Lama as their guru. Until 1674, the Fifth Dalai Lama had mediated in Dzungar Mongol affairs whenever they required him to do so, and the Kangxi Emperor, who had succeeded the Shunzhi Emperor in 1661, would accept and confirm his decisions automatically.
For the Kangxi Emperor, the alliance between the Dzungar Mongols and the Tibetans was unsettling because he feared it had the potential to unite all the other Mongol tribes together against the Qing Empire, including those tribes who had already submitted. Therefore, in 1674, the Kangxi Emperor, annoyed by the Fifth's less than full cooperation in quelling a rebellion against the Qing in Yunnan, ceased deferring to him as regards Mongol affairs and started dealing with them directly. His reign and that of Desi Sangye Gyatso are noteworthy for the upsurge in literary activity and of cultural and economic life that occurred. The same goes for the great increase in the number of foreign visitors thronging Lhasa during the period as well as for the number of inventions and institutions that are attributed to the 'Great Fifth', as the Tibetans refer to him. The most dynamic and prolific of the early Dalai Lamas, he composed more literary works than all the other Dalai Lamas combined. Writing on a wide variety of subjects he is specially noted for his works on history, classical Indian poetry in Sanskrit and his biographies of notable personalities of his epoch, as well as his own two autobiographies, one spiritual in nature and the other political (see Further Reading). He also taught and travelled extensively, reshaped the politics of Central Asia, unified Tibet, conceived and constructed the Potala Palace and is remembered for establishing systems of national medical care and education.
In 1703 Güshi Khan's ruling grandson Tenzin Wangchuk Khan was murdered by his brother Lhazang Khan who usurped the Khoshut Khanate's Tibetan throne, but unlike his four predecessors he started interfering directly in Tibetan affairs in Lhasa; he opposed the Fifth Dalai Lama's regent, Desi Sangye Gyatso for his deceptions and in the same year, with the support of the Kangxi Emperor, he forced him out of office. When Lhazang was requested by the Tibetans to leave Lhasa politics to them and to retire to Kokonor like his predecessors, he quit the city. Desi Sangye Gyatso decided to kill Lhazang, he secretly sent someone to poison the food of Lhazang, but was discovered. Lhazang was furious and immediately mobilized a large army to defeat the Tibetan army and killed Desi Sangye Gyatso. In 1705, he wrote a letter to the Qing government, reporting Desi Sangye Gyatso's rebellion and that the sixth Dalai Lama, appointed by Desi Sangye Gyatso, was addicted to wine and sex and ignored religious affairs. He reported the Dalai Lama was not a real Dalai Lama and requested emperor to demote and revoke him. He used the Sixth's escapades as an excuse to seize full control of Tibet. Most Tibetans, though, still supported their Dalai Lama despite his behaviour and deeply resented Lhazang Khan's interference. But Emperor Kangxi then issued an edict: "Because Lhazang Khan reported to depose the sixth Dalai Lama appointed by Desi Sangye Gyatso, the sixth Dalai Lama is ordered to be sent to capital Beijing."
Having discredited and deposed the Sixth Dalai Lama, whom he considered an impostor, and having removed the regent, Lhazang Khan pressed the Lhasa Gelugpa lamas to endorse a new Dalai Lama in Tsangyang Gyatso's place as the true incarnation of the Fifth. They eventually nominated one Pekar Dzinpa, a monk but also rumored to be Lhazang's son, and Lhazang had him installed as the 'real' Sixth Dalai Lama, endorsed by the Panchen Lama and named Yeshe Gyatso in 1707. This choice was in no way accepted by the Tibetan people, however, nor by Lhazang's princely Mongol rivals in Kokonor who resented his usurpation of the Khoshut Tibetan throne as well as his meddling in Tibetan affairs. 7th Dalai Lama
In 1708, in accordance with an indication given by the 6th Dalai Lama when quitting Lhasa, a child called Kelzang Gyatso had been born at Lithang in eastern Tibet who was soon claimed by local Tibetans to be his incarnation. After going into hiding out of fear of Lhazang Khan, he was installed in Lithang monastery. Along with some of the Kokonor Mongol princes, rivals of Lhazang, in defiance of the situation in Lhasa the Tibetans of Kham duly recognised him as the Seventh Dalai Lama in 1712, retaining his birth-name of Kelzang Gyatso. For security reasons he was moved to Derge monastery and eventually, in 1716, now also backed and sponsored by the Kangxi Emperor of China.
The Tibetans asked Dzungars to bring a true Dalai Lama to Lhasa, but the Manchu Chinese did not want to release Kelsan Gyatso to the Mongol Dzungars. The Regent Taktse Shabdrung and Tibetan officials then wrote a letter to the Manchu Chinese Emperor that they recognized Kelsang Gyatso as the Dalai Lama. The Emperor then granted Kelsang Gyatso a golden seal of authority. The Sixth Dalai Lama was taken to Amdo at the age of 8 to be installed in Kumbum Monastery with great pomp and ceremony. According to Mullin, however, the emperor's support came from genuine spiritual recognition and respect rather than being politically motivated.
Dzungar invasion
In any case, the Kangxi Emperor took full advantage of having Kelzang Gyatso under Qing control at Kumbum after other Mongols from the Dzungar tribes led by Tsewang Rabtan who was related to his supposed ally Lhazang Khan, deceived and betrayed the latter by invading Tibet and capturing Lhasa in 1717.
These Dzungars, who were Buddhist, had supported the Fifth Dalai Lama and his regent. They were secretly petitioned by the Lhasa Gelugpa lamas to invade with their help in order to rid them of their foreign ruler Lhazang Khan and to replace the unpopular Sixth Dalai Lama pretender with the young Kelzang Gyatso. This plot suited the devious Dzungar leaders' ambitions and they were only too happy to oblige. Early in 1717, after conspiring to undermine Lhazang Khan through treachery they entered Tibet from the northwest with a large army, sending a smaller force to Kumbum to collect Kelzang Gyatso and escort him to Lhasa.
By the end of the year, with Tibetan connivance they had captured Lhasa, killed Lhazang and all his family and deposed Yeshe Gyatso. Their force sent to fetch Kelzang Gyatso, however, was intercepted and destroyed by Qing armies alerted by Lhazang. In Lhasa, the unruly Dzungar not only failed to produce the boy but also went on the rampage, looting and destroying the holy places, abusing the populace, killing hundreds of Nyingma monks, causing chaos and bloodshed and turning their Tibetan allies against them. The Tibetans were soon appealing to the Kangxi Emperor to rid them of the Dzungars. Enthronement in Lhasa
This humiliation only determined the Kangxi Emperor to expel the Dzungars from Tibet once and for all and he set about assembling and dispatching a much larger force to march on Lhasa, bringing the emperor's trump card the young Kelzang Gyatso with it. On the imperial army's stately passage from Kumbum to Lhasa with the boy being welcomed adoringly at every stage, Khoshut Mongols and Tibetans were happy (and well paid) to join and swell its ranks.
By the autumn of 1720, the marauding Dzungar Mongols had been vanquished from Tibet. Qing imperial forces had entered Lhasa triumphantly with the 12-year-old, acting as patrons of the Dalai Lama, liberators of Tibet, allies of the Tibetan anti-Dzungar forces led by Kangchenas and Polhanas, and allies of the Khoshut Mongol princes. The delighted Tibetans enthroned him as the Seventh Dalai Lama at the Potala Palace.
A new Tibetan government was established consisting of a Kashag or cabinet of Tibetan ministers headed by Kangchenas. Kelzang Gyatso, too young to participate in politics, studied Buddhism. He played a symbolic role in government, and, being profoundly revered by the Mongols, he exercised much influence with the Qing who now had now taken over Tibet's patronage and protection from them.
Exile to Kham
Having vanquished the Dzungars, the Qing army withdrew leaving the Seventh Dalai Lama as a political figurehead and only a Khalkha Mongol as the Qing amban or representative and a garrison in Lhasa. After the Kangxi Emperor died in 1722 and was succeeded by his son, the Yongzheng Emperor, these were also withdrawn, leaving the Tibetans to rule autonomously and showing the Qing were interested in an alliance, not conquest.
Continuing Qing interference in Central Tibetan politics and religion incited an anti-Qing faction to quarrel with the Qing-sympathising Tibetan nobles in power in Lhasa, led by Kanchenas who was supported by Polhanas. This led eventually to the murder of Kanchenas in 1727 and a civil war that was resolved in 1728 with the canny Polhanas, who had sent for Qing assistance, the victor. When the Qing forces did arrive they punished the losers and exiled the Seventh Dalai Lama to Kham, under the pretence of sending him to Beijing, because his father had assisted the defeated, anti-Qing faction. He studied and taught Buddhism there for the next seven years.
Return to Lhasa
In 1735 he was allowed back to Lhasa to study and teach, but still under strict control, being mistrusted by the Qing, while Polhanas ruled Central Tibet under nominal Qing supervision. Meanwhile, the Qing had promoted the Fifth Panchen Lama to be a rival leader and reinstated the ambans and the Lhasa garrison. Polhanas died in 1747. He was succeeded by his son Gyurme Namgyal, the last dynastic ruler of Tibet, who was far less cooperative with the Qing. He built a Tibetan army and started conspiring with the Dzungars to rid Tibet of Qing influence. In 1750, when the ambans realised this, they invited him and personally assassinated him. Despite the Dalai Lama's attempts to calm the angered populace, a vengeful Tibetan mob assassinated the ambans, along with most of their escort.
Restoration as Tibet's political leader
The Qing sent yet another force 'to restore order' but when it arrived the situation had already been stabilised under the leadership of the 7th Dalai Lama who was now seen to have demonstrated loyalty to the Qing. Just as Güshi Khan had done with the Fifth Dalai Lama, they therefore helped reconstitute the government with the Dalai Lama presiding over a Kashag of four Tibetans, reinvesting him with temporal power in addition to his already established spiritual leadership. This arrangement, with a Kashag under the Dalai Lama or his regent, outlasted the Qing dynasty which collapsed in 1912.
The ambans and their garrison were reinstated to observe and to some extent supervise affairs. Their influence generally waned with the power of their empire, which gradually declined after 1792 along with its influence over Tibet, a decline aided by a succession of corrupt or incompetent ambans. Moreover, there was soon no reason for the Qing to fear the Dzungar; by the time the Seventh Dalai Lama died in 1757 at the age of 49, the entire Dzungar people had been practically exterminated through years of genocidal campaigns by Qing armies, and deadly smallpox epidemics, with the survivors being forcibly transported into China. Their emptied lands were then awarded to other peoples.
According to Mullin, despite living through such violent times Kelzang Gyatso was perhaps 'the most spiritually learned and accomplished of any Dalai Lama', his written works comprising several hundred titles including 'some of Tibet's finest spiritual literary achievements'. Despite his apparent lack of zeal in politics, Kelzang Gyatso is credited with establishing in 1751 the reformed government of Tibet headed by the Dalai Lama, which continued over 200 years until the 1950s, and then in exile. Construction of the Norbulingka, the 'Summer Palace' of the Dalai Lamas in Lhasa was started during Kelzang Gyatso's reign. 8th Dalai Lama
The Eighth Dalai Lama, Jamphel Gyatso, was born in Tsang in 1758 and died aged 46 having taken little part in Tibetan politics, mostly leaving temporal matters to his regents and the ambans. The Emperor of China exempted him from the lot-drawing ceremony of the Golden Urn. Qianlong Emperor officially accepted Gyiangbai as the 8th Dalai Lama when the 6th Panchen Erdeni came to congratulate the emperor on his 70th birthday in 1780. The emperor granted the 8th Dalai Lama a jade seal of authority and jade sheets of confirmation of authority. The confirmation of authority says:
<br />It has sometimes been suggested that this state of affairs was brought about by the Ambans—the Imperial Residents in Tibet—because it would be easier to control the Tibet through a Regent than when a Dalai Lama, with his absolute power, was at the head of the government. That is not true. The regular ebb and flow of events followed its set course. The Imperial Residents in Tibet, after the first flush of zeal in 1750, grew less and less interested and efficient. Tibet was, to them, exile from the urbanity and culture of Peking; and so far from dominating the Regents, the Ambans allowed themselves to be dominated. It was the ambition and greed for power of Tibetans that led to five successive Dalai Lamas being subjected to continuous tutelage.}}
Thubten Jigme Norbu, the elder brother of the 14th Dalai Lama, described these unfortunate events as follows, although there are few, if any, indications that any of the four were said to be 'Chinese-appointed imposters':
}}
According to Mullin, on the other hand, it is improbable that the Manchus would have murdered any of these four for being 'unmanageable' since it would have been in their best interests to have strong Dalai Lamas ruling in Lhasa, he argues, agreeing with Richardson that it was rather "the ambition and greed for power of Tibetans" that might have caused the Lamas' early deaths. Further, if Tibetan nobles murdered any of them, it would more likely have been in order to protect or enhance their family interests rather than out of suspicion that the Dalai Lamas were seen as Chinese-appointed imposters as suggested by Norbu. They could also have died from illnesses, possibly contracted from diseases to which they had no immunity, carried to Lhasa by the multitudes of pilgrims visiting from nearby countries for blessings. Finally, from the Buddhist point of view, Mullin says, "Simply stated, these four Dalai Lamas died young because the world did not have enough good karma to deserve their presence".
Tibetan historian K. Dhondup, however, in his history The Water-Bird and Other Years, based on the Tibetan minister Surkhang Sawang Chenmo's historical manuscripts, disagrees with Mullin's opinion that having strong Dalai Lamas in power in Tibet would have been in China's best interests. He notes that many historians are compelled to suspect Manchu foul play in these serial early deaths because the Ambans had such latitude to interfere; the Manchu, he says, "to perpetuate their domination over Tibetan affairs, did not desire a Dalai Lama who will ascend the throne and become a strong and capable ruler over his own country and people". The life and deeds of the 13th Dalai Lama [in successfully upholding de facto Tibetan independence from China from 1912 to 1950] serve as the living proof of this argument, he points out. This account also corresponds with TJ Norbu's observations above.
Finally, while acknowledging the possibility, the 14th Dalai Lama himself doubts they were poisoned. He ascribes the probable cause of these early deaths to negligence, foolishness and lack of proper medical knowledge and attention. "Even today" he is quoted as saying, "''when people get sick, some [Tibetans] will say: 'Just do your prayers, you don't need medical treatment.'''"
9th Dalai Lama
Born in Kham in 1805–6 amidst the usual miraculous signs the Ninth Dalai Lama, Lungtok Gyatso was appointed by the 7th Panchen Lama's search team at the age of two and enthroned in the Potala in 1808 at an impressive ceremony attended by representatives from China, Mongolia, Nepal and Bhutan. Exemption from using Golden Urn was approved by the Emperor. Tibetan historian Nyima Gyaincain and Wang Jiawei point out that the 9th Dalai Lama was allowed to use the seal of authority given to the late 8th Dalai Lama by the Emperor of China
His second Regent Demo Tulku was the biographer of the 8th and 9th Dalai Lamas and though the 9th died at the age of 9, his biography is as lengthy as those of many of the early Dalai Lamas. In 1793 under Manchu pressure, Tibet had closed its borders to foreigners. In 1811, a British Sinologist, Thomas Manning became the first Englishman to visit Lhasa. Considered to be 'the first Chinese scholar in Europe' he stayed five months and gave enthusiastic accounts in his journal of his regular meetings with the Ninth Dalai Lama whom he found fascinating: "beautiful, elegant, refined, intelligent, and entirely self-possessed, even at the age of six". Three years later in March 1815 the young Lungtok Gyatso caught a severe cold and, leaving the Potala Palace to preside over the Monlam Prayer Festival, he contracted pneumonia from which he soon died.
10th Dalai Lama
Like the Seventh Dalai Lama, the Tenth, Tsultrim Gyatso, was born in Lithang, Kham, where the Third Dalai Lama had built a monastery. It was 1816 and Regent Demo Tulku and the Seventh Panchen Lama followed indications from Nechung, the 'state oracle' which led them to appoint him at the age of two. He passed all the tests and was brought to Lhasa but official recognition was delayed until 1822 when he was enthroned and ordained by the Seventh Panchen Lama. There are conflicting reports about whether the Chinese 'Golden Urn' was utilised by drawing lots to choose him, but lot-drawing result was reported and approved by emperor. The 10th Dalai Lama mentioned in his biography that he was allowed to use the golden seal of authority based on the convention set up by the late Dalai Lama. At the investiture, decree of the Emperor of China was issued and read out.
After 15 years of intensive studies and failing health he died, in 1837, at the age of 20 or 21. He identified with ordinary people rather than the court officials and often sat on his verandah in the sunshine with the office clerks. Intending to empower the common people he planned to institute political and economic reforms to share the nation's wealth more equitably. Over this period his health had deteriorated, the implication being that he may have suffered from slow poisoning by Tibetan aristocrats whose interests these reforms were threatening. He was also dissatisfied with his Regent and the Kashag and scolded them for not alleviating the condition of the common people, who had suffered much in small ongoing regional civil wars waged in Kokonor between Mongols, local Tibetans and the government over territory, and in Kham to extract unpaid taxes from rebellious Tibetan communities. 11th Dalai Lama
Born in Gathar, Kham in 1838 and soon discovered by the official search committee with the help of the Nechung Oracle, the Eleventh Dalai Lama was brought to Lhasa in 1841 and recognised, enthroned and named Khedrup Gyatso by the Panchen Lama on April 16, 1842, seal of authority and golden sheets were granted on the same date. Sitting-in-the-bed ceremony was held in July 1844. After that he was immersed in religious studies under the Panchen Lama, amongst other great masters. Meanwhile, there were court intrigues and ongoing power struggles taking place between the various Lhasa factions, the Regent, the Kashag, the powerful nobles and the abbots and monks of the three great monasteries. The Tsemonling Regent became mistrusted and was forcibly deposed, there were machinations, plots, beatings and kidnappings of ministers and so forth, resulting at last in the Panchen Lama being appointed as interim Regent to keep the peace.
Eventually the Third Reting Rinpoche was made Regent, and in 1855, Khedrup Gyatso, appearing to be an extremely promising prospect, was requested to take the reins of power at the age of 17. He was enthroned as ruler of Tibet in 1855, on orders of the Xianfeng Emperor. He died after just 11 months, no reason for his sudden and premature death being given in these accounts, Shakabpa and Mullin's histories both being based on untranslated Tibetan chronicles. The respected Reting Rinpoche was recalled once again to act as Regent and requested to lead the search for the next incarnation, the twelfth. He underwent 13 years of intensive tutelage and training before becoming Tibet's ruler at age 17.
His minority seems to have been a time of even deeper Lhasan political intrigue and power struggles than his predecessor's. In 1862 Wangchuk Shetra, a minister the regent had banished for conspiring against him, led a coup. Shetra contrived to return, deposed the regent, who fled to China, and seized power, appointing himself "Desi", or Prime Minister. quelling a major rebellion in northern Kham in 1863 and reestablishing Tibetan control over significant Qing-held territory there. Shetra died in 1864 and the Kashag reassumed power. The retired 76th Ganden Tripa, Khyenrab Wangchuk, was appointed regent but his role was limited to supervising and mentoring Trinley Gyatso. On the other hand, without citing sources, Shakabpa notes that Trinley Gyatso was influenced and manipulated by two close acquaintances who were subsequently accused of having a hand in his fatal illness and imprisoned, tortured, and exiled as a result. 13th Dalai Lama
, Tibet.]]
In 1877, request to exempt Lobu Zangtab Kaijia Mucuo () from using lot-drawing process Golden Urn to become the 13th Dalai Lama was approved by the Central Government. The 13th Dalai Lama assumed ruling power from the monasteries, which previously had great influence on the Regent, in 1895. Due to his two periods of exile in 1904–1909 to escape the British invasion of 1904, and from 1910–1912 to escape a Chinese invasion, he became well aware of the complexities of international politics and was the first Dalai Lama to become aware of the importance of foreign relations. After his return from exile in India and Sikkim during January 1913, he assumed control of foreign relations and dealt directly with the Maharaja, with the British Political officer in Sikkim and with the king of Nepal – rather than letting the Kashag or parliament do it.
The Great Thirteenth Thubten Gyatso then published the Tibetan Declaration of Independence for the entirety of Tibet in 1913. Tibet's independence was never recognized by the Chinese (who claimed all land ever administered by the Manchus) but was recognized by the Kingdom of Nepal, who would use Tibet as one of its first references regarding its independent status when submitting an application to join the UN in 1949. According to a Tibetan website, Nepal listed Tibet as a country just as independent and sovereign, with no mention of Chinese 'suzerainty'. Its relations with Tibet were apparently second in significance only to its relations with Britain, and even more significant than its relations with the USA or even India. Nepal established diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China in 1955 and recognized Tibet as a part of China.
Furthermore, Tibet and Mongolia both signed the Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet. Neither countries' independence statuses were ever recognized by the KMT government in China, who would continue to completely claim both as Chinese territory. He expelled the ambans and all Chinese civilians in the country and instituted many measures to modernize Tibet. These included provisions to curb excessive demands on peasants for provisions by the monasteries and tax evasion by the nobles, setting up an independent police force, the abolition of the death penalty, extension of secular education, and the provision of electricity throughout the city of Lhasa in the 1920s. He died in 1933. 14th Dalai Lama
, Lahaul]]
The 14th Dalai Lama was born on 6 July 1935 on a straw mat in a cowshed to a farmer's family in a remote part of Tibet. According to most Western journalistic sources he was born into a humble family of farmers as one of 16 children, and one of the three reincarnated rinpoches in the same family. On 5 February 1940, the Central Government approved the request to exempt Lhamo Thondup () from the lot-drawing process to become the 14th Dalai Lama.
The 14th Dalai Lama was not formally enthroned until 17 November 1950, during the Battle of Chamdo with the People's Republic of China. On 18 April 1959, he issued a statement that in 1951, the Dalai Lama and the Tibetan government were pressured into accepting the Seventeen Point Agreement for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet by which it became formally incorporated into the People's Republic of China. The United States informed the Dalai Lama in 1951 that in order to receive its assistance and support he must leave Tibet and publicly disavow "agreements concluded under duress" between Tibetan and Chinese representatives. Fearing for his life in the wake of a revolt in Tibet in 1959, the 14th Dalai Lama fled to India, where he led a government in exile.
With the aim of launching guerrilla operations against the Chinese, the Central Intelligence Agency funded the Dalai Lama's administration with US$1.7 million a year in the 1960s. In 2001, the 14th Dalai Lama ceded his partial power over the government to an elected parliament of Tibetan exiles. His original goal was full independence for Tibet, but by the late 1980s he sought high-level autonomy instead. He continued to seek greater autonomy from China, but Dolma Gyari, deputy speaker of the parliament-in-exile, said: "If the middle path fails in the short term, we will be forced to opt for complete independence or self-determination as per the UN charter".
The 14th Dalai Lama became one of the two most popular world leaders by 2013 (tied with Barack Obama), according to a poll by Harris Interactive of New York, which sampled public opinion in the U.S. and six major European countries.
In 2014 and 2016, he said that Tibet wants to be part of China but China should let Tibet preserve its culture and script.
In 2018, he said that "Europe belongs to the Europeans" and that Europe has a moral obligation to aid refugees whose lives are in peril. He added that Europe should receive, help, and educate refugees but that they should ultimately return to develop their home countries. He made similar comments in an interview the next year. He also said that a female Dalai Lama "should be more attractive" because if she looked a certain way people would "prefer not see … that face".
In 2019, the Dalai Lama spoke out about his successor, saying that after his death he is likely to be reincarnated in India. He also warned that any Chinese interference in succession should be considered invalid. The Dalai Lama's succession also involves Mongolia, given its strong Tibetan Buddhist ties. The Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, the latest one chosen from Mongolia, is the third most important figure in the Tibetan Buddhist hierarchy, and plays a significant role in the recognition of the next Dalai Lama.
In 2020, the Dalai Lama said he did not support Tibetan independence and hoped to visit China as a Nobel Prize winner. He said "I prefer the concept of a 'republic' in the People's Republic of China. In the concept of a republic, ethnic minorities are like Tibetans, Mongols, Manchus, and Xinjiang Uyghurs. We can live in harmony".
In 2021, he praised India as a role model for religious harmony in the world.
In 2023, a video showed the Dalai Lama in the city of Dharamshala, India, asking a boy for a kiss on the lips, and then to suck his tongue. He later apologized and expressed regret through a statement that claimed he "often teases people he meets in an innocent and playful way, even in public and before cameras" and "regrets the incident".
Residences
The first Dalai Lama was based at Tashi Lhunpo Monastery, which he founded. The Second to the Fifth Dalai Lamas were mainly based at Drepung Monastery outside Lhasa. In 1645, after the unification of Tibet, the Fifth moved to the ruins of a royal fortress or residence on top of Marpori ('Red Mountain') in Lhasa and decided to build a palace on the same site. This ruined palace, called Tritse Marpo, was originally built around A.D. 636 by the founder of the Tibetan Empire, Songtsen Gampo for his Nepalese wife. Amongst the ruins there was just a small temple left where Tsongkhapa had given a teaching when he arrived in Lhasa in the 1380s.
The Fifth Dalai Lama began construction of the Potala Palace on this site in 1645,
<gallery class"center" heights"220px" widths="220px">
File:Potala.jpg|Potala Palace
File:Norbulinka. August, 1993.JPG|Norbulingka
</gallery>
Searching for the reincarnation
in Amdo.]]
, the female guardian spirit of the sacred lake, Lhamo La-tso, who promised Gendun Drup the 1st Dalai Lama in one of his visions that "she would protect the 'reincarnation' lineage of the Dalai Lamas"]]
By the Himalayan tradition, phowa is the discipline that is believed to transfer the mindstream to the intended body. Upon the death of the Dalai Lama and consultation with the Nechung Oracle, a search for the Lama's yangsi, or reincarnation, is conducted. The government of the People's Republic of China has stated its intention to be the ultimate authority on the selection of the next Dalai Lama.
High Lamas may also claim to have a vision by a dream or if the Dalai Lama was cremated, they will often monitor the direction of the smoke as an 'indication' of the direction of the expected rebirth.
In his autobiography, Freedom in Exile, the 14th Dalai Lama wrote that after he dies it is possible that his people will no longer want a Dalai Lama, in which case there would be no search for the Lama's reincarnation. "So, I might take rebirth as an insect, or an animal—whatever would be of most value to the largest number of sentient beings" (p. 237).
The Dalai Lama is thought to be a type of "living [Buddhist] god".
List of Dalai Lamas
There have been 14 recognised incarnations of the Dalai Lama:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Name !! Picture !! Lifespan !! Recognised !! Enthronement !! Seal of Authority from Central Government !! Approval from Central Government !! Tibetan/Wylie !! Tibetan pinyin/Chinese !! Alternative spellings
|-
|align"right"| 1 || Gendun Drup || || 1391–1474 || – || N/A || N/A || N/A || <br />''dge 'dun 'grub || Gêdün Chub<br />根敦朱巴|| Gedun Drub<br />Gedün Drup<br />
|-
|align"right"| 2 || Gendun Gyatso || || 1475–1542 || 1483 || N/A || || <br />byams spel rgya mtsho'' || Qambê Gyaco<br />強白嘉措|| Jampel Gyatso<br />Jampal Gyatso
|-
|align"right"| 9 || Lungtok Gyatso || || 1805–1815 ||1807 || 1808 || Yes || Yes || <br />lung rtogs rgya mtsho || Lungdog Gyaco<br />隆朵嘉措|| Lungtog Gyatso
|-
| 10 || Tsultrim Gyatso |||| 1816–1837 || 1822 || 1822 || || Yes || <br />tshul khrim rgya mtsho || Cüchim Gyaco<br />楚臣嘉措|| Tshültrim Gyatso
|-
| 11 || Khendrup Gyatso |||| 1838–1856 || 1841 || 1842 || Yes || Yes || <br />mkhas grub rgya mtsho || Kaichub Gyaco<br />凱珠嘉措|| Kedrub Gyatso
|-
| 12 || Trinley Gyatso |||| 1857–1875 || 1858 || 1860 || || Yes || <br />'phrin las rgya mtsho || Chinlai Gyaco<br />成烈嘉措|| Trinle Gyatso
|-
| 13 || Thubten Gyatso || || 1876–1933 || 1878 || 1879 || || Yes || 1940|| <br />''bstan 'dzin rgya mtsho || Dainzin Gyaco<br />丹增嘉措|| Tenzin Gyatso
|}
There was also a non-recognised Dalai Lama, Ngawang Yeshe Gyatso, declared 28 June 1707, when he was 25 years old, by Lha-bzang Khan as the "true" 6th Dalai Lama. He was never accepted as such by the majority of the population.
Future of the position
, India]]
The government of the People's Republic of China (PRC) has claimed the power to approve the naming of "high" reincarnations in Tibet, based on a precedent set by the Qianlong Emperor of the Qing dynasty. The Qianlong Emperor instituted a system of selecting the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama by a lottery that used a Golden Urn with names wrapped in clumps of barley. This method was used a few times for both positions during the 19th century, but eventually fell into disuse.
In 1995, the Dalai Lama chose to proceed with the selection of the 11th reincarnation of the Panchen Lama without the use of the Golden Urn, while the Chinese government insisted that it must be used. This has led to two rival Panchen Lamas: Gyaincain Norbu as chosen by the Chinese government's process, and Gedhun Choekyi Nyima as chosen by the Dalai Lama. However, Nyima was abducted by the Chinese government shortly after being chosen as the Panchen Lama and has not been seen in public since 1995.
In September 2007, the Chinese government said all high monks must be approved by the government, which would include the selection of the 15th Dalai Lama after the death of Tenzin Gyatso. Since by tradition, the Panchen Lama must approve the reincarnation of the Dalai Lama, that is another possible method of control. Consequently, the Dalai Lama has alluded to the possibility of a referendum to determine the 15th Dalai Lama.
The 14th Dalai Lama said as early as 1969 that it was for the Tibetans to decide whether the institution of the Dalai Lama "should continue or not". He has given reference to a possible vote occurring in the future for all Tibetan Buddhists to decide whether they wish to recognize his rebirth. In response to the possibility that the PRC might attempt to choose his successor, the Dalai Lama said he would not be reborn in a country controlled by the People's Republic of China or any other country which is not free. According to Robert D. Kaplan, this could mean that "the next Dalai Lama might come from the Tibetan cultural belt that stretches across Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Nepal, and Bhutan, presumably making him even more pro-Indian and hence anti-Chinese".
The 14th Dalai Lama supported the possibility that his next incarnation could be a woman. As an "engaged Buddhist" the Dalai Lama has an appeal straddling cultures and political systems making him one of the most recognized and respected moral voices today. "Despite the complex historical, religious and political factors surrounding the selection of incarnate masters in the exiled Tibetan tradition, the Dalai Lama is open to change", author Michaela Haas writes.
Despite the tradition of selecting young children, the 14th Dalai Lama can also name an adult as his next incarnation. Doing so would have the advantage that the successor would not need to spend decades studying Buddhism and could immediately be taken seriously as a leader by the Tibetan diaspora.
See also
* Golden Urn
* 29-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet
* "The Discourse of Lama"
* CIA Tibetan program
* Index of Buddhism-related articles
* Tibetan Buddhism
** Gelug
*** List of Dalai Lamas
*** Panchen Lama
* History of Tibet
** List of rulers of Tibet
** 14th Dalai Lama
* Engaged spirituality
* Patron and priest relationship
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
* Bell, Sir Charles (1946). Portrait of the Dalai Lama Wm. Collins, London. 1st edition. (1987) Wisdom Publications, London. .
*
*
* David-Neel, A. (1965). Magic & Mystery in Tibet. Corgi Books.London. .
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*
*
* Kapstein, Matthew (2006). The Tibetans. Malden, MA, USA. Blackwell Publishing. .
*
*
*
* Mullin, Glenn H. (1982). Selected Works of the Dalai Lama VII: Songs of Spiritual Change (2nd ed., 1985). Snow Lion Publications, Inc. New York. .
* Mullin, Glenn H. (1983). Selected Works of the Dalai Lama III: Essence of Refined Gold (2nd ed., 1985). Snow Lion Publications, Inc. New York. .
* Mullin, Glenn H. (2001). The Fourteen Dalai Lamas: A Sacred Legacy of Reincarnation. Clear Light Publishers. Santa Fe, NM. .
*
*
* Van Schaik, Sam (2011), Tibet. A History. New Haven & London: Yale University Press.
*
*
* Shakabpa, Tsepon W.D. (1967), Tibet: A Political History. New York: Yale University Press, and (1984), Singapore: Potala Publications. .
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
* [https://www.shambhala.com/his-holiness-the-fourteenth-dalai-lama A Reader's Guide to the Works of the Dalai Lama (Shambhala Publications)]
* Dalai Lama. (1991) Freedom in Exile: The Autobiography of the Dalai Lama. San Francisco, CA.
* Goodman, Michael H. (1986). The Last Dalai Lama. Shambhala Publications. Boston, MA.
* Harrer, Heinrich (1951) Seven Years in Tibet: My Life Before, During and After
* Karmay, Samten G. (Translator) (1988). Secret visions of the Fifth Dalai Lama. Serindia Publications, London. .
*
External links
*
Category:Gelug tulkus
Category:Lamas
Category:People from Lhasa
Category:Politics of Tibet
Category:Tibetan Buddhist titles
Category:Deified men
Category:Bodhisattvas
Category:Avalokiteśvara
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Damages
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At common law, damages are a remedy in the form of a monetary award to be paid to a claimant as compensation for loss or injury. To warrant the award, the claimant must show that a breach of duty has caused foreseeable loss. To be recognized at law, the loss must involve damage to property, or mental or physical injury; pure economic loss is rarely recognized for the award of damages.
Compensatory damages are further categorized into special damages, which are economic losses such as loss of earnings, property damage and medical expenses, and general damages, which are non-economic damages such as pain and suffering and emotional distress. Rather than being compensatory, at common law damages may instead be nominal, contemptuous or exemplary.
History
Among the Saxons, a monetary value called a weregild was assigned to every human being and every piece of property in the Salic Code. If property was stolen or someone was injured or killed, the guilty person had to pay the weregild as restitution to the victim's family or to the owner of the property.
Proof of damages
Proximate cause
Recovery of damages by a plaintiff in lawsuit is subject to the legal principle that damages must be proximately caused by the wrongful conduct of the defendant. This is known as the principle of proximate cause. This principle governs the recovery of all compensatory damages, whether the underlying claim is based on contract, tort, or both. Damages are likely to be limited to those reasonably foreseeable by the defendant. If a defendant could not reasonably have foreseen that someone might be hurt by their actions, there may be no liability.
This rule does not usually apply to intentional torts (for example, tort of deceit), and also has stunted applicability to the quantum in negligence where the maxim 'Intended consequences are never too remote' applies: 'never' is inaccurate here but resorts to unforeseeable direct and natural consequences of an act.
Expert testimony
It may be useful for the lawyers, the plaintiff and/or the defendant to employ forensic accountants or someone trained in the relevant field of economics to give evidence on the value of the loss. In this case, they may be called upon to give opinion evidence as an expert witness.
Compensatory damages
Compensatory damages are paid to compensate the claimant for loss, injury, or harm suffered by the claimant as a result of another's breach of duty that caused the loss. For example, compensatory damages may be awarded as the result of a negligence claim under tort law. Expectation damages are used in contract law to put an injured party in the position it would have occupied but for the breach. Compensatory damages can be classified as special damages and general damages.Quantum (measure) of damages
Liability for payment of an award of damages is established when the claimant proves, on the balance of probabilities, that a defendant's wrongful act caused a tangible, harm, loss or injury to the plaintiff. Once that threshold is met, the plaintiff is entitled to some amount of recovery for that loss or injury. No recovery is not an option. The court must then assess the amount of compensation attributable to the harmful acts of the defendant. The amount of damages a plaintiff would recover is usually measured on a "loss of bargain" basis, also known as expectation loss, or "economic loss". This concept reflects the difference between "the value of what has been received and its value as represented".
Damages are usually assessed at the date of the wrongful act, but in England and Wales, Pelling J has observed that this is not the case if justice requires the assessment of damages to be calculated at some other date. In Murfin v Ford Campbell, an agreement had been entered into whereby company shares were exchanged for loan notes, which could only be redeemed if certain profit thresholds had been achieved in the relevant accounting years. As the thresholds were not met, the loan notes were not redeemable, but at the date of the advisors' breach of contract this could not be known, only the loan notes' face value could be known. The conclusion was that in this case valuation could not be done until after the profit performance became known. In his judgement Pelling also referred to the case of Smith New Court Securities Ltd v Scrimgeour Vickers (Asset Management) Ltd, a case where continuing misrepresentation affected the appropriate date for damages to be assessed.
Special damages
Special damages compensate the claimant for the quantifiable monetary losses he has suffered. For example, extra costs, repair or replacement of damaged property, lost earnings (both historically and in the future), loss of irreplaceable items, additional domestic costs, and so on. They are seen in both personal and commercial actions.
Special damages can include direct losses (such as amounts the claimant had to spend to try to mitigate damages) and consequential or economic losses resulting from lost profits in a business.
Damages in tort are awarded generally to place the claimant in the position in which he would have been had the tort not taken place. Damages for breach of contract are generally awarded to place the claimant in the position in which he would have been had the contract not been breached. This can often result in a different measure of damages. In cases where it is possible to frame a claim in either contract or tort, it is necessary to be aware of what gives the best outcome. If the transaction was a "good bargain", contract generally gives a better result for the claimant.
As an example, Neal agrees to sell Mary an antique Rolex watch for £100. In fact the watch is a fake and worth only £50. If it had been a genuine antique Rolex, it would have been worth £500. Neal is in breach of contract and could be sued. In contract, Mary is entitled to an item worth £500, but she has only one worth £50. Her damages are £450. Neal also induced Mary to enter into the contract through a misrepresentation (a tort). If Mary sues in tort, she is entitled to damages that put her back to the same financial position place she would have been in had the misrepresentation not been made. She would clearly not have entered into the contract knowing the watch was fake and is entitled to her £100 back. Thus her damages in tort are £100. (She would have to return the watch, or else her damages would be £50.)
If the transaction were a "bad bargain", tort gives a better result for the claimant. If in the above example, Mary had overpaid, paying £750 for the watch, her damages in the contract would still be £450 (giving her the item she contracted to buy), however, in tort damages are £750.
Incidental and consequential losses
Special damages are sometimes divided into incidental damages, and consequential damages.
Incidental losses include the costs needed to remedy problems and put things right. The largest element is likely to be the reinstatement of property damage. Take for example a factory which was burnt down by the negligence of a contractor. The claimant would be entitled to the direct costs required to rebuild the factory and replace the damaged machinery.
The claimant may also be entitled to any consequential losses. These may include the lost profits that the claimant could have been expected to make in the period whilst the factory was closed and rebuilt.
Breach of contract duty - (ex contract)
On a breach of contract by a defendant, a court generally awards the sum that would restore the injured party to the economic position they expected from performance of the promise or promises (known as an "expectation measure" or "benefit-of-the-bargain" measure of damages). This rule, however, has attracted increasing scrutiny from Australian courts and legal commentators. A judge arrives compensatory number by considering both the type of contract, and the loss incurred.
When it is either not possible or not desirable to award the victim in that way, a court may award money damages designed to restore the injured party to the economic position they occupied at the time the contract was entered (known as the "reliance measure") or designed to prevent the breaching party from being unjustly enriched ("restitution") (see below).
Parties may contract for liquidated damages to be paid upon a breach of the contract by one of the parties. Under common law, a liquidated damages clause will not be enforced if the purpose of the term is solely to punish a breach (in this case it is termed penal damages). The clause will be enforceable if it involves a genuine attempt to quantify a loss in advance and is a good faith estimate of economic loss. Courts have ruled as excessive and invalidated damages which the parties contracted as liquidated, but which the court nonetheless found to be penal. To determine whether a clause is a liquidated damages clause or a penalty clause, it is necessary to consider:
General damages in England and Wales were increased by 10% for all cases where judgements were given after 1 April 2013, following changes to the options available to personal injury claimants wanting to cover the cost of their litigation.
General damages are generally awarded only in claims brought by individuals, when they have suffered personal harm. Examples would be personal injury (following the tort of negligence by the defendant), or the tort of defamation.
General damages in personal injury cases
The quantification of personal injury is not an exact science. In English law solicitors treat personal injury claims as "general damages" for pain and suffering and loss of amenity (PSLA). Solicitors quantify personal injury claims by reference to previous awards made by the courts which are "similar" to the case in hand. The Judicial College's Guidelines for the Assessment of General Damages in Personal Injury Cases are adjusted following periodic review of the awards which have been made by the courts since the previous review.
The guidance which solicitors will take into account to help quantify general damages are:
;The age of the client: The age of the client is important especially when dealing with fatal accident claims or permanent injuries. The younger the injured victim with a permanent injury the longer that person has to live with the PSLA. As a consequence, the greater the compensation payment. In fatal accident claims, generally the younger deceased, the greater the dependency claim by the partner and children.
;The nature and extent of the injuries sustained: Solicitors will consider "like for like" injuries with the case in hand and similar cases decided by the courts previously. These cases are known as precedents. Generally speaking decisions from the higher courts will bind the lower courts. Therefore, judgments from the House of Lords and the Court of Appeal have greater authority than the lower courts such as the High Court and the County Court. A compensation award can only be right or wrong with reference to that specific judgment. Solicitors must be careful when looking at older cases when quantifying a claim to ensure that the award is brought up to date and to take into account the court of appeal case in [http://www.bailii.org/cgi-bin/markup.cgi?doc/ew/cases/EWCA/Civ/2000/84.html Heil v Rankin] Generally speaking the greater the injury the greater the damages awarded.
;Personal attributes and fortitude of the client: This heading is inextricably linked with the other points above. Where two clients are of the same age, experience and suffer the same injury, it does not necessarily mean that they will be affected the same. We are all different. Some people will recover more quickly than others. The courts will assess each claim on its own particular facts and therefore if one claimant recovers more quickly than another, the damages will be reflected accordingly. It is important to note here that "psychological injuries" may also follow from an accident which may increase the quantum of damages.
When a personal injury claim is settled either in court or out of court, the most common way the compensation payment is made is by a lump sum award in full and final settlement of the claim. Once accepted there can be no further award for compensation at a later time unless the claim is settled by provisional damages often found in industrial injury claims such as asbestos related injuries.
Statutory damages
Statutory damages are an amount stipulated within the statute rather than calculated based on the degree of harm to the plaintiff. Lawmakers will provide for statutory damages for acts in which it is difficult to determine the value of the harm to the victim. Mere violation of the law can entitle the victim to a statutory award, even if no actual injury occurred. These are different from nominal damages, in which no written sum is specified.
Nominal damages
Nominal damages are very small damages awarded to show that the loss or harm suffered was technical rather than actual. Perhaps the most famous nominal damages award in modern times has been the $1 verdict against the National Football League (NFL) in the 1986 antitrust suit prosecuted by the United States Football League. Although the verdict was automatically trebled pursuant to antitrust law in the United States, the resulting $3 judgment was regarded as a victory for the NFL. Historically, one of the best known nominal damage awards was the farthing that the jury awarded to James Whistler in his libel suit against John Ruskin. In the English jurisdiction, nominal damages are generally fixed at £5.
Many times a party that has been wronged but is not able to prove significant damages will sue for nominal damages. This is particularly common in cases involving alleged violations of constitutional rights, such as freedom of speech. Until 2021, in the United States, there was a circuit split as to whether nominal damages may be used if a constitutional violation had occurred but has since been rendered moot. The Supreme Court decided 8–1 in the 2021 case Uzuegbunam v. Preczewski that nominal damages are appropriate means to redress violated rights otherwise now rendered moot.
Contemptuous damages
Contemptuous damages are a form of damage award available in some jurisdictions. They are similar to nominal damages awards, as they are given when the plaintiff's suit is trivial, used only to settle a point of honor or law. Awards are usually of the smallest amount, usually 1 cent or similar. The key distinction is that in jurisdictions that follow the loser-pays for attorney fees, the claimant in a contemptuous damages case may be required to pay their own attorney fees.
Traditionally, the court awarded the smallest coin in the Realm, which in England was one farthing, 1/960 of a pound before decimalisation in the 1970s. Court costs are not awarded. Punitive damages (non-compensatory)
Generally, punitive damages, which are also termed exemplary damages in the United Kingdom, are not awarded in order to compensate the plaintiff, but in order to reform or deter the defendant and similar persons from pursuing a course of action such as that which damaged the plaintiff. Punitive damages are awarded only in special cases where conduct was egregiously insidious and are over and above the amount of compensatory damages, such as in the event of malice or intent. Great judicial restraint is expected to be exercised in their application. In the United States punitive damages awards are subject to the limitations imposed by the due process of law clauses of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution.
In England and Wales, exemplary damages are limited to the circumstances set out by Lord Devlin in the leading case of Rookes v. Barnard. They are:
#Oppressive, arbitrary or unconstitutional actions by the servants of government.
#Where the defendant's conduct was 'calculated' to make a profit for himself.
#Where a statute expressly authorises the same.
Rookes v Barnard has been much criticized and has not been followed in Canada or Australia or by the Privy Council.
Punitive damages awarded in a US case would be difficult to get recognition for in a European court, where punitive damages are most likely to be considered to violate . Aggravated damages Some jurisdictions recognize a form of damages, called, aggravated damages, that are similar to punitive or exemplary damages. Aggravated damages are not often awarded; they apply where the injury has been aggravated by the wrongdoer's behaviour, for example, their cruelty. Restitutionary or disgorgement damages In certain areas of the law another head of damages has long been available, whereby the defendant is made to give up the profits made through the civil wrong in restitution. Doyle and Wright define restitutionary damages as being a monetary remedy that is measured according to the defendant's gain rather than the plaintiff's loss. The plaintiff thereby gains damages which are not measured by reference to any loss sustained. In some areas of the law this heading of damages is uncontroversial; most particularly intellectual property rights and breach of fiduciary relationship.
In England and Wales the House of Lords case of Attorney-General v. Blake opened up the possibility of restitutionary damages for breach of contract. In this case the profits made by a defecting spy, George Blake, for the publication of his book, were awarded to the British Government for breach of contract. The case has been followed in English courts, but the situations in which restitutionary damages will be available remain unclear.
The basis for restitutionary damages is much debated, but is usually seen as based on denying a wrongdoer any profit from his wrongdoing. The really difficult question, and one which is currently unanswered, relates to what wrongs should allow this remedy.
Legal costs
In addition to damages, the successful party is often entitled to be awarded their reasonable legal costs that they spent during the case. This is the rule in most countries other than the United States. In the United States, a party generally is not entitled to its attorneys' fees or for hardships undergone during trial unless the parties agreed in a contract that attorney's fees should be covered or a specific statute or law permits recovery of legal fees, such as discrimination.See also
* Arbitration award
* Bad faith
* Fine (penalty)
* Measure of Damages (under English law)
* Non-economic damages caps
* Restorative justice
* Subrogation
* Restitution
*Reparations (transitional justice)
*Legal remedy
*Reparation (legal)
*Reparations
*War reparations
*Reparations for slavery
Notes
Further reading
*
External links
*
Category:Judicial remedies
fi:Vahingonkorvaus
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Disaster
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, one of the worst disasters in the history of the United States|300x300px]]A disaster is an event that causes serious harm to people, buildings, economies, or the environment, and the affected community cannot handle it alone. Human-made disasters like oil spills, terrorist attacks and power outages are caused by people. Nowadays, it is hard to separate natural and human-made disasters because human actions can make natural disasters worse. Climate change also affects how often disasters due to extreme weather hazards happen.
Disasters usually hit people in developing countries harder than people in wealthy countries. Over 95% of deaths from disasters happen in low-income countries, and those countries lose a lot more money compared to richer countries. For example, the damage from natural disasters is 20 times greater in developing countries than in industrialized countries. It results from hazards in places where people live in exposed or vulnerable conditions. Some human failures make communities vulnerable to climate hazards. These are poor planning or development, or a lack of preparation.
Disasters are events that have an effect on people. A hazard that overwhelms or injures a community is considered a disaster. The international disaster database EM-DAT defines a disaster as “a situation or event that overwhelms local capacity, necessitating a request for external assistance at the national or international level; it is an unforeseen and often sudden event that causes great damage, destruction and human suffering.” The effects of a disaster include all human, material, economic and environmental losses and impacts. "an event, concentrated in time and space, in which a community undergoes severe danger and incurs such losses to its members and physical appurtenances that the social structure is disrupted and the fulfilment of all or some of the essential functions of the society is prevented." Like other definitions this looks beyond the social aspects of the disaster impacts. It also focuses on losses. This raises the need for emergency response as an aspect of the disaster. It does not set out quantitative thresholds or scales for damage, death, or injury.
A study in 1969 defined major disasters as conforming to the following criteria, based on the amount of deaths or damage: At least 100 people dead, at least 100 people injured, or at least $1 million damage. This definition includes indirect losses of life caused after the initial onset of the disaster. These could be the effects of diseases such as cholera or dysentery arising from the disaster. This definition is still commonly used. However it is limited to the number of deaths, injuries, and damage in money terms.
Related to natural hazards
Disasters with links to natural hazards are commonly called natural disasters. However experts have questioned this term for a long time.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
Disasters with links to natural hazards
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! style="width:8em" | Example
! Profile
|-
|Avalanche||The sudden, drastic flow of snow down a slope, occurring when either natural triggers, such as loading from new snow or rain, or artificial triggers, such as explosives or backcountry skiers.
|-
|Blizzard||A severe snowstorm characterized by very strong winds and low temperatures
|-
|Earthquake||The shaking of the Earth's crust, caused by underground volcanic forces of breaking and shifting rock beneath the Earth's surface
|-
|Fire (wild)||Fires that originate in uninhabited areas and which pose the risk to spread to inhabited areas (see also Wildfire § Climate change effects)
|-
|Flood||Flash flooding: Small creeks, gullies, dry streambeds, ravines, culverts or even low-lying areas flood quickly (see also Effects of climate change)
|-
|Freezing rain||Rain occurring when outside surface temperature is below freezing
|-
|Heat wave||A prolonged period of excessively hot weather relative to the usual weather pattern of an area and relative to normal temperatures for the season (see also Effects of climate change § Heat waves and temperature extremes).
|-
|Landslide||Geological phenomenon which includes a range of ground movement, such as rock falls, deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flows
|-
|Lightning strike||An electrical discharge caused by lightning, typically during thunderstorms
|-
|Limnic eruption||The sudden eruption of carbon dioxide from deep lake water
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|Rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls (see also Tropical cyclones and climate change)
|-
|Tsunami||A series of waves hitting shores strongly, mainly caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, typically an ocean or a large lake, usually caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, underwater explosions, landslides, glacier calvings, meteorite impacts and other disturbances above or below water
|-
|Volcanic eruption||The release of hot magma, volcanic ash and/or gases from a volcano
|}
Unrelated to natural hazards
es and terrorist attacks are examples of man-made disasters: they kill and injure people, destroy and damage property, and cause pollution. The pictured example is the September 11 attacks in 2001 at the World Trade Center in New York City.]]
Human-made disasters are serious harmful events caused by human actions and social processes. Technological hazards also fall into this category. That is because they result in human-instigated disasters. Human-made hazards are sometimes called anthropogenic hazards. Catastrophic climate change, nuclear war, and bioterrorism also fall into this category.
Climate change and environmental degradation are sometimes called socio-natural hazards. These are hazards involving a combination of both natural and human factors.
Famines may be caused locally by drought, flood, fire or pestilence. In modern times there is plenty of food globally. Long-lasting local shortages are generally due to government mismanagement, violent conflict, or an economic system that does not distribute food where needed.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Disasters without links to natural hazards
|Disaster
|Profile
|-
|Bioterrorism||The intentional release or dissemination of biological agents as a means of coercion
|-
|Civil unrest||A disturbance caused by a group of people that may include sit-ins and other forms of obstructions, riots, sabotage and other forms of crime, and which is intended to be a demonstration to the public and the government, but can escalate into general chaos
|-
|Fire (urban)||Even with strict building fire codes, people still perish in fires
|-
|Hazardous material spills||The escape of solids, liquids, or gases that can harm people, other living organisms, property or the environment, from their intended controlled environment such as a container.
|-
||Nuclear and radiation accidents||An event involving the significant release of radioactivity to the environment or a reactor core meltdown and which leads to major undesirable consequences to people, the environment, or the facility
|-
|Power failure||Caused by summer or winter storms, lightning or construction equipment digging in the wrong location
|}
Others
Complex disasters, where there is no single root cause, are more common in developing countries. A specific hazard may also spawn a secondary disaster that increases the impact. A classic example is an earthquake that causes a tsunami. This results in coastal flooding, damaging a nuclear power plant on the coast. The Fukushima nuclear disaster is a case in point. Experts examine these cascading events to see how risks and impacts can amplify and spread. This is particularly important given the increase in climate risks.
Some researchers distinguish between recurring events like seasonal flooding and unpredictable one-off events. Recurring events often carry an estimate of how often they occur. Experts call this the return period.
Impacts
The effects of a disaster include all human, material, economic and environmental losses and impacts. Over the 40-year period from 1980 to 2020 losses were estimated at $5.2 trillion.
Human impacts
In 2023, natural hazard-related disasters resulted in 86,473 fatalities and affected 93.1 million people. These countries already have higher vulnerability and lower resilience to these events, which exacerbates the effects of the hazards.
Effects of climate change
Hazards such as droughts, floods, and cyclones are naturally occurring phenomena. However, climate change has caused these hazards to become more unreliable, frequent and severe. They thus contribute to disaster risks. Countries contributing most to climate change are often at the lowest risk of feeling the consequences. As of 2019, countries with the highest vulnerability per capita release the lowest amount of emissions per capita, and yet still experience the most heightened droughts and extreme precipitation. and (), "star". So the word disaster'' ("bad star" in Greek) comes from an astrological sense of a calamity blamed on the position of planets.See also
<!-- Please do not insert wikilinks that are already used in the text -->
<!-- Please respect alphabetical order -->
*
*
* List of accidents and disasters by death toll
* Lists of disasters
References
External links
* ReliefWeb of the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs –[https://reliefweb.int/ ReliefWeb]
* United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction – [https://www.undrr.org/ UNDRR]
* Global Disaster Alert and Coordination System – a joint initiative of the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) and the European Commission
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Dino Zoff
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| image = Dino Zoff - 1972 - Juventus FC (cropped).jpg
| caption = Zoff with Juventus in 1972
| full_name Dino Zoff
| birth_date
| birth_place = Mariano del Friuli, Italy
| height 1.82 m
| position = Goalkeeper
| years1 = 1961–1963
| clubs1 = Udinese
| caps1 = 38
| goals1 = 0
| years2 = 1963–1967
| clubs2 = Mantova
| caps2 = 131
| goals2 = 0
| years3 = 1967–1972
| clubs3 = Napoli
| caps3 = 143
| goals3 = 0
| years4 = 1972–1983
| clubs4 = Juventus
| caps4 = 330
| goals4 = 0
| totalcaps = 642
| totalgoals = 0
| nationalyears1 = 1968–1983
| nationalteam1 = Italy
| nationalcaps1 = 112
| nationalgoals1 = 0
| manageryears1 = 1988–1990
| managerclubs1 = Juventus
| manageryears2 = 1990–1994
| managerclubs2 = Lazio
| manageryears3 = 1996–1997
| managerclubs3 = Lazio
| manageryears4 = 1998–2000
| managerclubs4 = Italy
| manageryears5 = 2001
| managerclubs5 = Lazio
| manageryears6 = 2005
| managerclubs6 = Fiorentina
| medaltemplates =
}} <small>(as player)</small>
}} <small>(as manager)</small>
}}
Dino Zoff (; born 28 February 1942) is an Italian former professional footballer who played as a goalkeeper. Regarded as one of the greatest goalkeepers of all time, he is the oldest ever winner of the World Cup, which he lifted as captain of the Italy national team in the 1982 tournament, at the age of 40 years, 4 months and 13 days. He also won the award for best goalkeeper of the tournament and was elected to the team of the tournament for his performances, keeping two clean-sheets, an honour he also received after winning the 1968 European Championship on home soil. Zoff is the only Italian player to have won both the World Cup and the European Championship. He also achieved great club success with Juventus, winning six Serie A titles, two Coppa Italia titles, and a UEFA Cup, also reaching two European Champions' Cup finals in the 1972–73 and 1982–83 seasons, as well as finishing second in the 1973 Intercontinental Cup final.
Zoff was a goalkeeper of outstanding ability, and he has a place in the history of the sport among the very best in this role, being named the third greatest goalkeeper of the 20th century by the IFFHS behind Lev Yashin and Gordon Banks. He holds the record for the longest playing time without allowing goals in international tournaments (1,142 minutes) set between 1972 and 1974. Haiti's Emmanuel Sanon ended the streak at the 1974 FIFA World Cup, in the Haiti–Italy group match. With 112 caps, he is the eighth most capped player for the Italy national team. In 2004, Pelé named Zoff as one of the 100 greatest living footballers. In the same year, Zoff placed fifth in the UEFA Golden Jubilee Poll, and was elected as Italy's golden player of the past 50 years. He also placed second in the 1973 Ballon d'Or, as he narrowly missed out on a treble with Juventus. In 1999, Zoff placed 47th in World Soccer magazine's 100 Greatest Players of the Twentieth Century.
After retiring as a footballer, Zoff went on to pursue a managerial career, coaching the Italy national team, with which he reached the Euro 2000 final, losing to France, and several Italian club teams, including his former club Juventus, with which he won an UEFA Cup and a Coppa Italia double during the 1989–90 season, trophies he had also won as a player. In September 2014, Zoff published his Italian autobiography Dura solo un attimo, la gloria (Glory only Lasts a Moment).Early lifeDino Zoff was born in Mariano del Friuli, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Italy into a farming family. Upon his father's suggestion, Zoff initially also pursued studies to be a mechanic in case his football career proved to be unsuccessful. As a young aspiring footballer, Zoff was also interested in other sports, and his two main role models were the cyclist Fausto Coppi, and the race walker Abdon Pamich.
Club career
Udinese, Mantova and Napoli
and Kurt Hamrin, at Schiphol for the match of Inter-Cities Fairs Cup versus Ajax Amsterdam.]]
Zoff's career got off to an inauspicious start, when at the age of fourteen he had trials with Inter Milan and Juventus, but was rejected due to a lack of height. he made his Serie A debut with Udinese on 24 September 1961, in a 5–2 defeat to Fiorentina, although Zoff was not criticised for any of the goals he conceded. Zoff made only four appearances in his first season for Udinese, as they were relegated to Serie B. He played the next season as the club's starting goalkeeper, helping the club to Serie A promotion, before moving to Mantova in 1963, where he spent four seasons, making 131 appearances.
His performances for Mantova in the top flight caught the attention of larger clubs, while Italy's national coach at the time, Edmondo Fabbri, even considered bringing him as a back-up for the 1966 FIFA World Cup, although he ultimately chose to bring Enrico Albertosi, Roberto Anzolin, and Pierluigi Pizzaballa instead. In 1967, Zoff was transferred to Napoli, in exchange for fellow goalkeeper Claudio Bandoni, and a transfer fee of 130 million Lire; he spent five seasons in Naples, making 143 Serie A appearances with the club. During this time, he began to achieve increasing recognition in Italy, also making his International debut with the Italy national side in 1968, and earning a place in Italy's squads at Euro 68 and the 1970 World Cup. and the semi-finals of the European Cup Winners' Cup during the 1979–80 season.
Overall, Zoff made 479 appearances for Juventus in all competitions, making 330 Serie A appearances with the club (all of which came consecutively, a club record), 74 in the Coppa Italia, 71 in European competitions, and 4 in other club competitions. He is currently Juventus's 6th record appearance holder in all competitions, their 7th all-time appearance holder in Serie A, their 3rd all-time appearance holder in the Coppa Italia, their 7th all-time appearance holder in UEFA club competitions, and their 9th all-time appearance holder in international club competitions.
; on background, teammate Fabio Capello.]]
Zoff won his final Serie A championship with Juventus during the 1981–82 Serie A season, also winning the 1982 FIFA World Cup with Italy that year, as his team's captain. During the following 1982–83 season, the final season of his career, Dino Zoff won the Coppa Italia with defending Serie A champions Juventus, and he reached his second European Cup final with the club in 1983; Juventus were defeated 1–0 by Hamburg in Athens on 25 May, after Zoff was beaten by Felix Magath's long-distance strike; this was the final club match of his career. His final league appearance came in a 4–2 home win over Genoa on 15 May 1983.|name"combi-record"|group"nb"}} Buffon broke the record during the 2015–16 season. He also held the Serie A record for most consecutive clean sheets alongside Rossi (9), until Gianluigi Buffon overtook them both with his 10th consecutive clean sheet in 2016. With 570 Serie A appearances, Zoff is also the sixth highest appearance holder in Serie A of all time, and he is the fourth oldest player in Serie A to have ever played a match.International careerPrior to representing the senior Italian side, Zoff had won a gold medal with the Italy under-23 side at the 1963 Mediterranean Games. On 20 April 1968, Zoff made his senior debut for Italy, playing in a 2–0 win against Bulgaria in the quarter finals of the 1968 European Championships, in Naples. Zoff ended up being promoted to starting goalkeeper over his perceived career rival Enrico Albertosi during the tournament, and Italy proceeded to win the European Championship on home soil, with Zoff taking home a winners' medal after only his fourth international appearance, keeping two clean sheets, and winning the award for the best goalkeeper of the tournament. Zoff was left out of the Italian starting eleven in the 1970 World Cup, however, and was Albertosi's deputy throughout the tournament, as Italy went on to reach the final of the World Cup, and were defeated 4–1 by Brazil. He returned to the starting line-up, however, ahead of Albertosi, in Italy's disappointing 1974 World Cup campaign, during which they would be eliminated in the first round. On 11 July, at the age of 40 years and 133 days, he became the oldest player ever to feature in a World Cup final; following Italy's 3–1 victory over West Germany at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in Madrid, he followed in the footsteps of compatriot Gianpiero Combi (1934) as only the second goalkeeper to captain a World Cup-winning side (later Iker Casillas and Hugo Lloris repeated this feat for Spain and France in the 2010 and 2018 World Cups respectively). Due to his performances, he was voted as the Best Goalkeeper of the Tournament. Regarding Zoff's importance during Italy's victorious World Cup campaign, his manager Enzo Bearzot said of him: In the previous years, the same aircraft had been used by Pertini and Pope John Paul II for private and institutional flights. In April 2017, it was put down back in the Museum of Volandia, near Varese.
Zoff also holds the record for the longest stretch (1,142 minutes) without allowing any goals in international football, set between 1972 and 1974. That clean sheet stretch was ended by Haitian player Manno Sanon's beautiful goal during Italy's 3–1 win over Haiti in the first round of the 1974 World Cup. Zoff made his final appearance for Italy on 29 May 1983, in a 2–0 away loss to Sweden, in a Euro 1984 qualifying match. At the time of his retirement, Zoff's 112 caps were the most ever by a member of the Italy national team. He currently sits in sixth place in this category, as well as second among goalkeepers, with Gianluigi Buffon having surpassed the latter record.|name"playing-style"|group"nb"}} Considered one of the greatest goalkeepers of all time, in 1999 he was elected in a poll by the IFFHS as the third best goalkeeper of the 20th Century – after Lev Yashin (1st) and Gordon Banks (2nd) – as well as Italy's best keeper of the century, and the second best European keeper of the century – behind only Yashin. Although Italy were not top favourites because of a young squad, he coached a young Italy squad to a second-place finish in Euro 2000, suffering a 2–1 extra-time defeat at the hands of reigning World Cup Champions France in the final, due to a golden goal by David Trezeguet. En route to the final, a ten-man Italy had eliminated co-hosts the Netherlands in the semi-finals in a penalty shoot-out, after a 0–0 draw, following extra-time, with a tightly contested defensive display against a more offensive-minded Dutch side. In the final of the tournament, Italy had been 1–0 up for most of the second half, and were less than sixty seconds away from winning the tournament, before France forward Sylvain Wiltord scored in the fourth and final minute of stoppage time to equalise, and send the match into extra time. Despite reaching the final, Zoff resigned a few days later, following strong criticism from AC Milan president and politician Silvio Berlusconi. Zoff was voted the World Soccer Manager of the Year in 2000.Style of managementAs a manager, Zoff was known for his use of tactics based upon the zona mista system (or "Gioco all'Italiana"), which was a cross between the catenaccio man-marking and zonal marking systems. Although he was initially known for fielding a 4–4–2 formation, at Euro 2000, he used a 5–2–1–2 system with Italy. His teams often used a sweeper, who, in addition to his defensive duties and organisational responsibilities, was also required to start plays from the back. He preferred not to base his team's play on set plays and formations, as he believed that cultivating a good relationship with his players and fostering a winning team mentality were the keys to getting the best out of them, and that this would also allow their natural creativity to come through in matches.Personal life and healthZoff is married to Annamaria Passerini; they have a son, Marco, born in 1967. Zoff is Roman Catholic.
On 28 November 2015, it was reported Zoff was hospitalised for three weeks with a viral neurological infection, which made it difficult for him to walk. On 23 December 2015, it was reported Zoff had been recovering well, however stating, "For the first time in my life, I was actually afraid... When I say scared, I wasn't afraid for myself, but for those around me. My wife, my son, my grandchildren. My tribe, basically. I would've really hurt them by leaving." He also revealed, "One night I saw two figures at the end of my bed. They had the faces of Gaetano Scirea [one of his former, deceased teammates] and Enzo Bearzot [one of his former, deceased coaches]. They were both smiling. I wasn't asleep, it wasn't a dream. I told them: 'Not yet, not now.' And I am still here."Career statisticsClub{| class"wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Appearances and goals by club, season and competition
|-
!rowspan="2"|Club
!rowspan="2"|Season
!colspan="3"|League
!colspan="2"|Coppa Italia
!colspan="2"|Europe
!colspan="2"|Total
!rowspan="2"|
|-
!Division!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals
|-
|rowspan="3"|Udinese||1961–62||Serie A
|4||0||||||||||||
|
|-
|1962–63||Serie B
|34||0||||||||||||
|
|-
|1964–65
|32||0||||||||||||
|
|-
!National team!!Year!!Apps!!Goals
|-
|rowspan="16"|Italy
|1968||5||0
|-
|1969||4||0
|-
|1970||2||0
|-
|1971||6||0
|-
|1972||5||0
|-
|1973||8||0
|-
|1974||8||0
|-
|1975||7||0
|-
|1976||10||0
|-
|1977||6||0
|-
|1978||12||0
|-
|1979||4||0
|-
|1980||12||0
|-
|1981||7||0
|-
|1982||13||0
|-
|1983||3||0
|-
!colspan="2"|Total!!112!!0
|}
Managerial
:Updated 8 March 2023
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center"
|-
!Team!!class="unsortable"|Nation!!From!!|To!!Matches!!Won!!Drawn!!Lost!!Win %
|-
|align=left|Juventus
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|align=left|Lazio
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|align=left|Lazio
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|align=left|Italy
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|align=left|Lazio
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
|align=left|Fiorentina
|
|align=left|
|align=left|
|-
!colspan="4"|Total
|}
Honours and achievements
Player
Juventus
*Serie A: 1972–73, 1974–75, 1976–77, 1977–78, 1980–81, 1981–82
*Coppa Italia: 1978–79, 1982–83
*UEFA Cup: 1976–77
*Intercontinental Cup: Runner-up: 1973
*European Cup: Runner-up: 1972–73, 1982–83
Italy
*FIFA World Cup: 1982
*UEFA European Championship: 1968
Manager
Juventus 1980
* Ballon d'Or: 1973 (2nd place)
* FIFA World Cup All-Star Team: 1982
* FIFA Order of Merit: 1984
* FIFA World Cup Best Goalkeeper: 1982
*World XI: 1968, 1975
*Sport Ideal European XI: 1973, 1975
* IFFHS Italian Goalkeeper of the 20th Century: 1999
* UEFA Golden Jubilee Poll: #5
* FIFA 100
* Golden Foot "Football Legends" Award: 2004
* Inducted into the Italian Football Hall of Fame: 2012
* Inducted into the Walk of Fame of Italian sport: 2015
* IFFHS Legends
Manager
* Seminatore d'oro: 1990
* World Soccer Manager of the Year: 2000
Orders
:* 3rd Class / Commander: Commendatore Ordine al Merito della Repubblica Italiana: 1982
:* 2nd Class / Grand Officer: Grande Ufficiale Ordine al Merito della Repubblica Italiana: 2000Records* FIFA World Cup: Oldest player to play in and win a final, at 40 years, 4 months and 13 days in 1982<ref name"Record e Curiosità"/>
* UEFA Champions League/European Cup: Oldest player to play in a final, at 41 years and 86 days in 1983<ref name="Juventus rallies around stricken legend Dino Zoff"/>
* Most consecutive appearances in Serie A with Juventus: 330 (1972–1983)<ref name="Zoff shares Buffon record"/>
* Most consecutive appearances in Serie A: 332 (1972–1983)<ref name="treccani1"/>
* Longest period time without conceding a goal in international matches: 1142 minutes (1972–1974).<ref name="best keepers"/>
* Most consecutive minutes without conceding a goal at the European Championships including qualifying: 784 (1975–1980)
* Fewest goals conceded in a single edition of the European Championships: 1 (1968) (alongside Gianluigi Buffon, Iker Casillas, and Thomas Myhre)
* Fewest goals conceded in a single edition of the European Championships by a tournament-winning starting goalkeeper: 1 (1968) (alongside Iker Casillas)
* One of four goalkeepers to win the FIFA World Cup as captain: 1982 (alongside Gianpiero Combi, Iker Casillas, and Hugo Lloris)<ref name"Italy’s towering guardian"/><ref name"autogenerated1"/>
Notes
See also*List of men's footballers with 100 or more international capsReferencesExternal links
* [http://www.solocalcio.com/gallery/azzurri/Zoff_uk.htm Dino Zoff the Legend] – a lot of useful information
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081112093222/http://goalkeepinggreats.webs.com/dinozoff.htm Dino Zoff @ Goalkeeping Greats]
*
*
}}
}}
}}
Category:1942 births
Category:Living people
Category:Italian Roman Catholics
Category:People from Mariano del Friuli
Category:Footballers from the Province of Gorizia
Category:Italian men's footballers
Category:Men's association football goalkeepers
Category:Udinese Calcio players
Category:Mantova 1911 players
Category:SSC Napoli players
Category:Juventus FC players
Category:Serie A players
Category:Serie B players
Category:UEFA Europa League–winning players
Category:Italy men's international footballers
Category:Competitors at the 1963 Mediterranean Games
Category:UEFA Euro 1968 players
Category:European champions for Italy
Category:1970 FIFA World Cup players
Category:1974 FIFA World Cup players
Category:1978 FIFA World Cup players
Category:UEFA Euro 1980 players
Category:1982 FIFA World Cup players
Category:FIFA World Cup–winning players
Category:FIFA Men's Century Club
Category:Mediterranean Games gold medalists for Italy
Category:Mediterranean Games medalists in football
Category:UEFA European Championship–winning players
Category:FIFA 100
Category:UEFA Golden Players
Category:Italian football managers
Category:Juventus FC managers
Category:SS Lazio managers
Category:Italy national football team managers
Category:ACF Fiorentina managers
Category:Serie A managers
Category:UEFA Euro 2000 managers
Category:UEFA Europa League–winning managers
Category:Association football goalkeeping coaches
Category:Commanders of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Category:Grand Officers of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Category:20th-century Italian sportsmen
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dino_Zoff
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Dipsacales
|
The Dipsacales are an order of flowering plants, included within the asterid group of dicotyledons. In the APG III system of 2009, the order includes only two families, Adoxaceae and a broadly defined Caprifoliaceae.<ref name=APGIII2009/> Some well-known members of the Dipsacales order are honeysuckle, elder, viburnum, and valerian.
Under the Cronquist system, the order included Adoxaceae, Caprifoliaceae sensu stricto, Dipsacaceae, and Valerianaceae. Under the 2003 APG II system, the circumscription of the order was much the same but the system allowed either a broadly circumscribed Caprifoliaceae including the families Diervillaceae, Dipsacaceae, Linnaeaceae, Morinaceae, and Valerianaceae, or these families being kept separate. The APG III system only uses the broadly circumscribed Caprifoliceae.<ref name=APGIII2009/>
The Dipsacales appear to be most closely related to the Paracryphiales.<ref nameAPGIII2009/>References
*Bell, C. D., E. J. Edwards, S. T. Kim, & M. J. Donoghue. 2001. Dipsacales phylogeny based on chloroplast DNA sequences. Harvard Papers in Botany 6:481-499.
*Donoghue, M. J., C. D. Bell, & R. C. Winkworth. 2003. The evolution of reproductive characters in Dipsacales. International Journal of Plant Sciences 164:S453-S464
External links
*[http://tolweb.org/tree?groupDipsacales Dipsacales] at Tree of Life
*[http://www.springerlink.com/(lmk1zcqhf3qoezridttpvqvk)/app/home/contribution.asp?referrerparent&backtoissue,5,7;journal,87,1500;linkingpublicationresults,1:104878,1 Phylogeny of the Asteridae s. str. based on rbcL sequences, with particular reference to the Dipsacales] (link to abstract)
Category:Angiosperm orders
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipsacales
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Democrat
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Democrat, Democrats, or Democratic may refer to:
Politics
A proponent of democracy, or democratic government; a form of government involving rule by the people.
A member of a Democratic Party:
Democratic Party (Cyprus) (DCY)
Democratic Party (Hong Kong) (DPHK)
Democratic Party (Italy) (PD)
Democratic Party (Japan) (DP)
Democratic Party (United States) (D)
Democratic Progressive Party (DPP)
Democratic Party’s (South Korea, 2015)
Democratic Party (Indonesia) (PD)
Democratic Party (disambiguation), for a full list
A member of a Democrat Party (disambiguation)
A member of a Democracy Party (disambiguation)
Australian Democrats, a political party
Democrats (Brazil), a political party
Democrats (Chile), a political party
Democrats (Croatia), a political party
Democrats (Gothenburg political party), in the city of Gothenburg, Sweden
Democrats (Greece), a political party
Democrats (Greenland), a political party
Democrats (Slovakia), a political party
Democrats (Slovenia), a political party
Sweden Democrats, a political party
The Democrats (Maldives), a political party
The Democrats (Israel), a political party
Supporters of political parties and democracy movements in Hong Kong and Macau:
Pro-democracy camp (Hong Kong)
Localist camp (Hong Kong)
Pro-democracy camp (Macau)
Democrat Party (epithet)
Places
Democrat, California
Democrat, Kentucky
Democrat Gulch, a valley in Oregon
Democratic Republic of Afghanistan
Democratic Republic of the Congo
German Democratic Republic
People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
Democratic People's Republic of Korea
Lao People's Democratic Republic
Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal
Somali Democratic Republic
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen
Other uses
Democrats (film), a 2014 documentary about politics in Zimbabwe
See also
Democracy (disambiguation)
Democrat Party (disambiguation)
Democracy Party (disambiguation)
Democratic Party (disambiguation)
Democrat Party (epithet), a political epithet used in the United States instead of the Democratic Party
Demokrat Parti (disambiguation)
New Democrats (disambiguation)
Republicanism
Monarchism
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democrat
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December
|
December is the twelfth and final month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. Its length is 31 days. right|thumb|December, from the Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry
December's name derives from the Latin word decem (meaning ten) because it was originally the tenth month of the year in the calendar of Romulus , which began in March. The winter days following December were not included as part of any month. Later, the months of January and February were created out of the monthless period and added to the beginning of the calendar, but December retained its name.
In Ancient Rome, as one of the four Agonalia, this day in honour of Sol Indiges was held on December 11, as was Septimontium. Dies natalis (birthday) was held at the temple of Tellus on December 13, Consualia was held on December 15, Saturnalia was held December 17–23, Opiconsivia was held on December 19, Divalia was held on December 21, Larentalia was held on December 23, and the dies natalis of Sol Invictus was held on December 25. These dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar.
The Anglo-Saxons referred to December–January as Ġēolamonaþ (modern English: "Yule month"). The French Republican Calendar contained December within the months of Frimaire and Nivôse.
Astronomy
thumb|Month December depicted in Hans Bol's and Adriaen Collart's Emblematica Evangelica.
December contains the winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, the day with the fewest daylight hours, and the summer solstice in the Southern Hemisphere, the day with the most daylight hours (excluding polar regions in both cases, which consistently have none or 24 hours, respectively, near the solstice). December in the Northern Hemisphere is the seasonal equivalent to June in the Southern Hemisphere and vice versa. In the Northern hemisphere, the beginning of the astronomical winter is traditionally 21 December or the date of the solstice.
Meteor showers occurring in December are the Andromedids (September 25 – December 6, peaking around November 9), the Canis-Minorids (December 4 – December 15, peaking around December 10–11), the Coma Berenicids (December 12 to December 23, peaking around December 16), the Delta Cancrids (December 14 to February 14, the main shower from January 1 to January 24, peaking on January 17), the Geminids (December 13–14), the Monocerotids (December 7 to December 20, peaking on December 9. This shower can also start in November), the Phoenicids (November 29 to December 9, with a peak occurring around 5/6 December), the Quadrantids (typically a January shower but can also start in December), the Sigma Hydrids (December 4–15), and the Ursids (December 17-to December 25/26, peaking around December 22).
Astrology
The zodiac signs for the month of December are Sagittarius (until December 21) and Capricorn (December 22 onward).
Symbols
alt=Yellow narcissus flower|thumb|Yellow narcissus flowerDecember's birth flower is the narcissus. Its birthstones are turquoise, zircon and tanzanite.
altA slab of turquoise|thumb|A slab of turquoise altZircons|thumb|Zircons alt=Rough and polished tanzanite|thumb|Rough and polished tanzanite
Observances
alt=A Christmas tree at the Eaton Centre in Toronto. Christmas is traditionally celebrated on December 25 every year.|thumb|A Christmas tree at the Eaton Centre in Toronto.
This list does not necessarily imply either official status or general observance.
Non-Gregorian
(All Baháʼí, Islamic, and Jewish observances begin at the sundown prior to the date listed, and end at sundown of the date in question unless otherwise noted.)
List of observances set by the Baháʼí calendar
List of observances set by the Chinese calendar
List of observances set by the Hebrew calendar
List of observances set by the Islamic calendar
List of observances set by the Solar Hijri calendar
Month-long
In Catholic tradition, December typically marks the beginning of the Season of Advent. It is also devoted to the Immaculate Conception.
National Egg Nog Month (United States)
National Impaired Driving Prevention Month (United States)
National Fruit Cake Month (United States)
National Pear Month (United States)
Movable
See also Movable Western Christian observances
See also Movable Eastern Christian observances
Tuesday immediately following fourth Thursday of November
Giving Tuesday (United States) (can fall in December)
First Friday
Farmer's Day (Ghana)
Gospel Day (Marshall Islands)
First Sunday
Good Neighborliness Day (Turkmenistan)
Sindhi Cultural Day (Sindhi diaspora)
Second Monday
Green Monday
National Tree Planting Day (Malawi)
December 15, unless the date falls on a Sunday, then December 16
Koninkrijksdag (Kingdom of the Netherlands)
Winter Solstice
Blue Christmas (holiday)
Brumalia (Ancient Rome)
Dongzhi Festival (Asia)
Global Orgasm
Korochun (Slavic)
Midsummer in the Southern Hemisphere. (Contemporary Paganism)
Sanghamitta Day (Theravada Buddhism)
Shalako (Zuni)
Yaldā (Iran)
Yule in the Northern Hemisphere (Contemporary Paganism)
Ziemassvētki (Latvia)
December 22, unless that date is a Sunday, in which case the 23rd
Forefathers' Day (Plymouth, Massachusetts)
December 26, unless that day is a Sunday, in which case the 27th
Boxing Day (Commonwealth of Nations)
Day of Good Will (South Africa and Namibia)
Family Day (Vanuatu)
Thanksgiving (Solomon Islands)
Start of Boxing Week
Fixed
right|thumb|A Christmas market in Dresden
November 25 – December 10: 16 Days of Activism against Gender-based Violence
December 1
Battle of the Sinop Day (Russia)
Damrong Rajanubhab Day (Thailand)
Day of Restoration of Independence (Portugal)
Eat A Red Apple Day (United States)
Feast for Death of Aleister Crowley (Thelema)
First President Day (Kazakhstan)
Freedom and Democracy Day (Chad)
Great Union Day (Romania)
Military Abolition Day (Costa Rica)
National Day (Myanmar)
Republic Day (Central African Republic)
Restoration of Independence Day (Portugal)
Rosa Parks Day (Ohio and Oregon, United States)
Self-governance Day (Iceland)
Teachers' Day (Panama)
World AIDS Day
Day Without Art
December 2
Armed Forces Day (Cuba)
International Day for the Abolition of Slavery
National Day (Laos)
National Day (United Arab Emirates)
National Fritters Day (United States)
December 3
Doctors' Day (Cuba)
United Nations' International Day of Persons with Disabilities
December 4
National Cookie Day (United States)
Navy Day (India)
Saint Barbara's Day-related observances:
Barbórka (Poland)
Eid il-Burbara (Russia, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, Turkey)
Thai Environment Day (Thailand)
Tupou I Day (Tonga)
December 5
Children's Day (Suriname)
Day of the Ninja (unofficial)
Day of Military Honour – Battle of Moscow (Russia)
Discovery Day (Haiti and Dominican Republic)
International Volunteer Day for Economic and Social Development
Klozum (Schiermonnikoog, Netherlands)
Saint Nicholas Eve (Belgium, Czech Republic, Slovakia, the Netherlands, Hungary, Romania, Germany, Poland and the UK)
Krampusnacht (Austria)
King's Birthday (Thailand)
Repeal Day (United States)
World Soil Day
December 6
Anniversary of the Founding of Quito (Ecuador)
Armed Forces Day (Ukraine)
Constitution Day (Spain)
Day of the Ministry of Communications and Information Technologies of Azerbaijan
Independence Day of Finland
National Day of Remembrance and Action on Violence Against Women (Canada)
Saint Nicholas Day (Western Christianity)
December 7
Armed Forces Flag Day (India)
Eve of the Immaculate Conception (Western Christianity) and related observances:
Day of the Little Candles, begins after sunset (Colombia)
Quema del Diablo, begins after sunset. (Guatemala)
International Civil Aviation Day
National Heroes Day (East Timor)
National Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day (United States)
Spitak Remembrance Day (Armenia)
December 8
Battle Day (Falkland Islands)
Bodhi Day (Japan)
CARICOM–Cuba Day (Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and Cuba)
Constitution Day (Romania)
Constitution Day (Uzbekistan)
Day of Finnish Music (Finland)
Feast of the Immaculate Conception (public holiday in several countries, a holy day of obligation in others), and its related observances:
Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary (Anglican Communion), lesser commemoration
Christmas on Campus (University of Dayton)
Mother's Day (Panama)
Festa da Conceição da Praia, celebrating Yemanjá, Queen of the Ocean (Salvador, Bahia)
Festival of Lights (Lyon)
Pansexual/Panromantic Pride Day
Saint Clement of Ohrid Day (North Macedonia)
National Brownie Day (United States)
National Youth Day (Albania)
December 9
Anna's Day (Sweden and Finland)
Feast of the Conception of the Most Holy Theotokos by St. Anne (Eastern Orthodox)
Independence Day (Tanzania)
International Anti-Corruption Day
National Heroes Day (Antigua and Barbuda)
National Pastry Day (United States)
Navy Day (Sri Lanka)
Remembrance for Egill Skallagrímsson (The Troth)
Yuri's Day in the Autumn (Russian Orthodox Church)
December 10
Alfred Nobel Day (Sweden)
Constitution Day (Thailand)
Human Rights Day (International)
December 11
Human Rights and Peace Day (Kiribati)
Indiana Day (Indiana, United States)
National Have a Bagel Day (United States)
National Noodle Ring Day (United States)
National Tango Day (Argentina)
Pampanga Day (Pampanga province, Philippines)
Republic Day (Burkina Faso)
December 12
Constitution Day (Russia)
Croatian Air Force Day (Croatia)
Day of Neutrality (Turkmenistan)
Feast of the Apparition of Our Lady of Guadalupe (Mexico)
Feast of Masá'il Baháʼí calendar (only if Baháʼí Naw-Rúz falls on March 21, which it does for 2015)
Kanji Day (Japan)
Jamhuri Day (Kenya)
December 13
Acadian Remembrance Day (Acadians)
National Day (Saint Lucia)
Republic Day (Malta)
Sailor's Day (Brazil)
Saint Lucy's Day (mainly Scandinavia, some regions of Italy)
December 14
Alabama Day (Alabama)
Forty-seven Ronin Remembrance Day (Sengaku-ji, Tokyo)
Martyred Intellectuals Day (Bangladesh)
Monkey Day (International)
December 15
Bill of Rights Day (United States)
2nd Amendment Day (South Carolina)
Homecoming Day (Alderney)
International Tea Day
National Cupcake Day (United States)
Remembrance Day of Journalists Killed in the Line of Duty (Russia)
Zamenhof Day (International Esperanto Community)
December 16
National Day (Kingdom of Bahrain)
Victory day of Bangladesh
Day of Reconciliation in South Africa
December 17
Accession Day (Bahrain)
International Day to End Violence Against Sex Workers
National Day (Bhutan)
National Maple Syrup Day (United States)
Pan American Aviation Day (United States)
Wright Brothers Day (United States)
December 18
International Migrants Day (United Nations)
National Muffin Day (Brazil)
December 19
Goa Liberation Day (Goa, India)
National Heroes and Heroines Day (Anguilla)
December 20
Abolition of Slavery Day, also known as Fête des Cafres (Réunion, French Guiana)
Bo Aung Kyaw Day (Myanmar)
International Human Solidarity Day (International)
Macau Special Administrative Region Establishment Day (Macau)
National Sangria Day (United States)
December 21
Armed Forces Day (Philippines)
First day of winter (some cultures)
Forefathers' Day (Plymouth, Massachusetts, United States)
National Hamburger Day (United States)
São Tomé Day (São Tomé and Príncipe)
The first day of Pancha Ganapati, celebrated until December 25 (Saiva Siddhanta Church)
December 22
Armed Forces Day (Vietnam)
Mother's Day (Indonesia)
National Date Nut Bread Day (United States)
National Mathematics Day (India)
Teachers' Day (Cuba)
Unity Day (Zimbabwe)
December 23
The Emperor's Birthday, a national holiday in Japan
Festivus
HumanLight (Humanism)
December 24
Christmas Eve
Aðfangadagskvöld, the day when the 13th and the last Yule Lad arrives to towns. (Iceland)
Feast of the Seven Fishes (Italy)
Juleaften (Denmark)/Julaften (Norway)/Julafton (Sweden)
Nittel Nacht (certain Orthodox Jewish denominations)
Nochebuena (Spain and Spanish-speaking countries)
The Declaration of Christmas Peace (Old Great Square of Turku, Finland's official Christmas City)
Quviasukvik (Eskimo of Nunavut, the Northwest Territories, Yukon, Nunavik, Nunatsiavut, NunatuKavut, Alaska, Greenland and Chukotka), a new year celebration held until January 7th.
Day of Military Honour – Siege of Ismail (Russia)
Independence Day (Libya)
Mōdraniht (Anglo-Saxon paganism)
National Eggnog Day (United States)
December 25
Children's Day (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Republic of Congo)
Christmas (Christianity)
Constitution Day (Taiwan)
Good Governance Day (India)
Newtonmas (Atheist community)
Quaid-e-Azam's Day (Pakistan)
Takanakuy (Chumbivilcas Province, Peru)
National Pumpkin Pie Day (United States)
December 26
Independence Day in Slovenia – Independence and Unity Day
Kwanzaa (December 26 to January 1) (African-American community, United States)
Saint Stephen's Day
Wren Day (Ireland and the Isle of Man)
December 27
Independence and Unity Day (Slovenia)
Mauro Hamza Day (Houston, Texas)
Mummer's Day (Padstow, Cornwall)
Saint Stephen's Day (public holiday in Alsace, Austria, Catalonia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Germany, Hong Kong, Italy, Ireland, Luxembourg, Poland, Slovakia and Switzerland)
Father's Day (Bulgaria)
The first day of Junkanoo street parade, the second day is on the New Year's Day (The Bahamas)
National Fruitcake Day (United States)
Zartosht No-Diso (Zoroastrianism)
December 28
Proclamation Day in South Australia
December 29
December 30
Day of the Declaration of Slovakia as an Independent Ecclesiastic Province (Slovakia)
National Bicarbonate of Soda Day (United States)
Rizal Day (Philippines)
December 31
International Solidarity Day (Azerbaijan)
National Champagne Day (United States)
New Year's Eve
Novy God Eve
Bisperás ng Bagong Taón (Philippines)
Ōmisoka (Japan)
Start of Hogmanay (Scotland) December 31 – January 1, in some cases until January 2.
See also
Historical anniversaries
Undecimber
References
External links
*12
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December
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2025-04-05T18:28:28.818595
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December 7
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Events
Pre-1600
*43 BC – Marcus Tullius Cicero is assassinated in Formia on orders of Marcus Antonius.
* 574 – Byzantine Emperor Justin II, suffering recurring seizures of insanity, adopts his general Tiberius and proclaims him as Caesar.
* 927 – The Sajid emir of Adharbayjan, Yusuf ibn Abi'l-Saj is defeated and captured by the Qarmatians near Kufa.1601–1900*1703 – The Great Storm of 1703, the greatest windstorm ever recorded in the southern part of Great Britain, makes landfall. Winds gust up to 120 mph, and 9,000 people die.
*1724 – Tumult of Thorn: Religious unrest is followed by the execution of nine Protestant citizens and the mayor of Thorn (Toruń) by Polish authorities.
*1732 – The Royal Opera House opens at Covent Garden, London, England.
*1776 – Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, arranges to enter the American military as a major general.
*1787 – Delaware becomes the first state to ratify the United States Constitution.
*1837 – The Battle of Montgomery's Tavern, the only battle of the Upper Canada Rebellion, takes place in Toronto, where the rebels are quickly defeated.
*1842 – First concert of the New York Philharmonic, founded by Ureli Corelli Hill.
1901–present
*1904 – Comparative fuel trials begin between warships and : Spiteful was the first warship powered solely by fuel oil, and the trials led to the obsolescence of coal in ships of the Royal Navy.
*1917 – World War I: The United States declares war on Austria-Hungary.
*1922 – The Parliament of Northern Ireland votes to remain a part of the United Kingdom and not unify with Southern Ireland.
*1930 – W1XAV in Boston, Massachusetts telecasts video from the CBS radio orchestra program, The Fox Trappers. The telecast also includes the first television advertisement in the United States, for I.J. Fox Furriers, which also sponsored the radio show.
*1932 – German-born Swiss physicist Albert Einstein is granted an American visa.
*1936 – Australian cricketer Jack Fingleton becomes the first player to score centuries in four consecutive Test innings.
*1941 – World War II: Attack on Pearl Harbor: The Imperial Japanese Navy carries out a surprise attack on the United States Pacific Fleet and its defending Army and Marine air forces at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. (For Japan's near-simultaneous attacks on Eastern Hemisphere targets, see December 8.)
*1942 – World War II: British commandos conduct Operation Frankton, a raid on shipping in Bordeaux harbour.
*1944 – An earthquake along the coast of Wakayama Prefecture in Japan causes a tsunami which kills 1,223 people.
*1946 – A fire at the Winecoff Hotel in Atlanta, Georgia kills 119 people, the deadliest hotel fire in U.S. history.
*1949 – Chinese Civil War: The Government of the Republic of China moves from Nanjing to Taipei, Taiwan.
*1962 – Prince Rainier III of Monaco revises the principality's constitution, devolving some of his power to advisory and legislative councils.
*1963 – Instant replay makes its debut during the Army-Navy football game in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States.
*1965 – Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras I simultaneously revoke mutual excommunications that had been in place since 1054.
*1971 – The Battle of Sylhet is fought between the Pakistani military and the Indian Army.
* 1971 – Pakistan President Yahya Khan announces the formation of a coalition government with Nurul Amin as Prime Minister and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as Deputy Prime Minister.
*1972 – Apollo 17, the last Apollo Moon mission, is launched. The crew takes the photograph known as The Blue Marble as they leave the Earth.
*1982 – In Texas, Charles Brooks Jr., becomes the first person to be executed by lethal injection in the United States.
* 1982 – The Senior Road Tower collapses in less than 17 seconds. Five workers on the tower are killed and three workers on a building nearby are injured.
*1983 – An Iberia Airlines Boeing 727 collides with an Aviaco DC-9 in dense fog while the two airliners are taxiing down the runway at Madrid–Barajas Airport, killing 93 people.
*1987 – Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 1771, a British Aerospace 146-200A, crashes near Paso Robles, California, killing all 43 on board, after a disgruntled passenger shoots his ex-boss traveling on the flight, then shoots both pilots and steers the plane into the ground.
*1988 – The 6.8 Armenian earthquake shakes the northern part of the country with a maximum MSK intensity of X (Devastating), killing 25,000–50,000 and injuring 31,000–130,000.
*1993 – Long Island Rail Road shooting: Passenger Colin Ferguson murders six people and injures 19 others on the LIRR in Nassau County, New York.
*1995 – The Galileo spacecraft arrives at Jupiter, a little more than six years after it was launched by Space Shuttle Atlantis during Mission STS-34.
* 1995 – Khabarovsk United Air Group Flight 3949 crashes into the Bo-Dzhausa Mountain, killing 98.
* 1995 – An Air Saint Martin (now Air Caraïbes) Beechcraft 1900 crashes near the Haitian commune of Belle Anse, killing 20.
*2003 – The Conservative Party of Canada is officially registered, following the merger of the Canadian Alliance and the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada.
*2005 – Rigoberto Alpizar, a passenger on American Airlines Flight 924 who allegedly claimed to have a bomb, is shot and killed by a team of U.S. federal air marshals at Miami International Airport.
*2015 – The JAXA probe Akatsuki successfully enters orbit around Venus five years after the first attempt.
*2016 – Pakistan International Airlines Flight 661, a domestic passenger flight from Chitral to Islamabad, operated by an ATR-42-500 crashes near Havelian, killing all 47 on board.
*2017 – Aztec High School shooting: Former student William Atchison opens fire on former high school, killing 2.
*2024 – Battle of Damascus (2024): Syrian opposition forces enter the Rif Dimashq Governorate, reaching within 20 km of the capital Damascus.
<!--PLEASE DO NOT ADD any entries about video game console releases. THEY WILL BE REMOVED.-->
Births
<!-- Please do not add yourself or anyone else without a biography in Wikipedia to this list.-->
Pre-1600
* 521 – Columba, Irish missionary, monk, and saint (d. 597)
* 903 – Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi, Persian astronomer and author (d. 986)
* 967 – Abū-Sa'īd Abul-Khayr, Persian Sufi poet (d. 1049)
*1302 – Azzone Visconti, Italian nobleman (d. 1339)
*1532 – Louis I, German nobleman and politician (d. 1605)
*1545 – Henry Stuart, English-Scottish husband of Mary, Queen of Scots (d. 1567)
*1561 – Kikkawa Hiroie, Japanese daimyō (d. 1625)
*1595 – Injo of Joseon, Korean king (d. 1649)
*1598 – Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Italian sculptor and painter (d. 1680)
1601–1900
*1643 – Giovanni Battista Falda, Italian architect and engraver (d. 1678)
*1637 – Bernardo Pasquini, Italian organist and composer (d. 1710)
*1756 – John Littlejohn, American sheriff and Methodist preacher (d. 1836)
*1764 – Claude Victor-Perrin, French general and politician (d. 1841)
*1784 – Allan Cunningham, Scottish author and poet (d. 1842)
*1791 – Ferenc Novák, Hungarian-Slovene priest and poet (d. 1836)
*1792 – Abraham Jacob van der Aa, Dutch author and academic (d. 1857)
*1801 – Johann Nestroy, Austrian actor and playwright (d. 1862)
*1810 – Josef Hyrtl, Hungarian-Austrian anatomist and biologist (d. 1894)
* 1810 – Theodor Schwann, German physiologist and biologist (d. 1882)
*1823 – Leopold Kronecker, Polish-German mathematician and academic (d. 1891)
*1838 – Thomas Bent, Australian businessman and politician, 22nd Premier of Victoria (d. 1909)
*1860 – Joseph Cook, English-born Australian politician, 6th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1947)
*1861 – Henri Mathias Berthelot, French general during World War I (d. 1931)
*1862 – Paul Adam, French author (d. 1920)
*1863 – Felix Calonder, Swiss soldier and politician, 36th President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 1952)
* 1863 – Pietro Mascagni, Italian composer and conductor (d. 1945)
* 1863 – Richard Warren Sears, American businessman, co-founded Sears (d. 1914)
*1869 – Frank Laver, Australian cricketer (d. 1919)
*1873 – Willa Cather, American novelist, short story writer, and poet (d. 1947)
*1878 – Akiko Yosano, Japanese author, poet, pioneering feminist, pacifist, and social reformer (d. 1942)
*1879 – Rudolf Friml, Czech-American pianist, composer, and academic (d. 1972)
*1884 – John Carpenter, American sprinter (d. 1933)
*1885 – Mason Phelps, American golfer (d. 1945)
* 1885 – Peter Sturholdt, American boxer and painter (d. 1919)
*1887 – Ernst Toch, Austrian-American composer and songwriter (d. 1964)
*1888 – Joyce Cary, Irish novelist (d. 1957)
* 1888 – Hamilton Fish III, American captain and politician (d. 1991)
*1892 – Stuart Davis, American painter and academic (d. 1964)
*1893 – Fay Bainter, American actress (d. 1968)
* 1893 – Hermann Balck, German general (d. 1982)
*1894 – Freddie Adkins, English author and illustrator (d. 1986)
*1900 – Kateryna Vasylivna Bilokur, Ukrainian folk artist (d. 1961)
1901–present
*1902 – Hilda Taba, Estonian architect, author, and educator (d. 1967)
*1903 – Danilo Blanuša, Croatian mathematician, physicist, and academic (d. 1987)
*1904 – Clarence Nash, American voice actor and singer (d. 1985)
*1905 – Gerard Kuiper, Dutch-American astronomer and academic (d. 1973)
*1906 – Erika Fuchs, German translator (d. 2005)
*1907 – Fred Rose, Polish-Canadian politician and spy (d. 1983)
*1909 – Nikola Vaptsarov, Bulgarian poet and author (d. 1942)
*1910 – Duncan McNaughton, Canadian high jumper and geologist (d. 1998)
* 1910 – Louis Prima, American singer-songwriter, trumpet player, and actor (d. 1978)
*1912 – Daniel Jones, Welsh captain and composer (d. 1993)
*1913 – Kersti Merilaas, Estonian author and poet (d. 1986)
*1915 – Leigh Brackett, American author and screenwriter (d. 1978)
* 1915 – Eli Wallach, American actor (d. 2014)
*1920 – Tatamkhulu Afrika, South African poet and author (d. 2002)
* 1920 – Fiorenzo Magni, Italian cyclist (d. 2012)
* 1920 – Walter Nowotny, Austrian-German soldier and pilot (d. 1944)
*1921 – Pramukh Swami Maharaj, Indian guru and scholar (d. 2016)
*1923 – Intizar Hussain, Indian-Pakistani author and scholar (d. 2016)
* 1923 – Ted Knight, American actor and comedian (d. 1986)
*1924 – Bent Fabric, Danish pianist and composer (d. 2020)
* 1924 – John Love, Zimbabwean race car driver (d. 2005)
* 1924 – Mary Ellen Rudin, American mathematician (d. 2013)
* 1924 – Mário Soares, Portuguese historian, lawyer, and politician, 17th President of Portugal (d. 2017)
*1925 – Hermano da Silva Ramos, French-Brazilian race car driver
* 1925 – Max Zaslofsky, American basketball player and coach (d. 1985)
*1926 – William John McNaughton, American bishop (d. 2020)
*1927 – Jack S. Blanton, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 2013)
* 1927 – Helen Watts, Welsh opera singer (d. 2009)
*1928 – Noam Chomsky, American linguist and philosopher
* 1928 – Mickey Thompson, American race car driver (d. 1988)
*1930 – Christopher Nicole, Guyanese-English author (d. 2017)
* 1930 – Hal Smith, American baseball player (d. 2020)
*1931 – Allan B. Calhamer, American game designer, created Diplomacy (d. 2013)
* 1931 – Bobby Osborne, American bluegrass singer and musician (d. 2023)
*1932 – Ellen Burstyn, American actress
* 1932 – Oktay Ekşi, Turkish journalist and politician
* 1932 – Rosemary Rogers, American journalist and author (d. 2019)
* 1932 – J. B. Sumarlin, Indonesian economist and politician, 17th Indonesian Minister of Finance (d. 2020)
* 1932 – Bobby Whitton, Australian rugby league player (d. 2008)
*1933 – Krsto Papić, Croatian director and screenwriter (d. 2013)
*1935 – Armando Manzanero, Mexican musician, singer and composer (d. 2020)
*1937 – Stan Boardman, English comedian
* 1937 – Thad Cochran, American lawyer and politician (d. 2019)
*1940 – Gerry Cheevers, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
*1941 – Melba Pattillo Beals, American journalist and activist
*1942 – Harry Chapin, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1981)
* 1942 – Alex Johnson, American baseball player (d. 2015)
* 1942 – Reginald F. Lewis, American businessman (d. 1993)
* 1942 – Peter Tomarken, American game show host and producer (d. 2006)
*1943 – Susan Isaacs, American author and screenwriter
* 1943 – Jóhann Ársælsson, Icelandic politician
* 1943 – Nick Katz, American mathematician and academic
* 1943 – Bernard C. Parks, American police officer and politician
* 1943 – John Bennett Ramsey, American businessman and pilot
*1944 – Daniel Chorzempa, American organist and composer (d. 2023)
* 1944 – Miroslav Macek, Czech dentist and politician (d. 2024)
*1947 – Johnny Bench, American baseball player and sportscaster
* 1947 – Anne Fine, English author
* 1947 – James Keach, American actor, producer, and director
* 1947 – Garry Unger, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster
*1948 – Gary Morris, American country singer-songwriter and actor
* 1948 – Tony Thomas, American screenwriter and producer
*1949 – James Rivière, Italian sculptor and jeweler
* 1949 – Tom Waits, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor
*1950 – Ron Hynes, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2015)
*1952 – Susan Collins, American politician
* 1952 – Eckhard Märzke, German footballer and manager
*1954 – Mary Fallin, American businesswoman and politician, 27th Governor of Oklahoma
*1955 – John Watkins, Australian educator and politician, 14th Deputy Premier of New South Wales
*1956 – Larry Bird, American basketball player and coach
* 1956 – Chuy Bravo, Mexican-American comedian and actor (d. 2019)
* 1956 – Anna Soubry, British politician
*1957 – Geoff Lawson, Australian cricketer, coach, and sportscaster
* 1957 – Tijjani Muhammad-Bande, Nigerian career-diplomat, President of the United Nations General Assembly (2019)
* 1957 – Tom Winsor, English lawyer and civil servant
*1958 – Tim Butler, English bass player and songwriter
* 1958 – Rick Rude, American wrestler and sportscaster (d. 1999)
*1959 – Saleem Yousuf, Pakistani cricketer
*1960 – Craig Scanlon, English guitarist and songwriter
*1962 – Alain Blondel, French decathlete
* 1962 – Jeffrey Donaldson, Northern Irish politician
* 1962 – Imad Mughniyah, Lebanese activist (d. 2008)
*1963 – Theo Snelders, Dutch footballer and coach
* 1963 – Katsuya Terada, Japanese illustrator
* 1963 – Barbara Weathers, American R&B/soul singer
*1964 – Hugo Blick, English filmmaker
* 1964 – Patrick Fabian, American actor
* 1964 – Peter Laviolette, American ice hockey player and coach
*1965 – Deborah Bassett, Australian rower
* 1965 – Colin Hendry, Scottish footballer and manager
* 1965 – Jeffrey Wright, American actor
*1966 – C. Thomas Howell, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1966 – Shinichi Ito, Japanese motorcycle racer
* 1966 – Kazue Itoh, Japanese actress
* 1966 – Andres Kasekamp, Canadian-Estonian historian and academic
* 1966 – Louise Post, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1967 – Mark Geyer, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster
* 1967 – Tino Martinez, American baseball player, coach, and sportscaster
* 1967 – Nina Turner, American politician
*1971 – Vladimir Akopian, Azerbaijani-Armenian chess player
*1972 – Hermann Maier, Austrian skier
* 1972 – Tammy Lynn Sytch, American wrestler and manager
*1973 – İbrahim Kutluay, Turkish basketball player
* 1973 – Hack Meyers, American wrestler and trainer (d. 2015)
* 1973 – Terrell Owens, American football player
* 1973 – Fabien Pelous, French rugby player and coach
* 1973 – Damien Rice, Irish singer-songwriter, musician and record producer
*1974 – Nicole Appleton, Canadian singer and actress
* 1974 – Manuel Martínez Gutiérrez, Spanish shot putter and actor
*1975 – Jamie Clapham, English footballer and coach
*1976 – Alan Faneca, American football player
* 1976 – Ivan Franceschini, Italian footballer
* 1976 – Georges Laraque, Canadian ice hockey player and politician
* 1976 – Derek Ramsay, Filipino-British actor, model and television personality
* 1976 – Sunny Sweeney, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1976 – Benoît Tréluyer, French race car driver
* 1976 – Joris Vandenbroucke, Belgian politician
*1977 – Eric Chavez, American baseball player and sportscaster
* 1977 – Luke Donald, English golfer
* 1977 – Dominic Howard, English drummer and producer
*1978 – Shiri Appleby, American actress, director, and producer
* 1978 – Suzannah Lipscomb, English historian, academic and television presenter
*1979 – Sara Bareilles, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and actress
* 1979 – Jennifer Carpenter, American actress
* 1979 – Lampros Choutos, Greek-Italian footballer
* 1979 – Ayako Fujitani, Japanese actress and screenwriter
*1980 – Dan Bilzerian, American poker player and internet celebrity
* 1980 – John Terry, English footballer
*1982 – Lou Amundson, American basketball player
* 1982 – Jack Huston, English actor
*1983 – Mike Mucitelli, American mixed martial artist
* 1983 – Al Thornton, American basketball player
*1984 – Aaron Gray, American basketball player
* 1984 – Robert Kubica, Polish race car driver
* 1984 – Milan Michálek, Czech ice hockey player
* 1984 – Luca Rigoni, Italian footballer
*1985 – Jon Moxley, American wrestler
*1986 – Billy Horschel, American golfer
* 1986 – Nita Strauss, American guitarist
*1987 – Aaron Carter, American singer-songwriter, rapper, dancer, and actor (d. 2022)
*1988 – Nathan Adrian, American swimmer
* 1988 – Emily Browning, Australian actress and singer
* 1988 – Angelina Gabueva, Russian tennis player
* 1988 – Andrew Goudelock, American basketball player
*1989 – Kyle Hendricks, American baseball player
* 1989 – Nicholas Hoult, English actor
* 1989 – Philip Larsen, Danish ice hockey player
* 1989 – Alessandro Marchi, Italian footballer
* 1989 – Kevin Séraphin, French basketball player
*1990 – Cameron Bairstow, Australian basketball player
* 1990 – David Goffin, Belgian tennis player
* 1990 – Aleksandr Menkov, Russian long jumper
* 1990 – Yasiel Puig, Cuban baseball player
* 1990 – Urszula Radwańska, Polish tennis player
*1991 – Eugenio Pisani, Italian race car driver
* 1991 – Chris Wood, New Zealand footballer
*1992 – Sean Couturier, American-Canadian ice hockey player
*1993 – Rahama Sadau, Nigerian actress
* 1993 – Alex Singleton, American football player
*1994 – Pete Alonso, American baseball player
* 1994 – Geno Chiarelli, American politician
* 1994 – Yuzuru Hanyu, Japanese figure skater
* 1994 – Hunter Henry, American football player
*1997 – Abi Harrison, Scottish footballer
* 1997 – Tommy Nelson, American actor
*1998 – Tony Yike Yang, Canadian pianist
*1999 – Boo Buie, American basketball player
* 1999 – Pavol Regenda, Slovak ice hockey player
*2000 – Dane Belton, American football player
*2001 – Jalen McMillan, American football player
*2002 – Torri Huske, American swimmer
<!--Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please.
Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. -->
Deaths
Pre-1600
*43 BC – Cicero, Roman philosopher, lawyer, and politician (b. 106 BC)
* 283 – Eutychian, pope of the Catholic Church
* 881 – Anspert, archbishop of Milan
* 983 – Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 955)
*1254 – Innocent IV, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 1195)
*1279 – Bolesław V, High Duke of Poland (b. 1226)
*1295 – Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl of Gloucester, English officer (b. 1243)
*1312 – Michael II of Antioch, Syriac Orthodox patriarch of Antioch ()
*1383 – Wenceslaus I, duke of Luxembourg (b. 1337)
*1498 – Alexander Hegius von Heek, German poet (b. 1433)
*1562 – Adrian Willaert, Dutch-Italian composer and educator (b. 1490)
1601–1900
*1649 – Charles Garnier, French missionary and saint (b. 1606)
*1672 – Richard Bellingham, English-American lawyer and politician, 8th Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony (b. 1592)
*1680 – Peter Lely, Dutch-English painter (b. 1618)
*1683 – Algernon Sidney, English philosopher and politician, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (b. 1623)
*1723 – Jan Santini Aichel, Czech architect, designed the Pilgrimage Church of Saint John of Nepomuk and Karlova Koruna Chateau (b. 1677)
*1725 – Florent Carton Dancourt, French actor and playwright (b. 1661)
*1772 – Martín Sarmiento, Spanish monk, scholar, and author (b. 1695)
*1775 – Charles Saunders, English admiral and politician (b. 1715)
*1793 – Joseph Bara, French soldier and drummer (b. 1779)
*1803 – Küçük Hüseyin Pasha, Turkish admiral and politician (b. 1757)
*1815 – Michel Ney, German-French general (b. 1769)
*1817 – William Bligh, English admiral and politician, 4th Governor of New South Wales (b. 1745)
*1837 – Robert Nicoll, Scottish poet (b. 1814)
*1842 – Thomas Hamilton, Scottish philosopher and author (b. 1789)
*1874 – Constantin von Tischendorf, German theologian, scholar, and academic (b. 1815)
*1879 – Jón Sigurðsson, Icelandic scholar and politician, 1st Speaker of the Parliament of Iceland (b. 1811)
*1891 – Arthur Blyth, English-Australian politician, 9th Premier of South Australia (b. 1823)
*1894 – Ferdinand de Lesseps, French businessman and diplomat, co-developed the Suez Canal (b. 1805)
*1899 – Juan Luna, Filipino painter and sculptor (b. 1857)
1901–present
*1902 – Thomas Nast, German-American cartoonist (b. 1840)
*1906 – Élie Ducommun, Swiss journalist and educator, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1833)
*1913 – Luigi Oreglia di Santo Stefano, Italian cardinal (b. 1828)
*1917 – Ludwig Minkus, Austrian violinist and composer (b. 1826)
*1918 – Frank Wilson, English-Australian politician, 9th Premier of Western Australia (b. 1859)
*1941 – Attack on Pearl Harbor:
** Mervyn S. Bennion, American captain (b. 1887)
** Frederick Curtice Davis, American sailor (b. 1915)
** Julius Ellsberry, American sailor (b. 1921)
** John C. England, American sailor (b. 1920)
** Edwin J. Hill, American sailor (b. 1894)
** Ralph Hollis, American sailor (b. 1906)
** Herbert C. Jones, American sailor (b. 1918)
** Isaac C. Kidd, American admiral (b. 1884)
** Robert Lawrence Leopold, American sailor (b. 1916)
** Herbert Hugo Menges, American sailor (b. 1917)
** Thomas James Reeves, American sailor (b. 1895)
** Aloysius Schmitt, American priest and sailor (b. 1909)
** Robert R. Scott, American sailor (b. 1915)
** Peter Tomich, American sailor (b. 1893)
** Robert Uhlmann, American sailor (b. 1919)
** Franklin Van Valkenburgh, American captain (b. 1888)
** Eldon P. Wyman, American sailor (b. 1917)
*1947 – Tristan Bernard, French author and playwright (b. 1866)
* 1947 – Nicholas Murray Butler, American philosopher and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1862)
*1949 – Rex Beach, American author, playwright, and water polo player (b. 1877)
*1956 – Huntley Gordon, Canadian-American actor (b. 1887)
* 1956 – Reşat Nuri Güntekin, Turkish author and playwright (b. 1889)
*1960 – Ioannis Demestichas, Greek admiral and politician (b. 1882)
*1962 – Kirsten Flagstad, Norwegian opera singer (b. 1895)
*1969 – Lefty O'Doul, American baseball player and manager (b. 1897)
* 1969 – Eric Portman, English actor (b. 1903)
*1970 – Rube Goldberg, American cartoonist, sculptor, and author (b. 1883)
*1975 – Thornton Wilder, American novelist and playwright (b. 1897)
* 1975 – Hardie Albright, American actor (b. 1903)
*1976 – Paul Bragg, American nutritionist (b. 1895)
*1977 – Paul Gibb, English cricketer and umpire (b. 1913)
* 1977 – Peter Carl Goldmark, Hungarian-American engineer (b. 1906)
* 1977 – Georges Grignard, French race car driver (b. 1905)
*1978 – Alexander Wetmore, American ornithologist and paleontologist (b. 1886)
*1979 – Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin, English-American astronomer and astrophysicist (b. 1900)
*1980 – Darby Crash, American punk rock vocalist and songwriter (b. 1958)
*1984 – Jack Mercer, American voice actor (b. 1910)
* 1984 – LeeRoy Yarbrough, American race car driver (b. 1938)
*1985 – J. R. Eyerman, American photographer and journalist (b. 1906)
* 1985 – Robert Graves, English poet, novelist, critic (b. 1895)
* 1985 – Potter Stewart, American soldier and jurist (b. 1915)
*1989 – Haystacks Calhoun, American wrestler and actor (b. 1934)
* 1989 – Hans Hartung, French-German painter (b. 1904)
*1990 – Joan Bennett, American actress (b. 1910)
* 1990 – Jean Paul Lemieux, Canadian painter and educator (b. 1904)
*1992 – Richard J. Hughes, American politician, 45th Governor of New Jersey, and Chief Justice of the New Jersey Supreme Court (b. 1909)
*1993 – Abidin Dino, Turkish-French painter and illustrator (b. 1913)
* 1993 – Félix Houphouët-Boigny, Ivoirian physician and politician, 1st President of Ivory Coast (b. 1905)
*1995 – Kathleen Harrison, English actress (b. 1892)
*1997 – Billy Bremner, Scottish footballer and manager (b. 1942)
*1998 – John Addison, English-American composer and conductor (b. 1920)
* 1998 – Martin Rodbell, American biochemist and endocrinologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1925)
*2003 – Carl F. H. Henry American journalist and theologian (b. 1913)
* 2003 – Azie Taylor Morton, American educator and politician, 36th Treasurer of the United States (b. 1933)
*2004 – Frederick Fennell, American conductor and educator (b. 1914)
* 2004 – Jerry Scoggins, American singer and guitarist (b. 1913)
* 2004 – Jay Van Andel, American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Amway (b. 1924)
*2005 – Bud Carson, American football player and coach (b. 1931)
*2006 – Jeane Kirkpatrick, American academic and diplomat, 16th United States Ambassador to the United Nations (b. 1926)
*2008 – Herbert Hutner, American banker and lawyer (b. 1908)
*2010 – Elizabeth Edwards, American lawyer and author (b. 1949)
* 2010 – Kari Tapio, Finnish singer (b. 1945)
*2011 – Harry Morgan, American actor (b. 1915)
*2012 – Roelof Kruisinga, Dutch physician and politician, Dutch Minister of Defence (b. 1922)
* 2012 – Ralph Parr, American colonel and pilot (b. 1924)
* 2012 – Marty Reisman, American table tennis player and author (b. 1930)
* 2012 – Saul Steinberg, American businessman and financier (b. 1939)
*2013 – Édouard Molinaro, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1928)
* 2013 – Chick Willis, American singer and guitarist (b. 1934)
*2014 – Mark Lewis, American author and educator (b. 1954)
* 2015 – Gerhard Lenski, American sociologist and academic (b. 1924)
* 2015 – Hyron Spinrad, American astronomer and academic (b. 1934)
* 2015 – Peter Westbury, English race car driver (b. 1938)
*2016 – Junaid Jamshed, Pakistani recording artist, television personality, fashion designer, occasional actor, singer-songwriter and preacher. (b. 1964)
* 2015 – Shirley Stelfox, English actress (b. 1941)
* 2016 – Greg Lake, English musician (b. 1947)
*2017 – Steve Reevis, Native American actor (b. 1962)
*2019 – Ron Saunders, English football player and manager (b. 1932)
*2020 – Dick Allen, American baseball player and tenor (b. 1942)
* 2020 – Chuck Yeager, American aviator (b. 1923)
*2023 – Benjamin Zephaniah, British writer and dub poet (b.1958)
* 2023 – Refaat Alareer, Palestinian professor and writer (b.1979)
* 2023 – Emiko Miyamoto, Japanese volleyball player (b. 1937)
* 2024 – Doudou Adoula, Congolese atalaku and composer (b. 1965)
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust “this year in history” websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
*Armed Forces Flag Day (India)
*Christian feast day:
**Aemilianus (Greek Church)
**Ambrose
**Maria Giuseppa Rossello
**Sabinus of Spoleto
**December 7 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Eve of the Immaculate Conception-related observances:
**Day of the Little Candles, begins after sunset (Colombia)
*International Civil Aviation Day
*National Heroes Day (East Timor)
*National Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day (United States)
*Spitak Remembrance Day (Armenia)
References
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/7 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/december/7 Historical Events on December 7]
Category:Days of December
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_7
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2025-04-05T18:28:28.854049
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8145
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December 15
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Events
Pre-1600
* 533 – Vandalic War: Byzantine general Belisarius defeats the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, at the Battle of Tricamarum.
* 687 – Pope Sergius I is elected as a compromise between antipopes Paschal and Theodore.
*1025 – Constantine VIII becomes sole emperor of the Byzantine Empire, 63 years after being crowned co-emperor.
*1161 – Jin–Song wars: Military officers conspire against the emperor Wanyan Liang of the Jin dynasty after a military defeat at the Battle of Caishi, and assassinate the emperor at his camp.
*1167 – Sicilian Chancellor Stephen du Perche moves the royal court to Messina to prevent a rebellion.
*1256 – Mongol forces under Hulagu enter and dismantle the Nizari Ismaili (Assassin) stronghold at Alamut Castle (in present-day Iran) as part of their offensive on Islamic southwest Asia.
*1270 – The Nizari Ismaili garrison of Gerdkuh, Persia surrender after 17 years to the Mongols.
*1467 – Stephen III of Moldavia defeats Matthias Corvinus of Hungary, with the latter being injured thrice, at the Battle of Baia.
*1546 – The town of Ekenäs () is founded by King Gustav Vasa of Sweden.1601–1900
*1651 – Castle Cornet in Guernsey, the last stronghold which had supported the King in the Third English Civil War, surrenders.
*1778 – American Revolutionary War: British and French fleets clash in the Battle of St. Lucia.
*1791 – The United States Bill of Rights becomes law when ratified by the Virginia General Assembly.
*1836 – The U.S. Patent Office building in Washington, D.C., nearly burns to the ground, destroying all 9,957 patents issued by the federal government to that date, as well as 7,000 related patent models.
*1862 – American Civil War: The Battle of Fredericksburg ends in a Union defeat as General Ambrose Burnside withdraws the Army of the Potomac across the Rappahannock River.
*1864 – American Civil War: The Battle of Nashville begins at Nashville, Tennessee, and ends the following day with the destruction of the Confederate Army of Tennessee under General John Bell Hood as a fighting force by the Union Army of the Cumberland under General George H. Thomas.
*1869 – The short-lived Republic of Ezo is proclaimed in the Ezo area of Japan. It is the first attempt to establish a democracy in Japan.
*1871 – Sixteen-year-old telegraphist Ella Stewart keys and sends the first telegraphed message from Arizona Territory at the Deseret Telegraph Company office in Pipe Spring.
*1890 – Hunkpapa Lakota leader Sitting Bull is killed on Standing Rock Indian Reservation, leading to the Wounded Knee Massacre.
*1893 – Symphony No. 9 ("From the New World" the "New World Symphony") by Antonín Dvořák premieres in a public afternoon rehearsal at Carnegie Hall in New York City, followed by a concert premiere on the evening of December 16.
*1899 – British Army forces are defeated at the Battle of Colenso in Natal, South Africa, the third and final battle fought during the Black Week of the Second Boer War.1901–present*1903 – Italian American food cart vendor Italo Marchiony receives a U.S. patent for inventing a machine that makes ice cream cones.
*1905 – The Pushkin House is established in Saint Petersburg, Russia, to preserve the cultural heritage of Alexander Pushkin.
*1906 – The London Underground's Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway opens.
*1914 – World War I: The Serbian Army recaptures Belgrade from the invading Austro-Hungarian Army.
* 1914 – A gas explosion at Mitsubishi Hōjō coal mine, in Kyushu, Japan, kills 687.
*1917 – World War I: An armistice between Russia and the Central Powers is signed.
*1933 – Anarchist insurrection suppressed in Zaragoza, Spain.
*1939 – Gone with the Wind (highest inflation adjusted grossing film) receives its premiere at Loew's Grand Theatre in Atlanta, Georgia, United States.
*1941 – The Holocaust in Ukraine: German troops murder over 15,000 Jews at Drobytsky Yar, a ravine southeast of the city of Kharkiv.
*1942 – World War II: The Battle of Mount Austen, the Galloping Horse, and the Sea Horse begins during the Guadalcanal Campaign.
*1943 – World War II: The Battle of Arawe begins during the New Britain campaign.
*1944 – World War II: a single-engine UC-64A Norseman aeroplane carrying United States Army Air Forces Major Glenn Miller is lost in a flight over the English Channel.
*1945 – Occupation of Japan/Shinto Directive: General Douglas MacArthur orders that Shinto be abolished as the state religion of Japan.
*1960 – Richard Pavlick is arrested for plotting to assassinate U.S. President-Elect John F. Kennedy.
* 1960 – King Mahendra of Nepal suspends the country's constitution, dissolves parliament, dismisses the cabinet, and imposes direct rule.
*1961 – Eichmann trial: Adolf Eichmann is sentenced to death after being found guilty by an Israeli court of 15 criminal charges, including charges of crimes against humanity, crimes against the Jewish people, and membership of an outlawed organization.
*1965 – Project Gemini: Gemini 6A, crewed by Wally Schirra and Thomas Stafford, is launched from Cape Kennedy, Florida. Four orbits later, it achieves the first space rendezvous, with Gemini 7.
*1970 – Soviet spacecraft Venera 7 successfully lands on Venus. It is the first successful soft landing on another planet.
*1973 – John Paul Getty III, grandson of American billionaire J. Paul Getty, is found alive near Naples, Italy, after being kidnapped by an Italian gang on July 10.
* 1973 – The American Psychiatric Association votes 13–0 to remove homosexuality from its official list of psychiatric disorders, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.
*1978 – U.S. President Jimmy Carter announces that the United States will recognize the People's Republic of China and sever diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan).
*1981 – A suicide car bombing targeting the Iraqi embassy in Beirut, Lebanon, levels the embassy and kills 61 people, including Iraq's ambassador to Lebanon. The attack is considered the first modern suicide bombing.
*1989 – Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights relating the abolition of capital punishment is adopted.
*1993 – The Troubles: The Downing Street Declaration is issued by British Prime Minister John Major and Irish Taoiseach Albert Reynolds.
*1997 – Tajikistan Airlines Flight 3183 crashes in the desert near Sharjah, United Arab Emirates, killing 85.
*2000 – The third reactor at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant is shut down.
*2001 – The Leaning Tower of Pisa reopens after 11 years and $27,000,000 spent to stabilize it, without fixing its famous lean.
*2005 – Introduction of the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor into USAF active service.
*2010 – A boat carrying 90 asylum seekers crashes into rocks off the coast of Christmas Island, Australia, killing 48 people.
*2013 – The South Sudanese Civil War begins when opposition leaders Dr. Riek Machar, Pagan Amum and Rebecca Nyandeng vote to boycott the meeting of the National Liberation Council at Nyakuron.
*2014 – Gunman Man Haron Monis takes 18 hostages inside a café in Martin Place for 16 hours in Sydney. Monis and two hostages are killed when police raid the café the following morning.
*2017 – A 6.5earthquake strikes the Indonesian island of Java in the city of Tasikmalaya, resulting in four deaths.
Births
Pre-1600
*AD 37 – Nero, Roman emperor (d. 68)
*130 – Lucius Verus, Roman emperor (d. 169)
*1242 – Prince Munetaka, Japanese shōgun (d. 1274)
*1447 – Albert IV, Duke of Bavaria (d. 1508)
*1567 – Christoph Demantius, German composer, poet, and theorist (d. 1643)
1601–1900
*1610 – David Teniers the Younger, Flemish painter (d. 1690)
*1657 – Michel Richard Delalande, French organist and composer (d. 1726)
*1686 – Jean-Joseph Fiocco, Flemish violinist and composer (d. 1746)
*1710 – Francesco Zahra, Maltese painter (d. 1773)
*1789 – Carlos Soublette, Venezuelan general and politician, 11th President of Venezuela (d. 1870)
*1832 – Gustave Eiffel, French architect and engineer, co-designed the Eiffel Tower (d. 1923)
*1837 – E. W. Bullinger, English minister, scholar, and theologian (d. 1913)
*1846 – Amunda Kolderup, Norwegian opera singer (d. 1882)
*1852 – Henri Becquerel, French physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1908)
*1859 – L. L. Zamenhof, Polish linguist and ophthalmologist, created Esperanto (d. 1917)
*1860 – Niels Ryberg Finsen, Faroese-Danish physician and educator, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1904)
* 1860 – Abner Powell, American baseball player and manager (d. 1953)
*1861 – Charles Duryea, American engineer and businessman, co-founded the Duryea Motor Wagon Company (d. 1938)
* 1861 – Pehr Evind Svinhufvud, Finnish lawyer, judge, and politician, 3rd President of Finland (d. 1944)
*1863 – Arthur Dehon Little, American chemist and engineer (d. 1935)
*1869 – Leon Marchlewski, Polish chemist and academic (d. 1946)
*1875 – Emilio Jacinto, Filipino journalist and activist (d. 1899)
*1878 – Hans Carossa, German author and poet (d. 1956)
*1885 – Leonid Pitamic, Slovenian lawyer, philosopher, and academic (d. 1971)
*1886 – Wanda Krahelska-Filipowicz, Polish politician and resistance fighter (d. 1968)
* 1886 – Florence Jepperson Madsen, American contralto singer and professor of music (d. 1977)
*1888 – Maxwell Anderson, American journalist and playwright (d. 1959)
*1890 – Harry Babcock, American pole vaulter (d. 1965)
*1891 – A.P. Carter, American country singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1960)
*1892 – J. Paul Getty, American-English businessman and art collector, founded Getty Oil (d. 1976)
*1894 – Vibert Douglas, Canadian astrophysicist and astronomer (d. 1988)
* 1894 – Josef Imbach, Swiss sprinter (d. 1964)
*1896 – Betty Smith, American author and playwright (d. 1972)
*1899 – Harold Abrahams, English sprinter, lawyer, and journalist (d. 1978)
1901–present
*1902 – Robert F. Bradford, American lawyer and politician, 57th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1983)
*1903 – Tamanishiki San'emon, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 32nd Yokozuna (d. 1938)
*1907 – Gordon Douglas, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1993)
* 1907 – Oscar Niemeyer, Brazilian architect, designed the United Nations Headquarters and the Cathedral of Brasília (d. 2012)
*1908 – Swami Ranganathananda, Indian monk, scholar, and author (d. 2005)
*1909 – Sattar Bahlulzade, Azerbaijani-Russian painter (d. 1974)
* 1909 – Eliza Atkins Gleason, American librarian (d. 2009)
*1910 – John Hammond, American record producer and critic (d. 1987)
*1911 – Nicholas P. Dallis, American psychiatrist and illustrator (d. 1991)
* 1911 – Stan Kenton, American pianist and composer (d. 1979)
*1913 – Roger Gaudry, Canadian chemist and businessman (d. 2001)
* 1913 – Muriel Rukeyser, American poet, academic, and activist (d. 1980)
*1915 – Eila Campbell, English geographer and cartographer (d. 1994)
*1916 – Miguel Arraes, Brazilian lawyer and politician, Governor of Pernambuco (d. 2005)
* 1916 – Buddy Cole, American pianist and conductor (d. 1964)
* 1916 – Maurice Wilkins, New Zealand-English physicist and biologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2004)
*1917 – Shan-ul-Haq Haqqee, Indian-Pakistani linguist and lexicographer (d. 2005)
*1918 – Jeff Chandler, American actor (d. 1961)
* 1918 – Chihiro Iwasaki, Japanese painter and illustrator (d. 1974)
*1919 – Max Yasgur, American dairy farmer and host of the Woodstock Music & Art Fair (d. 1973)
*1920 – Gamal al-Banna, Egyptian author and scholar (d. 2013)
* 1920 – Kurt Schaffenberger, German-American sergeant and illustrator (d. 2002)
*1921 – Alan Freed, American radio host (d. 1965)
*1923 – Pierre Cossette, American producer and manager (d. 2009)
* 1923 – Freeman Dyson, English-American physicist and mathematician (d. 2020)
* 1923 – Uziel Gal, German-Israeli engineer, designed the Uzi gun (d. 2002)
* 1923 – Valentin Varennikov, Russian general and politician (d. 2009)
*1924 – Frank W. J. Olver, English-American mathematician and academic (d. 2013)
* 1924 – Ruhi Sarıalp, Turkish triple jumper and educator (d. 2001)
*1925 – Kasey Rogers, American actress and author (d. 2006)
*1926 – Bill Pitt, Australian race car driver (d. 2017)
*1928 – Ernest Ashworth, American singer-songwriter (d. 2009)
* 1928 – Ida Haendel, Polish-English violinist and educator (d. 2020)
* 1928 – Friedensreich Hundertwasser, Austrian-New Zealand painter and architect (d. 2000)
*1930 – Edna O'Brien, Irish novelist, playwright, poet and short story writer (d. 2024)
*1931 – Klaus Rifbjerg, Danish author and poet (d. 2015)
*1932 – Jesse Belvin, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 1960)
* 1932 – John Meurig Thomas, Welsh chemist and academic (d. 2020)
*1933 – Bapu, Indian director and screenwriter (d. 2014)
* 1933 – Tim Conway, American comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2019)
* 1933 – Donald Woods, South African journalist and activist (d. 2001)
*1936 – Joe D'Amato, Italian director and producer (d. 1999)
*1938 – Michael Bogdanov, Welsh director and screenwriter (d. 2017)
* 1938 – Billy Shaw, American football player (d. 2024)
*1939 – Cindy Birdsong, American singer-songwriter
* 1939 – Dave Clark, English musician and songwriter
* 1946 – Art Howe, American baseball player and manager
* 1946 – Genny Lim, American writer
* 1946 – Comunardo Niccolai, Italian footballer (Torres, Cagliari, national team) (d. 2024)
*1948 – Cassandra Harris, Australian actress (d. 1991)
* 1948 – Charlie Scott, American basketball player
*1949 – Don Johnson, American actor
* 1949 – Brian Roper, English economist and academic
*1950 – Melanie Chartoff, American actress and comedian
* 1950 – Sylvester James Gates, American theoretical physicist and professor
*1951 – George Donikian, Australian journalist
* 1951 – Joe Jordan, Scottish footballer and manager
* 1951 – Tim Webster, Australian journalist and sportscaster
*1952 – Rudi Protrudi, American singer-songwriter and producer
* 1952 – Allan Simonsen, Danish footballer and manager
* 1952 – Julie Taymor, American director, producer, and screenwriter
*1953 – John R. Allen, American general and diplomat
* 1953 – J. M. DeMatteis, American author
* 1953 – Robert Charles Wilson, American-Canadian author
*1954 – Alex Cox, English film director, screenwriter, actor, non-fiction author and broadcaster
* 1954 – Oliver Heald, English lawyer and politician, Solicitor General for England and Wales
* 1954 – Mark Warner, American businessman and politician, 69th Governor of Virginia
*1955 – Hector Sants, English banker
* 1955 – Paul Simonon, English singer-songwriter and bass player
*1956 – John Lee Hancock, American screenwriter, film director, and producer
* 1956 – Tony Leon, South African lawyer and politician
*1957 – Mario Marois, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster
* 1957 – Mike McAlary, American journalist and author (d. 1998)
* 1957 – Tim Reynolds, German-American singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1958 – Carlo J. Caparas, Filipino director and producer
* 1958 – Richard Kastle, American classical pianist
*1959 – Greg Matthews, Australian cricketer
* 1959 – Alan Whetton, New Zealand rugby player
* 1959 – Gary Whetton, New Zealand rugby player
*1960 – Walter Werzowa, Austrian composer and producer
*1961 – Karin Resetarits, Austrian journalist and politician
*1962 – Tim Gaines, American bass player
* 1962 – Simon Hodgkinson, English rugby player and coach
*1963 – Ellie Cornell, American actress and producer
* 1963 – Norman J. Grossfeld, American screenwriter and producer
* 1963 – Helen Slater, American actress
* 1963 – David Wingate, American basketball player
*1964 – Paul Kaye, English actor
*1966 – Carl Hooper, Guyanese cricketer and coach
* 1966 – Molly Price, American actress
*1967 – David Howells, English footballer and coach
* 1967 – Mo Vaughn, American baseball player
*1968 – Garrett Wang, American actor
*1969 – Ralph Ineson, English actor
* 1969 – Chantal Petitclerc, Canadian wheelchair racer and senator
* 1969 – Adam Setliff, American discus thrower and lawyer
*1970 – Frankie Dettori, Italian jockey
* 1970 – Lawrence Funderburke, American basketball player
* 1970 – Michael Shanks, Canadian actor, screenwriter and director
*1971 – Clint Lowery, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
*1972 – Rodney Harrison, American football player and sportscaster
* 1972 – Lee Jung-jae, South Korean actor
* 1972 – Stuart Townsend, Irish actor
* 1972 – Alexandra Tydings, American actress, director, writer and producer
*1973 – Surya Bonaly, French figure skater
* 1973 – Ryoo Seung-wan, South Korean actor, director, and screenwriter
*1974 – Garath Archer, English rugby player
* 1974 – P. J. Byrne, American actor
*1975 – Samira Saraya, Palestinian actor, filmmaker, poet and rapper
*1976 – Baichung Bhutia, Indian footballer and manager
* 1976 – Kim Eagles, Canadian sport shooter
* 1976 – Aaron Miles, American baseball player and coach
* 1976 – Todd Tichenor, American baseball player and umpire
*1977 – Mehmet Aurélio, Brazilian-Turkish footballer and manager
* 1977 – Geoff Stults, American actor and producer
*1978 – Ned Brower, American drummer
* 1978 – Mark Jansen, Dutch guitarist and songwriter
* 1978 – Jerome McDougle, American football player
*1979 – Adam Brody, American actor
* 1979 – Eric Young, Canadian-American wrestler
*1980 – Élodie Gossuin, French beauty pageant titleholder and model
* 1980 – Sergio Pizzorno, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1980 – Manuel Wilhelm, German rugby player
*1981 – Michelle Dockery, English actress
* 1981 – Brendan Fletcher, Canadian actor and screenwriter
* 1981 – Andy González, Puerto Rican-American baseball player
* 1981 – Thomas Herrion, American football player (d. 2005)
* 1981 – Roman Pavlyuchenko, Russian footballer
*1982 – Charlie Cox, English actor
* 1982 – Borja García, Spanish race car driver
* 1982 – George O. Gore II, American actor and comedian
* 1982 – Tatiana Perebiynis, Ukrainian tennis player
*1983 – Delon Armitage, Trinidadian-English rugby player
* 1983 – René Duprée, Canadian professional wrestler
* 1983 – Camilla Luddington, English actress
* 1983 – Ronnie Radke, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
* 1983 – Sophia Young, Vincentian-American basketball player
*1984 – Martyn Bernard, English high jumper
* 1984 – Martin Škrtel, Slovak footballer
*1985 – Diogo Fernandes, Brazilian footballer
*1986 – Kim Junsu, South Korean singer-songwriter and dancer
* 1986 – Iveta Mazáčová, Czech sprinter
* 1986 – Keylor Navas, Costa Rican footballer
* 1986 – Snejana Onopka, Ukrainian model
*1987 – Josh Norman, American football player
*1988 – Erik Gustafsson, Swedish ice hockey player
* 1988 – Emily Head, English actress
* 1988 – Steven Nzonzi, French footballer
*1989 – Nichole Bloom, American actress and model
*1991 – Conor Daly, American race car driver
* 1991 – Yanni Gourde, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1991 – Alana Haim, American musician and actress
*1992 – Daiamami Genki, Japanese sumo wrestler
* 1992 – Jesse Lingard, English footballer
* 1992 – Maximiliano Meza, Argentine footballer
* 1992 – Alex Telles, Brazilian footballer
*1993 – Daniel Ochefu, American basketball player
*1995 – Jahlil Okafor, American basketball player
*1996 – Jenifer Brening, German singer
* 1996 – Oleksandr Zinchenko, Ukrainian footballer
*1997 – Maude Apatow, American actress
* 1997 – Zach Banks, American race car driver
* 1997 – Magdalena Fręch, Polish tennis player
* 1997 – Stefania LaVie Owen, New Zealand-American actress
*1998 – Chandler Canterbury, American actor
*2000 – Kayvon Thibodeaux, American football player
<!-- Do not add yourself or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information, Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. -->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 933 – Li Siyuan, Chinese emperor (b. 867)
*1025 – Basil II, Byzantine emperor (b. 958)
*1072 – Alp Arslan, Turkish sultan (b. 1029)
*1161 – Wanyan Liang, Chinese emperor (b. 1122)
*1230 – Ottokar I, duke of Bohemia (b. 1155)
*1283 – Philip I, Latin emperor (b. 1243)
*1343 – Hasan Kucek, Chopanid prince (b. c. 1319)
*1467 – Jöns Bengtsson Oxenstierna, archbishop and regent of Sweden (b. 1417)
*1574 – Selim II, Ottoman sultan (b. 1524)
*1598 – Philips of Marnix, Lord of Saint-Aldegonde, Dutch nobleman (b. 1540)
1601–1900
*1621 – Charles d'Albert, duc de Luynes, French courtier, Constable of France (b. 1578)
*1673 – Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, English noblewoman (b. 1623)
*1675 – Johannes Vermeer, Dutch painter and educator (b. 1632)
*1683 – Izaak Walton, English author (b. 1593)
*1688 – Gaspar Fagel, Dutch lawyer and politician (b. 1634)
* 1698 – Louis Victor de Rochechouart de Mortemart, French nobleman (b. 1636)
*1715 – George Hickes, English minister and scholar (b. 1642)
*1753 – Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, English architect and politician, designed Chiswick House (b. 1694)
*1792 – Joseph Martin Kraus, Swedish pianist, violinist, and composer (b. 1756)
*1812 – Shneur Zalman, Russian rabbi, author and founder of Chabad (b. 1745)
*1817 – Federigo Zuccari, astronomer, director of the Astronomical Observatory of Naples (b. 1783)
*1819 – Daniel Rutherford, Scottish chemist and physician (b. 1749)
*1855 – Jacques Charles François Sturm, French mathematician and academic (b. 1803)
*1878 – Alfred Bird, English chemist and businessman, invented baking powder (b. 1811)
*1890 – Sitting Bull, Hunkpapa Lakota tribal chief (b. 1831)
1901–present
*1943 – Fats Waller, American singer-songwriter and pianist (b. 1904)
*1944 – Glenn Miller, American bandleader and composer (b. 1904)
*1947 – Arthur Machen, Welsh journalist and author (b. 1863)
* 1947 – Crawford Vaughan, Australian politician, 27th Premier of South Australia (b. 1874)
*1950 – Vallabhbhai Patel, Indian lawyer and politician, 1st Deputy Prime Minister of India (b. 1875)
*1958 – Wolfgang Pauli, Austrian-Swiss physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1900)
*1962 – Charles Laughton, English-American actor, director, and producer (b. 1899)
*1965 – M. Balasundaram, Sri Lankan journalist, lawyer, and politician (b. 1903)
*1966 – Keith Arbuthnott, 15th Viscount of Arbuthnott, Indian-Scottish general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Kincardineshire (b. 1897)
* 1966 – Walt Disney, American animator, director, producer, and screenwriter, co-founded The Walt Disney Company (b. 1901)
*1968 – Antonio Barrette, Canadian politician, 18th Premier of Quebec (b. 1899)
* 1968 – Jess Willard, American boxer and actor (b. 1881)
*1969 – Karl Theodor Bleek, German lawyer and politician, 12th Mayor of Marburg (b. 1898)
*1971 – Paul Lévy, French mathematician and theorist (b. 1886)
*1974 – Anatole Litvak, Russian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1902)
*1977 – Wilfred Kitching, English 7th General of The Salvation Army (b. 1893)
*1978 – Chill Wills, American actor (b. 1903)
*1980 – Peter Gregg, American race car driver (b. 1940)
*1984 – Jan Peerce, American tenor and actor (b. 1904)
*1985 – Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, Mauritian physician and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Mauritius (b. 1900)
*1986 – Serge Lifar, Russian-French ballet dancer and choreographer (b. 1905)
*1989 – Edward Underdown, English actor and jockey (b. 1908)
*1991 – Vasily Zaytsev, Russian captain (b. 1915)
*1993 – William Dale Phillips, American chemist and engineer (b. 1925)
*2000 – Haris Brkić, Bosnian-Serbian basketball player (b. 1974)
*2003 – Vincent Apap, Maltese sculptor (b. 1909)
* 2003 – George Fisher, American cartoonist (b. 1923)
* 2003 – Keith Magnuson, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1947)
*2004 – Vassal Gadoengin, Nauruan educator and politician, Speaker of the Nauru Parliament (b. 1943)
*2005 – Heinrich Gross, Austrian physician and psychiatrist (b. 1914)
* 2005 – Stan Leonard, Canadian golfer (b. 1915)
* 2005 – William Proxmire, American soldier, journalist, and politician (b. 1915)
* 2005 – Darrell Russell, American football player (b. 1976)
*2006 – Clay Regazzoni, Swiss race car driver (b. 1939)
* 2006 – Mary Stolz, American journalist and author (b. 1920)
*2007 – Julia Carson, American lawyer and politician (b. 1938)
*2008 – León Febres Cordero, Ecuadorian engineer and politician, 46th President of Ecuador (b. 1931)
*2009 – Eliza Atkins Gleason, American librarian (b. 1909)
* 2017 – Calestous Juma, academic (b. 1953)
*2018 – Eryue He, Chinese historical fiction writer (b.1945)
* 2018 – Girma Wolde-Giorgis, President of Ethiopia (b. 1924)
*2020 – Saufatu Sopoanga, Tuvaluan politician, 8th Prime Minister of Tuvalu (b. 1952)
*2024 – Zakir Hussain, Indian tabla player, musical producer, film actor and composer (b. 1951)
<!-- Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this
list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information, Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. -->
Holidays and observances
*Bill of Rights Day (United States)
**2nd Amendment Day (South Carolina)
*Christian feast day:
**Drina Martyrs
**Drostan (Aberdeen Breviary)
**John Horden and Robert McDonald (Episcopal Church (USA))
**Maria Crocifissa di Rosa
**Mesmin
**Valerian of Abbenza
**Virginia Centurione Bracelli
**December 15 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Homecoming Day (Alderney)
*Kingdom Day (Netherlands), moves to December 16 if the 15th is on a Sunday
*Zamenhof Day (International Esperanto Community)
References
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/15 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/december/15 Historical Events on December 15]
Category:Days of December
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Diogo Cão
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| image = Diogo Cão.jpg
| image_size = 260px
| caption = Portuguese Navigator
| birth_name | birth_date
| birth_place = Vila Real, Kingdom of Portugal
| death_date = 1486 (aged around 33–34)
| death_place = Cape Cross, Namibia
| nationality = Portuguese
| citizenship | occupation Navigator and explorer
| known_for = First European to explore the Congo River and the west coast of Africa.
| signature =
}}
Diogo Cão ( – 1486), also known as Diogo Cam, was a Portuguese mariner and one of the most notable explorers of the fifteenth century. He made two voyages along the west coast of Africa in the 1480s, exploring the Congo River and the coasts of present-day Angola and Namibia.
Early life and family
Little is known about the early life of Diogo Cão. According to tradition, he was born in Vila Real, Portugal, around 1452. His grandfather, Gonçalo Cão, had fought for Portuguese independence at the Battle of Aljubarrota.
By 1480, Cão was sailing off the coast of Africa in the service of João II. There is a record that he returned to Portugal with captured Spanish ships.
Exploration
When the Treaty of Alcáçovas (1480) confirmed Portugal's monopoly on trade and exploration along Africa's west coast, João II moved quickly to secure and expand his hold on the region. In 1481, a fleet of ten ships was dispatched to the Gold Coast to construct a fortress known as São Jorge da Mina. The fort would serve as a commercial center for trade (including in slaves) and an important point of resupply for Portuguese voyages. João II also re-instituted a program of exploration southward along the African coast, an initiative that had been held in abeyance during the war with Spain. Diogo Cão was selected to lead João's first voyage of exploration in 1482.
First voyage
When João II restarted the work of Henry the Navigator, he sent out Cão, probably around midsummer 1482, to explore the African coast south of the equator. Diogo Cão filled his ship with stone pillars (padrões) surmounted by the cross of the Order of Christ and engraved with the Portuguese royal arms, planning to erect them at significant landmarks along his voyage of discovery. On the way, the expedition stopped at Sao Jorge da Mina to resupply.
In August 1482, Cão arrived at the Congo River mouth and marked it with a padrão erected on Shark Point, commemorating the Portuguese occupation. This padrão stood until 1642 when it was destroyed by the Dutch during their occupation of the Congo.
Cão sailed up the great river for a short distance and commenced modest commerce with the natives of the Bakongo kingdom. He was told that their king lived farther upriver, so he sent four Christian native messengers to search for the ruler and then proceeded south along the coast of present-day Angola where he erected a second padrão, probably marking the termination of this voyage, at Cabo de Santa Maria. When he returned to the Congo, Cão was annoyed to find that his messengers had not returned, so he abducted four local natives who were visiting his ship and returned with them to Portugal.
He reached Lisbon by 8 April 1484, where John II ennobled him, promoting him from esquire to a cavalier of his household, and granted him an annuity of ten thousand reals and a coat of arms on which two padrões are depicted.
The King also asked him to sail back to Kongo to repatriate the 4 men he left behind.
Second voyage
That Cão, on his second voyage of 1484–1486, was accompanied by Martin Behaim (as alleged on the latter's Nuremberg globe of 1492) is very doubtful. But it is known that the explorer revisited the Congo and erected two more padrões on land beyond his previous voyage. The first was at Cabo Negro, Angola, the second at Cape Cross. The Cape Cross pillar probably marked the end of his progress southward, some 1,400 kilometers.
Cão sailed 170 kilometers up the Congo River to the Yellala Falls. On the cliffs above this site an inscription was engraved which records the passage of Cão and his men: "Here arrived the ships of the illustrious monarch, Dom João the Second of Portugal – Diogo Cão, Pedro Anes, Pedro da Costa, Alvaro Pires, Pero Escolar".Death
Information regarding Cão's death is scanty and contradictory. A legend on the globe created by Martin Behaim reads "hic moritur" (here he dies), seeming to indicate that the explorer lost his life on the coast of Africa in 1486 during his second voyage. However, sixteenth-century historian João de Barros never mentions Cão's death but wrote instead of his return to the Congo, and subsequent taking of a native envoy back to Portugal.
A report by a board of astronomers and pilots presented at a 1525 conference in Badajo clearly stated that his death happened near Serra Parda. A coast map by Henricus Martellus Germanus published in 1489 indicated the location of a padrão erected by Diogo Cão in Ponta dos Farilhões nearby Serra Parda, with the legend "et hic moritur" ("and here he died").PadrõesThe four pillars set up by Cão on his two voyages have all been discovered still on their original site, and the inscriptions on two of them from Cape Santa Maria and Cape Cross, dated 1482 and 1485 respectively, are still to be read and have been printed. The Cape Cross padrão was long in Berlin (replaced on the spot by a granite facsimile) but was recently returned to Namibia; those from the Kongo estuary and the more southerly Cape Santa Maria and Cabo Negro are in the Museum of the Lisbon Geographical Society.Tributes post-mortemIn 1951, botanists named a genus of plants from western central tropical Africa in his honour, Diogoa.
In Vila Real, the plaza Diogo Cão was named after him. In the center of the plaza, stands a bronze statue of him supported on a square granite pedestal base.
In 1999, André Roubertou from the French Hydrographic Office (SHOM) named an undersea hole located off the southern coast of Portugal (Gulf of Cádiz) the Diogo Cão Hole.
In 2018, a hopper dredger called the Diogo Cao and immatriculated in Luxembourg was launched afloat.
In literature
Diogo Cão is the subject of Padrão, one of the best-known poems in Fernando Pessoa's book Mensagem, the only one published during the author's lifetime. He also figures strongly in the 1996 novel Lord of the Kongo by Peter Forbath.
See also
*Portugal in the period of discoveries
References
Sources
English
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Portuguese
* Barros, João de. Décadas da Ásia, Década I. bk. III., esp. ch. 3;
* Ruy de Pina, ''Chronica d'el Rei D. João II.;
* Garcia de Resende, Chronica;
* Luciano Cordeiro, Diogo Cão in Boletim da Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa'', 1892;
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060207085130/http://www.win.tue.nl/~engels/discovery/cao.html Diogo Cão]
* (pt) [http://ensina.rtp.pt/artigo/os-descobrimentos-portugueses-diogo-cao-e-bartolomeu-dias/ Os descobrimentos portugueses: Diogo Cão e Bartolomeu Dias]
Category:1450s births
Category:15th-century deaths
Category:15th-century explorers of Africa
Category:Portuguese explorers of Africa
Category:15th-century Portuguese explorers
Category:Portuguese navigators
Category:Maritime history of Portugal
Category:People from Vila Real, Portugal
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Drinking game
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"Drinking Games" (Doctors)|Drinking Games (Slow Horses)"Drinking Games" (Slow Horses)}}
is a drinking game in which players throw ping pong balls across a table, attempting to land each ball in a cup of beer on the other end.]]
Drinking games are games which involve the consumption of alcoholic beverages and often enduring the subsequent intoxication resulting from them. Evidence of the existence of drinking games dates back to antiquity. Drinking games have been banned at some institutions, particularly colleges and universities.HistoryAncient Greece
, with scene of Kottabos – fresco from the Tomb of the Diver in Paestum, 475 BC]]
Kottabos is one of the earliest known drinking games from ancient Greece, dated to the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Players would use dregs (remnants of what was left in their cup) to hit targets across the room with their wine. Often, there were special prizes and penalties for one's performance in the game.ChinaDrinking games were enjoyed in ancient China, usually incorporating the use of dice or verbal exchange of riddles. During the Tang dynasty (618–907), the Chinese used a silver canister where written lots could be drawn that designated which player had to drink and specifically how much; for example, from 1, 5, 7, or 10 measures of drink that the youngest player, or the last player to join the game, or the most talkative player, or the host, or the player with the greatest alcohol tolerance, etc. had to drink.
Drinking games became popular among elites in the late Qing period as part of the privileged class' urban leisure aesthetics. Novelists who invented literary-themed drinking games included Li Boyuan and Sun Yusheng.]]
Drinking games in 19th century Germany included Bierskat, Elfern, Rammes and Quodlibet, as well as Schlauch and Laubober, probably the same game as Grasobern. But the "crown of all drinking games" was one with an ancient and distinctive name: Cerevis. One feature of the game was that everything went under a different name from normal. So the cards (Karten) were called 'spoons' (Löffel), the Sevens were 'Septembers' and the Aces were the 'Juveniles' (junge Leichtsinn). A player who used the normal names was penalised. Every time a card was played, it was supposed to be accompanied by humorous words, so if a Jack or Unter was played, the player might say something like "my merry Unterkasser" (Lustig mein Unterkasser) or "long live my Unterkasser" (Vivat mein Unterkasser). If his opponent beat it, he might say "hang the Unterkasser" (Hängt den Unterkasser). The loser had to chalk up a figure such as a swallow, a wheel or a pair of scissors depending on the number of minus points gained and was only allowed to erase them once he had drunk the associated amount of beer.
Silver wager cups, also known as wedding cups, were used in Germany from the late 16th to mid 17th century. The smaller cup is on a pivot so both vessels can be face-up and filled with liquor. In wedding ceremonies, the man would drink from the larger vessel first, then turning the figure right side up, pass it to the woman, who would drink from the smaller cup; the challenge was for the two drinkers not to spill any liquor. They were also sometimes used during wine drinking boughts were a wager was placed if participant(s) could drink the contents of both sides without spilling a drop. In Germany they are known as Jungfrauenbecher, or maiden cups. Replicas of the cups were frequently manufactured during the 1880s to 1910s.
Types
Endurance
The simplest drinking games are endurance games in which players compete to out-drink one another. Players take turns taking shots, and the last person standing is the winner. Some games have rules involving the "cascade", "fountain", or "waterfall", which encourages each player to drink constantly from their cup so long as the player before him does not stop drinking. Such games can also favor speed over quantity, in which players race to drink a case of beer the fastest. Often drinking large amounts will be combined with a stylistic element or an abnormal method of drinking, as with the boot of beer, yard of ale, or a keg stand.
Tolerance games are simply about seeing which player can last the longest. It can be as simple as two people matching each other drink for drink until one of the participants "passes out". Power hour and its variant, centurion, fall under this category.
Speed
Many pub or bar games involve competitive drinking for speed. Examples of such drinking games are Edward Fortyhands, boat races, beer bonging, shotgunning, flippy cup (a team-based speed game), and yard. Some say that the most important skill to improving speed is to relax and take fewer but larger gulps. There are a variety of individual tactics to accomplishing this, such as bending the knees in anticipation, or when drinking from a plastic cup, squeezing the sides of the cup to form a more perfect funnel.
Athletic races involving alcohol including the beer mile, which consists of a mile run with a can of beer consumed before each of the four laps. A variant is known in German speaking countries as Bierkastenlauf (beer crate running) where a team of two carries a crate of beer along a route of several kilometers and must consume all of the bottles prior to crossing the finish line.
Skill
Some party and pub games focus on the performance of a particular act of skill, rather than on either the amount a participant drinks or the speed with which they do so. Examples include beer pong, quarters, chandeliers (also known as gauchoball, rage cage, stack cup), caps, polish horseshoes, pong, baseball, and beer darts.
Pub golf involves orienteering and pub crawling together.
A unique drinking game is made in the tavern Oepfelchammer in Zürich, Switzerland. It is called "Balkenprobe" and one has therefore to climb up a beam at the ceiling and move to another beam and then to drink a glass of wine with the head hanging down.
Luck
Party games like the Korean apateu are mostly luck, as it has the players stack their hands, after which the leader shouts out a number, and whoever has their hand at that position in the stack will drink.
Thinking
Thinking games rely on the players' powers of observation, recollection, logic and articulation.
Numerous types of thinking games exist, including Think or Drink, 21, beer checkers, bizz buzz, buffalo, saved by the bell, bullshit, tourettes, matchboxes, never have I ever, roman numerals, fuzzy duck, pennying, wine games, and Zoom Schwartz Profigliano. Trivia games, such as Trivial Pursuit, are sometimes played as drinking games.
Card and dice
Drinking games involving cards include president, horserace, Kings, liar's poker, pyramid, ring of fire, toepen, ride the bus and black or red.
Dice games include beer die, dudo, kinito, liar's dice, Mexico, mia, ship, captain, and crew, three man, and Triple Snakes.
Arts
Movie drinking games are played while watching a movie (sometimes a TV show or a sporting event) and have a set of rules for who drinks when and how much based on on-screen events and dialogue. The rules may be the same for all players, or alternatively players may each be assigned rules related to particular characters. The rules are designed so that rarer events require larger drinks. Rule sets for such games are usually arbitrary and local, although they are sometimes published by fan clubs.
In reference to film, a popular game among young adults consists of printing out a mustache and taping it on the television screen. Every time the mustache fits appropriately to a person on the screen, one must drink the designated amount.
Live drinking games such as Los Angeles–based "A Drinking Game" involve recreating films of the 80s in a "Rocky Horror" fashion, with gift bags, drinking cues, and costumed actors. A suggestion to "do six shots for SEAL Team 6" following every mention of Osama bin Laden at the 2012 Democratic National Convention necessitated a prominent disclaimer on the satire site that posted it, as the quantity of alcohol ingested would probably have been lethal.
"Datsyuk Game" involves a Datsyuk highlight reel being played and contestants drink every time the word Datsyuk is mentioned. The ceremonial playing of the Russian national anthem before the game is another tradition.
Music can also be used as a basis for drinking games. The song "Thunderstruck" by AC/DC is used in which a player begins drinking when the word thunder is sung and switches to the next player the next time it is sung.
Sport related drinking games involve the participants each selecting a scenario of the game resulting in their drink being downed. Examples of this include participants each picking a footballer in a game while other versions require multiple players to be selected. Should a player score or be sent off, a drink must be taken. Another version requires a drink for every touch a player takes of the ball.
Hybrid games
Some drinking games can fall into multiple categories such as a Power hour which is a primarily an endurance-based game, but can also incorporate the arts if players are prompted to drink by a playlist that changes songs every 60 seconds. Similarly, Flip cup combines the skill of flipping cups with the speed of drinking quickly prior to flipping.
Russian roulette
There is a drinking game based on Russian roulette. The game involves six shot glasses filled by a non-player: five are filled with water, but the sixth with vodka. Among some groups, low quality vodka is preferred, as it makes the glass representing the filled chamber less desirable. The glasses are arranged in a circle, and players take turns choosing a glass to take a shot from at random.
There is also a game called "Beer Hunter" (titled after the Russian roulette scenes in the film The Deer Hunter). In this game, six cans of beer are placed between the participants: one can is vigorously shaken, and the cans are scrambled. The participants take turns opening the cans of beer right under their noses; the person who opens the shaken can (and thus sprays beer up their nose) is deemed the loser.
Both are non-lethal compared to the game with the firearm which is almost always lethal.
Health concerns
Drinking games are popular social activities, particularly among young adults and college students, but they come with significant health risks. These games often encourage rapid alcohol consumption, often leading to heavy drinking, which can result in severe consequences such as alcohol poisoning:
* Beer pong. Some writers have mentioned beer pong as contributing to "out of control" college drinking.
* Power hour. Players may have difficulty completing the specified number of drinks as the rate of consumption can raise their blood alcohol content to high levels.
* Keg stand is another drinking game known for its extreme consumption style.
* Neknominate. The original rules of the game require the participants to film themselves drinking a pint of an alcoholic beverage. Five people are believed to have died as a result of playing the game, including a Cardiff man thought to have downed a pint of vodka, and a London hostel worker who reportedly mixed an entire bottle of white wine with a quarter bottle of whisky, a small bottle of vodka and a can of lager. In the latter case, the victim's nominator was interviewed by police, but it was ruled an accidental death without coercion.See also
* Binge drinking
* Pregaming
* List of drinking games
* List of public house topics
* Beerfest
References
Literature
* |date1862 |titleLese-Stübchen: Illustrirte Unterhaltungs-Blätter für Familie und Haus |volume3 |publisher=Brünn}}
* External links
*[https://drunkenme.com/movie-drinking-games/ Large List of Movie Drinking Games ]
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Devon
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| image_caption = Clockwise from top: the Devon coast at Combe Martin; ponies on Dartmoor; and Smeaton's Tower, Plymouth Hoe
| flag_image = Flag of Devon.svg
| locator_map = Devon UK locator map 2010.svg|
| map_caption = Devon within England
| coordinates
| region = South West
| established_date = Ancient
| lord_lieutenant_office = Lord Lieutenant of Devon
| lord_lieutenant_name David Fursdon
| Patron Saint = Saint Boniface
| high_sheriff_office = High Sheriff of Devon
| high_sheriff_name Richard Youngman (2022–23)
| area_total_km2 = 6707
| area_total_rank = 4th
| ethnicity =
| 0.4% Irish
Toponymy
The name Devon derives from the name of the Brythons who inhabited the southwestern peninsula of Britain at the time of the Roman conquest of Britain known as the Dumnonii, thought to mean 'deep valley dwellers' from Proto-Celtic 'deep'. In the Brittonic languages, Devon is known as , and , each meaning 'deep valleys'. (For an account of Celtic Dumnonia, see the separate article.) Among the most common Devon placenames is -combe which derives from Brittonic meaning 'valley' usually prefixed by the name of the possessor.
William Camden, in his 1607 edition of Britannia, described Devon as being one part of an older, wider country that once included Cornwall:
The term Devon is normally used for everyday purposes (e.g., "Devon County Council"), but Devonshire has continued to be used in the names of the "Devonshire and Dorset Regiment" (until 2007) and "The Devonshire Association". One erroneous theory is that the shire suffix is due to a mistake in the making of the original letters patent for the Duke of Devonshire, resident in Derbyshire. There are references to both and in Anglo-Saxon texts from before 1000 CE (the former is a name for the "people of Devon" and the latter would mean 'Shire of the Devonians'), which translates to modern English as Devonshire. The term Devonshire may have originated around the 8th century, when it changed from (Latin) to .Human occupation
at Drizzlecombe]]
Kents Cavern in Torquay had produced human remains from 30 to 40,000 years ago. Dartmoor is thought to have been occupied by Mesolithic hunter-gatherer peoples from about 6000 BC. The Romans held the area under military occupation for around 350 years. Later, the area began to experience Saxon incursions from the east around 600 AD, firstly as small bands of settlers along the coasts of Lyme Bay and southern estuaries and later as more organised bands pushing in from the east. Devon became a frontier between Brittonic and Anglo-Saxon Wessex, and it was largely absorbed into Wessex by the mid ninth century.
A genetic study carried out by the University of Oxford and University College London discovered separate genetic groups in Cornwall and Devon. Not only were there differences on either side of the River Tamar—-with a division almost exactly following the modern county boundary, but also between Devon and the rest of Southern England. Devon's population also exhibited similarities with modern northern France, including Brittany. This suggests the Anglo-Saxon migration into Devon was limited, rather than a mass movement of people.
The border with Cornwall was set by King Æthelstan on the east bank of the River Tamar in 936 AD. Danish raids also occurred sporadically along many coastal parts of Devon between around 800AD and just before the time of the Norman conquest, including the silver mint at Hlidaforda Lydford in 997 and Taintona (a settlement on the Teign estuary) in 1001.
Devon was the home of a number of anticlerical movements in the Later Middle Ages. For example, the Order of Brothelyngham—a fake monastic order of 1348
— regularly rode through Exeter, kidnapping both religious men and laymen, and extorting money from them as ransom.
Devon has also featured in most of the civil conflicts in England since the Norman conquest, including the Wars of the Roses, Perkin Warbeck's rising in 1497, the Prayer Book Rebellion of 1549, and the English Civil War. The arrival of William of Orange to launch the Glorious Revolution of 1688 took place at Brixham.
Devon has produced tin, copper and other metals from ancient times. Devon's tin miners enjoyed a substantial degree of independence through Devon's Stannary Convocation, which dates back to the 12th century. The last recorded sitting was in 1748.
Geography and geology
at Woodbury Common in south east Devon]]
, on the coast of North Devon]]
Devon straddles a peninsula and so, uniquely among English counties, has two separate coastlines: on the Bristol Channel and Celtic Sea in the north, and on the English Channel in the south. The South West Coast Path runs along the entire length of both, around 65% of which is named as Heritage Coast. Before the changes to English counties in 1974, Devon was the third largest county by area and the largest of the counties not divided into county-like divisions (only Yorkshire and Lincolnshire were larger and both were sub-divided into ridings or parts, respectively). Since 1974 the county is ranked fourth by area (due to the creation of Cumbria) amongst ceremonial counties and is the third largest non-metropolitan county. The island of Lundy and the reef of Eddystone are also in Devon. The county has more mileage of road than any other county in England.
Inland, the Dartmoor National park lies wholly in Devon, and the Exmoor National Park lies in both Devon and Somerset. Apart from these areas of high moorland the county has attractive rolling rural scenery and villages with thatched cob cottages. All these features make Devon a popular holiday destination.
In South Devon the landscape consists of rolling hills dotted with small towns, such as Dartmouth, Ivybridge, Kingsbridge, Salcombe, and Totnes. The towns of Torquay and Paignton are the principal seaside resorts on the south coast. East Devon has the first seaside resort to be developed in the county, Exmouth and the more upmarket Georgian town of Sidmouth, headquarters of the East Devon District Council. Exmouth marks the western end of the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site. Another notable feature is the coastal railway line between Newton Abbot and the Exe Estuary: the red sandstone cliffs and sea views are very dramatic and in the resorts railway line and beaches are very near.
North Devon is very rural with few major towns except Barnstaple, Great Torrington, Bideford and Ilfracombe. Devon's Exmoor coast has the highest cliffs in southern Britain, culminating in the Great Hangman, a "hog's-back" hill with a cliff-face, located near Combe Martin Bay. Its sister cliff is the Little Hangman, which marks the western edge of coastal Exmoor. One of the features of the North Devon coast is that Bideford Bay and the Hartland Point peninsula are both west-facing, Atlantic facing coastlines; so that a combination of an off-shore (east) wind and an Atlantic swell produce excellent surfing conditions. The beaches of Bideford Bay (Woolacombe, Saunton, Westward Ho! and Croyde), along with parts of North Cornwall and South Wales, are the main centres of surfing in Britain.Geology
A geological dividing line cuts across Devon roughly along the line of the Bristol to Exeter line and the M5 motorway east of Tiverton and Exeter. It is a part of the Tees–Exe line broadly dividing Britain into a southeastern lowland zone typified by gently dipping sedimentary rocks and a northwestern upland zone typified by igneous rocks and folded sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
The principal geological components of Devon are i) the Devonian strata of north Devon and south west Devon (and extending into Cornwall); ii) the Culm Measures (north western Devon also extending into north Cornwall); and iii) the granite intrusion of Dartmoor in central Devon, part of the Cornubian batholith forming the 'spine' of the southwestern peninsula. There are blocks of Silurian and Ordovician rocks within Devonian strata on the south Devon coast but otherwise no pre-Devonian rocks on the Devon mainland. The metamorphic rocks of Eddystone are of presumed Precambrian age.
The oldest rocks which can be dated are those of the Devonian period which are approximately 395–359 million years old. Sandstones and shales were deposited in North and South Devon beneath tropical seas. In shallower waters, limestone beds were laid down in the area now near Torquay and Plymouth.
This geological period was named after Devon by Roderick Murchison and Adam Sedgwick in the 1840s and is the only British county whose name is used worldwide as the basis for a geological time period.
Devon's second major rock system is the Culm Measures, a geological formation of the Carboniferous period that occurs principally in Devon and Cornwall. The measures are so called either from the occasional presence of a soft, sooty coal, which is known in Devon as culm, or from the contortions commonly found in the beds. This formation stretches from Bideford to Bude in Cornwall, and contributes to a gentler, greener, more rounded landscape. It is also found on the western, north and eastern borders of Dartmoor.
The sedimentary rocks in more eastern parts of the county include Permian and Triassic sandstones (giving rise to east Devon's well known fertile red soils); Bunter pebble beds around Budleigh Salterton and Woodbury Common and Jurassic rocks in the easternmost parts of Devon. Smaller outcrops of younger rocks also exist, such as Cretaceous chalk cliffs at Beer Head and gravels on Haldon, plus Eocene and Oligocene ball clay and lignite deposits in the Bovey Basin, formed around 50 million years ago under tropical forest conditions.
Climate
Devon generally has a cool oceanic climate, heavily influenced by the North Atlantic Drift. In winter, snow is relatively uncommon away from high land, although there are few exceptions. The county has mild summers with occasional warm spells and cool rainy periods. Winters are generally cool and the county often experiences some of the mildest winters in the world for its high latitude, with average daily maximum temperatures in January at . Rainfall varies significantly across the county, ranging from over on parts of Dartmoor, to around in the rain shadow along the coast in southeastern Devon and around Exeter. Sunshine amounts also vary widely: the moors are generally cloudy, but the SE coast from Salcombe to Exmouth is one of the sunniest parts of the UK (a generally cloudy region). With westerly or south-westerly winds and high pressure the area around Torbay and Teignmouth will often be warm, with long sunny spells due to shelter by high ground (Foehn wind).
Ecology
, North Devon]]
The variety of habitats means that there is a wide range of wildlife (see Dartmoor wildlife, for example). A popular challenge among birders is to find over 100 species in the county in a day. The county's wildlife is protected by several wildlife charities such as the Devon Wildlife Trust, which looks after 40 nature reserves. The Devon Bird Watching and Preservation Society (founded in 1928 and known since 2005 as "Devon Birds") is a county bird society dedicated to the study and conservation of wild birds. The RSPB has reserves in the county, and Natural England is responsible for over 200 Devon Sites of Special Scientific Interest and National Nature Reserves, such as Slapton Ley. The Devon Bat Group was founded in 1984 to help conserve bats. Wildlife found in this area extend to a plethora of different kinds of insects, butterflies and moths; an interesting butterfly to take look at is the chequered skipper.
Devon is a national hotspot for several species that are uncommon in Britain, including the cirl bunting; greater horseshoe bat; Bechstein's bat and Jersey tiger moth. It is also the only place in mainland Britain where the sand crocus (Romulea columnae) can be found – at Dawlish Warren, and is home to all six British native land reptile species, partly as a result of some reintroductions. Another recent reintroduction is the Eurasian beaver, primarily on the river Otter. Other rare species recorded in Devon include seahorses and the sea daffodil.
The botany of the county is very diverse and includes some rare species not found elsewhere in the British Isles other than Cornwall. Devon is divided into two Watsonian vice-counties: north and south, the boundary being an irregular line approximately across the higher part of Dartmoor and then along the canal eastwards. Botanical reports begin in the 17th century and there is a Flora Devoniensis by Jones and Kingston in 1829. A general account appeared in The Victoria History of the County of Devon (1906), and a Flora of Devon was published in 1939 by Keble Martin and Fraser. An Atlas of the Devon Flora by Ivimey-Cook appeared in 1984, and A New Flora of Devon, based on field work undertaken between 2005 and 2014, was published in 2016. Rising temperatures have led to Devon becoming the first place in modern Britain to cultivate olives commercially.
In January 2024, plans were announced to plant over 100,000 trees in northern Devon to support Celtic rainforests, which are cherished yet at risk ecosystems in the UK. The project aims to create 50 hectares of new rainforest across three sites, planting trees near existing rainforest areas along the coast and inland. Among the tree species to be planted is the rare Devon whitebeam, known for its unique reproduction method and once-popular fruit. Led by the National Trust and with the assistance of volunteers and community groups, the initiative will focus on locations in Exmoor, Woolacombe, Hartland, and Arlington Court.
Politics and administration
The administrative centre and capital of Devon is the city of Exeter. The largest city in Devon, Plymouth, and the conurbation of Torbay (which includes the largest town in Devon and capital of Torbay, Torquay, as well as Paignton and Brixham) have been unitary authorities since 1998, separate from the remainder of Devon which is administered by Devon County Council for the purposes of local government.
Devon County Council is controlled by the Conservatives, and the political representation of its 60 councillors are: 38 Conservatives, 10 Liberal Democrats, six Labour, three Independents, two Green and one South Devon Alliance.
At the 2024 general election, Devon returned six Liberal Democrats, four Conservatives and three Labour MPs to the House of Commons.
Hundreds
Historically Devon was divided into 32 hundreds: Axminster, Bampton, Black Torrington, Braunton, Cliston, Coleridge, Colyton, Crediton, East Budleigh, Ermington, Exminster, Fremington, Halberton, Hartland, Hayridge, Haytor, Hemyock, Lifton, North Tawton and Winkleigh, Ottery, Plympton, Roborough, Shebbear, Shirwell, South Molton, Stanborough, Tavistock, Teignbridge, Tiverton, West Budleigh, Witheridge, and Wonford.
Combined County Authority
Devon County Council and Torbay Council are constituent members of the Devon and Torbay Combined County Authority, which has devolved powers over transport, housing, skills, and support for business.
The authority consists of 12 members: six constituent members with full voting rights, four non-constituent members who do not have voting powers unless extended to them by the constituent members, and two associate members who cannot vote. Devon County Council and Torbay Council each choose half of the constituent members. Two of the non-constituent members are selected collectively by the district councils of Devon to represent their interests, and one is reserved for the Devon and Cornwall Police and Crime Commissioner. The remaining non-constituent member and the two associate members are elected by the constituent members of the authority.
Cities, towns and villages
, south Devon, at low tide]]
The main settlements in Devon are the cities of Plymouth, a historic port now administratively independent, Exeter, the county town, and Torbay, the county's tourist centre. Devon's coast is lined with tourist resorts, many of which grew rapidly with the arrival of the railways in the 19th century. Examples include Dawlish, Exmouth and Sidmouth on the south coast, and Ilfracombe and Lynmouth on the north. The Torbay conurbation of Torquay, Paignton and Brixham on the south coast is now administratively independent of the county. Rural market towns in the county include Barnstaple, Bideford, Honiton, Newton Abbot, Okehampton, Tavistock, Totnes and Tiverton.
The boundary with Cornwall has not always been on the River Tamar as at present: until the late 19th century a few parishes in the Torpoint area were in Devon and five parishes now in north-east Cornwall were in Devon until 1974 (however, for ecclesiastical purposes these were nevertheless in the Archdeaconry of Cornwall and in 1876 became part of the Diocese of Truro).
Religion
Ancient and medieval history
The region of Devon was the dominion of the pre-Roman Dumnonii Celtic tribe, known as the "Deep Valley Dwellers". The region to the west of Exeter was less Romanised than the rest of Roman Britain since it was considered a remote part of the province. After the formal Roman withdrawal from Britain in AD 410, one of the leading Dumnonii families attempted to create a dynasty and rule over Devon as the new Kings of Dumnonii.
Celtic paganism and Roman practices were the first known religions in Devon, although in the mid-fourth century AD, Christianity was introduced to Devon. In the Sub-Roman period the church in the British Isles was characterised by some differences in practice from the Latin Christianity of the continent of Europe and is known as Celtic Christianity; however it was always in communion with the wider Roman Catholic Church. Many Cornish saints are commemorated also in Devon in legends, churches and place-names. Western Christianity came to Devon when it was over a long period incorporated into the kingdom of Wessex and the jurisdiction of the bishop of Wessex. Saint Petroc is said to have passed through Devon, where ancient dedications to him are even more numerous than in Cornwall: a probable seventeen (plus Timberscombe just over the border in Somerset), compared to Cornwall's five. The position of churches bearing his name, including one within the old Roman walls of Exeter, are nearly always near the coast, as in those days travelling was done mainly by sea. The Devonian villages of Petrockstowe and Newton St Petroc are also named after Saint Petroc and the flag of Devon is dedicated to him.
The history of Christianity in the South West of England remains to some degree obscure. Parts of the historic county of Devon formed part of the diocese of Wessex, while nothing is known of the church organisation of the Celtic areas. About 703 Devon and Cornwall were included in the separate diocese of Sherborne and in 900 this was again divided into two, the Devon bishop having from 905 his seat at Tawton (now Bishop's Tawton) and from 912 at Crediton, birthplace of St Boniface. Lyfing became Bishop of Crediton in 1027 and shortly afterwards became Bishop of Cornwall.
The two dioceses of Crediton and Cornwall, covering Devon and Cornwall, were united under Edward the Confessor by Lyfing's successor Bishop Leofric, hitherto Bishop of Crediton, who became first Bishop of Exeter under Edward the Confessor, which was established as his cathedral city in 1050. At first, the abbey church of St Mary and St Peter, founded by Athelstan in 932 and rebuilt in 1019, served as the cathedral.
Devon came under the political influence of several different nobles during the Middle Ages, especially the Courtenays Earl of Devon. During the Wars of the Roses, important magnates included the Earl of Devon, William Bonville, 1st Baron Bonville, and Humphrey Stafford, earl of Devon whose wider influence stretched from Cornwall to Wiltshire. After 1485, one of the county's influential figures included Henry VII's courtier Robert Willoughby, 1st Baron Willoughby de Broke.
Later history
In 1549, the Prayer Book Rebellion caused the deaths of thousands of people from Devon and Cornwall. During the English Reformation, churches in Devon officially became affiliated with the Church of England. From the late sixteenth century onwards, zealous Protestantism – or 'puritanism' – became increasingly well-entrenched in some parts of Devon, while other districts of the county remained much more conservative. These divisions would become starkly apparent during the English Civil War of 1642–46, when the county split apart along religious and cultural lines. The Methodism of John Wesley proved to be very popular with the working classes in Devon in the 19th century. Methodist chapels became important social centres, with male voice choirs and other church-affiliated groups playing a central role in the social lives of working class Devonians. Methodism still plays a large part in the religious life of Devon today, although the county has shared in the post-World War II decline in British religious feeling.
The Diocese of Exeter remains the Anglican diocese including the whole of Devon. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Plymouth was established in the mid 19th century.
Symbols
Coat of arms
There was no established coat of arms for the county until 1926: the arms of the City of Exeter were often used to represent Devon, for instance in the badge of the Devonshire Regiment. During the forming of a county council by the Local Government Act 1888 adoption of a common seal was required. The seal contained three shields depicting the arms of Exeter along with those of the first chairman and vice-chairman of the council (Lord Clinton and the Earl of Morley).
On 11 October 1926, the county council received a grant of arms from the College of Arms. The main part of the shield displays a red crowned lion on a silver field, the arms of Richard Plantagenet, Earl of Cornwall. The chief or upper portion of the shield depicts an ancient ship on wavers, for Devon's seafaring traditions. The Latin motto adopted was Auxilio Divino (by Divine aid), that of Sir Francis Drake. The 1926 grant was of arms alone. On 6 March 1962 a further grant of crest and supporters was obtained. The crest is the head of a Dartmoor Pony rising from a "Naval Crown". This distinctive form of crown is formed from the sails and sterns of ships, and is associated with the Royal Navy. The supporters are a Devon bull and a sea lion.
Devon County Council adopted a "ship silhouette" logo after the 1974 reorganisation, adapted from the ship emblem on the coat of arms, but following the loss in 1998 of Plymouth and Torbay re-adopted the coat of arms. In April 2006 the council unveiled a new logo which was to be used in most everyday applications, though the coat of arms will continue to be used for "various civic purposes".Flag
Devon also has its own flag which has been dedicated to Saint Petroc, a local saint with dedications throughout Devon and neighbouring counties. The flag was adopted in 2003 after a competition run by BBC Radio Devon. The winning design was created by website contributor Ryan Sealey, and won 49% of the votes cast. The colours of the flag are those popularly identified with Devon, for example, the colours of the University of Exeter, the rugby union team, and the Green and White flag flown by the first Viscount Exmouth at the Bombardment of Algiers (now on view at the Teign Valley Museum), as well as one of the county's football teams, Plymouth Argyle. On 17 October 2006, the flag was hoisted for the first time outside County Hall in Exeter to mark Local Democracy Week, receiving official recognition from the county council. In 2019 Devon County Council with the support of both the Anglican and Catholic churches in Exeter and Plymouth, officially recognised Saint Boniface as the Patron Saint of Devon.Place names and customs
, North Devon, looking north towards the shared estuary of the rivers Taw and Torridge]]
Devon's toponyms include many with the endings "coombe/combe" and "tor". Both 'coombe' (valley or hollow, cf. Welsh cwm, Cornish komm) and 'tor' (Old Welsh and Scots Gaelic tòrr from Latin turris; 'tower' used for granite formations) are rare Celtic loanwords in English and their frequency is greatest in Devon which shares a boundary with historically Brittonic speaking Cornwall. Ruined medieval settlements of Dartmoor longhouses indicate that dispersed rural settlement (OE tun, now often -ton) was very similar to that found in Cornish 'tre-' settlements, however these are generally described with the local placename , from the Old English for homestead, cf. cottage. Saxon endings in -worthy (from Anglo-Saxon ) indicate larger settlements. Several 'Bere's indicate Anglo-Saxon wood groves, as 'leighs' indicate clearings.
Devon has a variety of festivals and traditional practices, including the traditional orchard-visiting Wassail in Whimple every 17 January, and the carrying of flaming tar barrels in Ottery St. Mary, where people who have lived in Ottery for long enough are called upon to celebrate Bonfire Night by running through the village (and the gathered crowds) with flaming barrels on their backs. Berry Pomeroy still celebrates Queene's Day for Elizabeth I.Economy and industry
Devon's total economic output in 2019 was over £26 billion, larger than either Manchester, or Edinburgh. A 2021 report states that "health, retail and tourism account for 43.1% of employment. Agriculture, education, manufacturing, construction and real estate employment are also over-represented in Devon compared with nationally".
Like neighbouring Cornwall to the west, historically Devon has been disadvantaged economically compared to other parts of Southern England, owing to the decline of a number of core industries, notably fishing, mining, and farming, but it is now significantly more diverse. Agriculture has been an important industry in Devon since the 19th century. The 2001 UK foot and mouth crisis harmed the farming community severely. Since then some parts of the agricultural industry have begun to diversify and recover, with a strong local food sector and many artisan producers. Nonetheless, in 2015 the dairy industry was still suffering from the low prices offered for wholesale milk by major dairies and especially large supermarket chains.
The pandemic negatively affected the economy during 2020 and early 2021; an August 2021 report states that "the immediate economic impacts of COVID-19 for the County as a whole [was] as severe as any in living memory".
, south Devon, at high tide]]
in 2014 to 2016, the attractive lifestyle of the area was drawing in new industries which are not heavily dependent upon geographical location; Dartmoor, for instance, has recently seen a significant rise in the percentage of its inhabitants involved in the digital and financial services sectors. The Met Office, the UK's national and international weather service, moved to Exeter in 2003. Plymouth hosts the head office and first ever store of The Range, the only major national retail chain headquartered in Devon.
Since the rise of seaside resorts with the arrival of the railways in the 19th century, Devon's economy has been heavily reliant on tourism. The county's economy followed the declining trend of British seaside resorts since the mid-20th century, but with some recent revival and regeneration of its resorts, particularly focused around camping; sports such as surfing, cycling, sailing and heritage. This revival has been aided by the designation of much of Devon's countryside and coastline as the Dartmoor and Exmoor national parks, and the Jurassic Coast and Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape World Heritage Sites. In 2019 the county's visitor spend was almost £2.5 billion.<!-- Should try to put this in context of total Devon economy – the GVA is around 9 billion, but I don't know enough about economic statistics to know if it's valid to compare the two? --> More successful visitor attractions are particularly concentrated on food and drink, including sea-view restaurants in North-West Devon (such as one example belonging to Damien Hurst), walking the South West Coast Path, cycling on the Devon Coast to Coast Cycle Route and other cycle routes such as the Tarka Trail and the Stover Trail; watersports; surfing; indoor and outdoor folk music festivals across the county and sailing in the hill-surrounded inlet (ria) at Salcombe.
Incomes vary significantly and the average is bolstered by a high proportion of affluent retired people. Incomes in much of the South Hams and in villages surrounding Exeter and Plymouth are close to, or above the national average, but there are also areas of severe deprivation, with earnings in some places among the lowest in the UK.
The table also shows the population change in the ten years to the 2011 census by subdivision. It also shows the proportion of residents in each district reliant upon lowest income and/or joblessness benefits, the national average proportion of which was 4.5% as at August 2012, the year for which latest datasets have been published. It can be seen that the most populous district of Devon is East Devon but only if excluding Torbay which has marginally more residents and Plymouth which has approximately double the number of residents of either of these. West Devon has the fewest residents, having 63,839 at the time of the census.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ ''Population from census to census. Claimants of Jobseeker's Allowance (JSA) or Income Support (DWP)
|-
!Unit||JSA or Inc. Supp. claimants (August 2012) % of 2011 population||JSA and Income Support claimants (August 2001) % of 2001 population||Population (April 2011)||Population (April 2001)
|-
| Devon || 2.7% || 6.6% || 746,399 || 704,493
|- align=center
|colspan="4"|Ranked by district
|-
| Exeter || 3.5% || 7.5% || 117,773 || 111,076
|-
| Torridge || 3.3% || 7.7% || 63,839 || 58,965
|-
| North Devon || 2.8% || 7.8% || 93,667 || 87,508
|-
| Teignbridge || 2.6% || 6.7% || 124,220 || 120,958
|-
| Mid Devon || 2.6% || 6.0% || 77,750 || 69,774
|-
| West Devon || 2.5% || 5.9% || 53,553 || 48,843
|-
| South Hams || 2.1% || 6.0% || 83,140 || 81,849
|-
| East Devon || 1.9% || 5.4% || 132,457 || 125,520
|- align=center
|colspan="4"|In historic Devon''
|-
| Torbay || 5.3% || 11.0% || 130,959 || 129,706
|-
| Plymouth || 5.1% || 9.5% || 256,384 || 240,720
|}
Transport
Bus
There is a network of bus services across Devon. Bus operators include: Stagecoach (much of Devon), AVMT Buses (East Devon/Jurassic Coast), County Bus (Teignbridge) and Plymouth Citybus.
Rail
The key train operator for Devon is Great Western Railway, which operates numerous regional, local and suburban services, as well as inter-city services north to London Paddington and south to Plymouth and Penzance. Other inter-city services are operated by CrossCountry north to Manchester Piccadilly, Edinburgh Waverley, Glasgow Central, Dundee, Aberdeen and south to Plymouth and Penzance; and by South Western Railway, operating hourly services between London Waterloo and Exeter St Davids, via the West of England Main Line. All Devon services are diesel-hauled, since there are no electrified lines in the county.
Okehampton station in Devon was closed in 1972 to passenger traffic as a result of the Beeching cuts, but regained regular passenger services run by GWR to Exeter in November 2021, funded by the UK Government's Restoring your Railway programme.
There are proposals to reopen the line from Tavistock to Bere Alston for a through service to Plymouth. The possibility of reopening the line between Tavistock and Okehampton, to provide an alternative route between Exeter and Plymouth, has also been suggested following damage to the railway's sea wall at Dawlish in 2014, which caused widespread disruption to trains between Exeter and Penzance. However, a study by Network Rail determined that maintaining the existing railway line would offer the best value for money and work to strengthen the line at Dawlish began in 2019.
Devon Metro
Devon County Council has proposed a 'Devon Metro' scheme to improve rail services in the county and offer a realistic alternative to car travel. This includes the opening of Cranbrook station in December 2015, plus four new stations to be constructed (including Edginswell) as a priority. Several elements of the scheme have, or are in the process of being delivered including the building of Marsh Barton station on the edge of Exeter which was opened in July 2023, and a regular half hourly local rail service now extended from the Avocet Line across Exeter to include the Riviera Line.
Air
Exeter Airport is the only passenger airport in Devon and in 2019 was used by over one million people. Until 2020, Flybe had its headquarters at the airport. Destinations include various locations within the UK (London City, Manchester, Belfast, Edinburgh, etc.), as well as locations in Cyprus, Italy, Netherlands, Lapland, Portugal, Spain, France, Malta, Switzerland and Turkey.
Education
Devon has a mostly comprehensive education system. There are 37 state and 23 independent secondary schools. There are three tertiary (FE) colleges and an agricultural college (Bicton College, near Budleigh Salterton). Torbay has eight state (with three grammar schools) and three independent secondary schools, and Plymouth has 17 state (with three grammar schools – two female and one male) and one independent school, Plymouth College. East Devon and Teignbridge have the largest school populations, with West Devon the smallest (with only two schools). Only one school in Exeter, Mid Devon, Torridge and North Devon have a sixth form – the schools in other districts mostly have sixth forms, with all schools in West Devon and East Devon having a sixth form.
Three universities are located in Devon, the University of Exeter (split between the Streatham Campus and St Luke's Campus, both in Exeter, and a campus in Cornwall); in Plymouth the University of Plymouth in Britain is present, along with the University of St Mark & St John to the city's north. The universities of Exeter and Plymouth have together formed the Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry which has bases in Exeter and Plymouth. There is also Schumacher College.
Cuisine
The county has given its name to a number of culinary specialities. The Devonshire cream tea, involving scones, jam and clotted cream, is thought to have originated in Devon (though claims have also been made for neighbouring counties); in other countries, such as Australia and New Zealand, it is known as a "Devonshire tea". It has also been claimed that the pasty originated in Devon rather than Cornwall, with the first record of the pasty coming from Plymouth in 1509.
In October 2008, Devon was awarded Fairtrade County status by the Fairtrade Foundation.
Sport
Devon has been home to a number of customs, such as its own form of Devon wrestling, similar in some ways to Cornish wrestling. As recently as the 19th century, a crowd of over 17,000 at Devonport, near Plymouth, attended a match between the champions of Devon and Cornwall. Another Devon sport was outhurling which was played in some regions until the 20th century (e.g. 1922, at Great Torrington). Other ancient customs which survive include Dartmoor step dancing, and "Crying The Neck".
Devon has three professional football teams, based in each of its most populous towns and cities. As of 2023, Plymouth Argyle F.C. competes in the EFL Championship, Exeter City F.C. in the EFL League One, whilst Torquay United F.C. compete in the National League. Plymouth's highest Football League finish was fourth in the Second Division, which was achieved twice, in 1932 and 1953. Torquay and Exeter have never progressed beyond the third tier of the league; Torquay finished second on goal average in the Third Division (S) behind Sir Alf Ramsey's Ipswich Town in 1957. Exeter's highest position has been eighth in the Third Division (S). The county's biggest non-league clubs are Plymouth Parkway F.C. and Tiverton Town F.C. which compete in the Southern Football League Premier Division, and Bideford A.F.C., Exmouth Town F.C. and Tavistock A.F.C. which are in the Southern Football League Division One South and West.
Rugby Union is popular in Devon with over forty clubs under the banner of the Devon Rugby Football Union, many with various teams at senior, youth and junior levels. One club – Exeter Chiefs – play in the Aviva Premiership, winning the title in 2017 for the first time in their history after beating Wasps RFC in the final 23–20. Plymouth Albion who are, , in the National League 1 (The third tier of English Professional Rugby Union).
There are five rugby league teams in Devon: Plymouth Titans, Exeter Centurions, and Devon Sharks from Torquay, North Devon Raiders from Barnstaple, and East Devon Eagles from Exmouth. They all play in the Rugby League Conference.
Plymouth City Patriots represent Devon in the British Basketball League. Formed in 2021, they replaced the former professional club, Plymouth Raiders, after the latter team were withdrawn from competition due to venue issues. Motorcycle speedway is also supported in the county, with both the Exeter Falcons and Plymouth Gladiators succeeding in the National Leagues in recent years.
The University of Exeter Hockey Club enter teams in both the Men's and Women's England Hockey Leagues.
Horse Racing is also popular in the county, with two National Hunt racecourses (Exeter and Newton Abbot), and numerous point to point courses. There are also many successful professional racehorse trainers based in Devon.
The county is represented in cricket by Devon County Cricket Club, who play at a Minor counties level.
Notable Devonians
Devon is known for its mariners, such as Sir Francis Drake, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Sir Richard Grenville, Sir Walter Raleigh, and Sir Francis Chichester. Henry Every, described as the most notorious pirate of the late 17th century, was probably born in the village of Newton Ferrers. John Oxenham (1536–1580) was a lieutenant of Drake but considered a pirate by the Spanish. Thomas Morton (1576–1647) was an avid Elizabethan outdoorsman probably born in Devon who became an attorney for The Council For New England, and built the New England fur-trading-plantation called Ma-Re Mount or Merrymount around a West Country-style Maypole, much to the displeasure of Pilgrim and Puritan colonists. Morton wrote a 1637 book New English Canaan about his experiences, partly in verse, and may have thereby become America's first poet to write in English. Another famous mariner and Devonian was Robert Falcon Scott, the leader of the unfortunate Terra Nova Expedition to reach the geographical South Pole. The poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, the crime writers Agatha Christie and Bertram Fletcher Robinson, the Irish writer William Trevor, and the poet Ted Hughes lived in Devon. The painter and founder of the Royal Academy, Sir Joshua Reynolds, was born in Devon. Chris Dawson, the billionaire owner of retailer The Range was born in Devon, where his business retains its head office in Plymouth.
The actor Matthew Goode was raised in Devon, and Bradley James, also an actor, was born there. The singer Joss Stone was brought up in Devon and frontman Chris Martin from the British rock group Coldplay was born there. Matt Bellamy, Dominic Howard and Chris Wolstenholme from the English group Muse all grew up in Devon and formed the band there. Dave Hill of rock band Slade was born in Flete House which is in the South Hams district of Devon. Singer-songwriter Ben Howard grew up in Totnes, a small town in Devon. Another famous Devonian is the model and actress Rosie Huntington-Whiteley, who was born in Plymouth and raised in Tavistock. The singer and songwriter Rebecca Newman was born and raised in Exmouth. Roger Deakins, called "the pre-eminent cinematographer of our time", was born and lives in Devon.
Trevor Francis, former Nottingham Forest and Birmingham City professional footballer, and the first English footballer to cost £1 million, was born and brought up in Plymouth.
Swimmer Sharron Davies and diver Tom Daley were born in Plymouth. The Olympic runner Jo Pavey was born in Honiton. Peter Cook the satirist, writer and comedian was born in Torquay, Devon. Leicester Tigers and British and Irish Lions Rugby player Julian White was born and raised in Devon and now farms a herd of pedigree South Devon beef cattle. The dog breeder John "Jack" Russell was also from Devon. Jane McGrath, who married Australian cricketer Glenn McGrath was born in Paignton, her long battle with and subsequent death from breast cancer inspired the formation of the McGrath Foundation, which is one of Australia's leading charities.
Devon has also been represented in the House of Commons by notable Members of Parliament (MPs) such as Nancy Astor, Gwyneth Dunwoody, Michael Foot and David Owen and the Prime Ministers Lord John Russell and Lord Palmerston.
<gallery widths"170px" heights"200px">
File:Agatha Christie.png|Agatha Christie, best selling crime novelist
File:Chris Martin + Guitar, 2011 (1, cropped).jpg|Chris Martin, lead singer of Coldplay
File:Roger Deakins Feb-2011 02 (cropped).jpg|Roger Deakins, cinematographer
</gallery>
See also
* :Category:Rivers of Devon
* Circular linhay
* Custos Rotulorum of Devon – Keepers of the Rolls
* Devon Sinfonia
* Duchy of Cornwall
* Healthcare in Devon
* List of High Sheriffs of Devon
* List of hills of Devon
* List of Lord Lieutenants of Devon
* List of monastic houses in Devon
* List of MPs for Devon constituency
* List of Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Devon
* North Devon Coast
* Tamar Valley AONB
* West Country English
Explanatory notes
ReferencesFurther reading*
*
*
* [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?idnjp.32101067698538&seq1 Vol. I], [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?idnjp.32101067698546&seq1 Vol. II], and [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?idnyp.33433065874566&seq=1 Vol. III].
*
* External links
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* [http://www.devon.gov.uk Devon County Council]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/ BBC Devon]
* [http://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/genuki/DEV/ Genuki Devon] Historical, geographical and genealogical information
* [http://www.devonassoc.org.uk The Devonshire Association], a Devon-centric equivalent of the British Association
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140924042248/http://viewfinder.english-heritage.org.uk/search/results.aspx?index0&mainQuery&searchTypeall&formbasic&theme&countyDEVON&district&placeName Images of Devon] at the English Heritage Archive
Category:Ceremonial counties of England
Category:Counties in South West England
Category:Counties of England established in antiquity
Category:Geological type localities
Category:Non-metropolitan counties
Category:West Country
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| authorized | created
| designated | established 1951
| named_for | visitation_num 10.98m
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| governing_body = Dartmoor National Park Authority
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Dartmoor is an upland area in southern Devon, South West England. The moorland and surrounding land has been protected by National Park status since 1951. Dartmoor National Park covers .
The granite that forms the uplands dates from the Carboniferous Period of geological history. The landscape consists of moorland capped with many exposed granite hilltops known as tors, providing habitats for wildlife. The highest point is High Willhays, above sea level. The entire area is rich in antiquities and archaeological artefacts.
Dartmoor National Park is managed by the Dartmoor National Park Authority, whose 22 members are drawn from Devon County Council, local district councils and Government. The Dartmoor Commoners' Council exists to create and enforce regulations regarding commoners' rights.
Parts of Dartmoor have been used as military firing ranges for over 200 years. The public is granted extensive land access rights on Dartmoor (including restricted access to the firing ranges) and it is a popular tourist destination.
Physical geography
Geology
in southwest England and the gravity anomaly associated with it]]
Dartmoor includes the largest area of granite in Britain, with about at the surface, though most of it is under superficial peat deposits. The granite (or more specifically adamellite) was intruded at depth as a pluton into the surrounding sedimentary rocks during the Carboniferous period, probably about 309 million years ago. It is generally accepted that the present surface is not far below the original top of the pluton; evidence for this includes partly digested shale xenoliths, contamination of the granite and the existence of two patches of altered sedimentary rock on top of the granite.
A considerable gravity anomaly is associated with the Dartmoor pluton as with other such plutons. Measurement of the anomaly has helped to determine the likely shape and extent of the rock mass at depth.
Tors
in snow]]
with Yes Tor behind]]
Dartmoor is known for its tors – hills topped with outcrops of bedrock, which in granite country such as this are usually rounded boulder-like formations. More than 160 of the hills of Dartmoor have the word tor in their name but quite a number do not. (called Hey Tor by William Crossing), , (). For a more complete list see List of Dartmoor tors and hills.
Rivers
at Ivybridge]]
The high ground of Dartmoor forms the catchment area for many of Devon's rivers. As well as shaping the landscape, these have traditionally provided a source of power for moor industries such as tin mining and quarrying.
The moor takes its name from the River Dart, which starts as the East Dart and West Dart and then becomes a single river at Dartmeet. It leaves the moor at Buckfastleigh, flowing through Totnes below where it opens up into a long ria, reaching the sea at Dartmouth. Other rivers flowing from Dartmoor include the Teign, the Taw, the Tavy, the Avon, and the Lyd.
Some of the rivers in Dartmoor have been dammed to create reservoirs for drinking water, including the River Avon and the South Teign River (Fernworthy Reservoir).BogsMuch more rain falls on Dartmoor than in the surrounding lowlands. As much of the national park is covered in thick layers of peat (decaying vegetation), the rain is usually absorbed quickly and distributed slowly, so the moor is rarely dry. In areas where water accumulates, dangerous bogs or mires can result. Some of these, topped with bright green moss, are known to locals as "feather beds" or "quakers", because they can shift (or 'quake') beneath a person's feet. Quakers result from sphagnum moss growing over the water that accumulates in the hollows in the granite.
, the source of the River Avon]]
The vegetation of the bogs depends on the type and location. Blanket bog, which forms on the highest land where the rainfall exceeds a year, consists mainly of cotton-grass (Eriophorum species), sedges (Carex and Rhynchospora), Bog Asphodel and Common Tormentil, with Sphagnum thriving in the wettest patches. The valley bogs have lush growth of rushes, with sphagnum, cross-leaved heath, sundews and several other species.
Some of the bogs on Dartmoor have achieved notoriety. Fox Tor Mires was supposedly the inspiration for Great Grimpen Mire in Conan Doyle's novel The Hound of the Baskervilles, although there is a waymarked footpath across it. Sabine Baring-Gould, in his Book of Dartmoor (1900) related the story of a man who was making his way through Aune Mire at the head of the River Avon when he came upon a top-hat brim down on the surface of the mire. He kicked it, whereupon a voice called out: "What be you a-doin' to my 'at?" The man replied, "Be there now a chap under'n?" "Ees, I reckon," was the reply, "and a hoss under me likewise."
<!-- mention "Dartmoor Stables" -->
Astronomy
visible from near Bridford during the May 2024 solar storms]]
Dartmoor is popular with local astronomers because it is remote from many sources of light pollution. However, in recent years, LED street lights have caused more light pollution to be spread onto Dartmoor.
Climate
Along with the rest of South West England, Dartmoor has a temperate climate, which is generally wetter and milder than locations at similar height in the rest of England. At Princetown, near the centre of the moor at a height of , January and February are the coldest months with mean minimum temperatures around . July and August are the warmest months with mean daily maxima not reaching . Compared with Teignmouth, which is on the coast about to the east, the average maximum and minimum temperatures are and lower respectively, and frost is at least five times as frequent. On the highest ground, in the north of the moor, the growing season is less than 175 days – this contrasts with some 300 days along most of the south coast of the county.
Between 1961 and 1990 Met Office data shows that there was an average of 20 days when snow fell on the moor, and over 40 days a year with hail, which is as high as anywhere else in the country. This results when cold polar maritime air that has travelled over a large expanse of warmer ocean is forced to rise over high country.
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Wildlife
Because of Dartmoor's height and granite geology, it experiences strong winds and has acidic soils. In consequence it has been subject to very little intensive farming, and all these factors combine to form the basis of the important ecosystems found here. The landscape is one of granite with peat bogs overlying it. While the moors topped with granite tors are the most iconic part of Dartmoor's landscape, only about half of Dartmoor is actually moorland. Equally important for wildlife are the blanket bogs, upland heaths and the oak woodlands, which are all of global importance. Dartmoor is a Special Area of Conservation (SAC) with four habitats (Northern Atlantic wet heaths with Erica tetralix; European dry heaths; Blanket bogs and Old sessile oak woods with Ilex and Blechnum in the British Isles) being listed as primary reasons for the selection of Dartmoor as a SAC. In addition the area has a population of the southern damselfly, which is also a primary reason for its selection along with populations of Atlantic salmon and otter being qualifying reasons.
Wistman's Wood is one of the old sessile oak woods that contribute to the listing of Dartmoor as a SAC and is possibly a surviving fragment from the earliest Neolithic woodland clearances. It is home to exceptional epiphytic mosses, liverworts and lichens. Nearly 50 species of moss and liverwort are found in the wood along with 120 types of lichen, including Smith's horsehair lichen, speckled sea-storm lichen and pendulous wing-moss. Over 60 species of lichens grow on the exposed surfaces of the granite tors, including granite-speck rim-lichen, purple rock lichen, brown cobblestone lichen and goldspot lichen and many rare lichen grow on rocks exposed by mining that are rich in heavy metals. On the upland heaths heather (ling) and bell heather are common along with western gorse. In dry grassy areas tormentil, heath bedstraw and heath milkwort are all common. Cross-leaved heath and purple moor grass grow in wetter spots and in the boggy areas many different species of sphagnum and other mosses can be found, along with liverworts, Hare's-tail Cotton-grass, round-leaved sundew and bog asphodel, and in the valley bottoms, many different sedges, bogbean and pale butterwort all grow. Mammals found here include otters, hazel dormice and nearly all of the UK's 16 bat species. Three rare species: the barbastelle, and the greater and lesser horseshoe bats are of particular importance. The upper reaches of the rivers are spawning grounds for Salmon and trout; Palmate newts, frogs and toads breed in the numerous small pools. Two shrimp species can be found on Dartmoor: fairy shrimp that can be found in temporary pools, and, in underground streams, very rare cave shrimp. The world's largest land slug, the Ash black, is also found. Reptiles include common lizards and adders. The farmland in the wet valleys around the edge of the moors is the most important habitat for insects, including: the marsh fritillary butterfly, southern damselfly, narrow-bordered bee hawkmoth and bog hoverfly. Areas of bracken are home to the high brown fritillary and pearl-bordered fritillary. Insects found in the heathlands include the emperor moth, green hairstreak and the bilberry bumblebee. The old oak woodlands have a distinctive group of insects including the blue ground beetle and Heckford's pygmy moth, a species found nowhere else in the world.
Restoration and climate change mitigation
The South West Peatland Project aims to restore around 300 hectares of Dartmoor's peatland through collaboration with Dartmoor National Park. Preserving these peatlands will help mitigate climate change through sequestering carbon from the atmosphere. More generally, Dartmoor aims to be carbon negative by 2045.
History
Pre-history
The majority of the prehistoric remains on Dartmoor date back to the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age. Indeed, Dartmoor contains the largest concentration of Bronze Age remains in the United Kingdom, which suggests that this was when a larger population moved onto the hills of Dartmoor. The large systems of Bronze Age fields, divided by reaves, cover an area of over of the lower moors.
The climate at the time was warmer than today, and much of today's moorland was covered with trees. The prehistoric settlers began clearing the forest, and established the first farming communities. Fire was the main method of clearing land, creating pasture and swidden types of fire-fallow farmland. Areas less suited for farming tended to be burned for livestock grazing. Over the centuries these Neolithic practices greatly expanded the upland moors, and contributed to the acidification of the soil and the accumulation of peat and bogs.
After a few thousand years, the mild climate deteriorated. This left these areas uninhabited, and, consequently, relatively undisturbed to the present day. The highly acidic soil has ensured that no organic remains have survived, but the durability of the granite has meant that the remains of buildings, enclosures and monuments have survived well, as have flint tools. A number of remains were "restored" by enthusiastic Victorians and, in some cases, they have placed their own interpretation on how an area may have looked.
Standing stones
Numerous prehistoric menhirs (more usually referred to locally as standing stones or longstones), stone circles, kistvaens, cairns and stone rows are to be found on the moor. The most significant sites include:
* Upper Erme stone row is the longest on Dartmoor and in fact in the world at
* Beardown Man, near Devil's Tor – isolated standing stone high, said to have another below ground.
* Challacombe, near the prehistoric settlement of Grimspound — triple stone row.
* Drizzlecombe, east of Sheepstor village – stone rows, standing stones, kistvaens and cairns.
* Grey Wethers, near Postbridge — double circle, aligned almost exactly north south.
* Laughter Tor, near Two Bridges — standing stone high and two double stone rows, one long.
* Merrivale, between Princetown and Tavistock — includes a double stone row long, wide, aligned almost exactly east–west, stone circles and a kistvaen.
* Scorhill (pronounced 'Scorill'), west of Chagford — circle, in circumference, and stone rows.
* Shovel Down, north of Fernworthy reservoir — double stone row approximately long.
* Yellowmead Down, a quadruple concentric stone circle and stone rows.
Hut circles and kistvaens
There are also an estimated 5,000 hut circles still surviving although many have been raided over the centuries by the builders of the traditional dry stone walls. These are the remnants of Bronze Age houses. The smallest are around in diameter, and the largest may be up to five times this size.
Some have L-shaped porches to protect against wind and rain; some particularly good examples are to be found at Grimspound. It is believed that they would have had a conical roof, supported by timbers and covered in turf or thatch.
There are also numerous kistvaens, Neolithic stone box-like tombs.
The historical period
close to Crazywell Pool]]
The climate became wetter and cooler over the course of a thousand years from around 1000 BC, resulting in much of high Dartmoor being largely abandoned by its early inhabitants. The earliest surviving farms, still in operation today, are known as the Ancient Tenements. Most of these date back to the 14th century, and some even earlier.
It was not until the early Mediaeval period that the weather again became warmer, and settlers moved back onto the moors. Like their ancient predecessors, they used the natural granite to build their homes, preferring a style known as the longhouse; some of theses are still inhabited today, although they have been clearly adapted over the centuries. Many are now used as farm buildings, while others have been abandoned and fallen into ruin.
Some way into the moor stands the town of Princetown, the site of Dartmoor Prison, which was originally built by Isbell Rowe & Company, Plymouth, for prisoners of war from the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812. The prison has a reputation for being escape-proof, due to both the buildings themselves and its physical location.
The Dartmoor landscape is scattered with the marks left by the many generations who have lived and worked there over the centuries – such as the remains of the Dartmoor tin-mining industry, and farmhouses long since abandoned. See Industrial archaeology of Dartmoor.
Ownership and access
Over half of Dartmoor National Park (57.3%) is private land; the Forest of Dartmoor being the major part of this, owned by the Duke of Cornwall. The Ministry of Defence owns 14% (see below), 3.8% is owned by water companies (see Dartmoor reservoirs), 3.7% by the National Trust, 1.8% by the Forestry Commission and 1.4% by Dartmoor's national park authority. About 37% of Dartmoor is common land.
Dartmoor differs from some other National Parks in England and Wales, in that since the Dartmoor Commons Act 1985 much of it has been designated as access land, which, although it remains privately owned, has no restrictions on where walkers can roam. In addition to this access land, there are about of public rights of way on Dartmoor, and many kilometres of permitted footpaths and bridleways where the owners allow access.
Because of the 1985 Act, Dartmoor was largely unaffected by the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000, which established similar rights in other rural parts of the country, until 2006, when the 2000 Act opened up much of the remaining restricted land to walkers.
In January 2023, in a high court judgement in a case brought by landowner Alexander Darwall, the right for members of the public to wild camp on Dartmoor was lost. Julian Flaux, the chancellor of the high court, ruled: "In my judgment, on the first issue set out at [14] above, the claimants are entitled to the declaration they seek that, on its true construction, section 10(1) of the 1985 Act does not confer on the public any right to pitch tents or otherwise make camp overnight on Dartmoor Commons. Any such camping requires the consent of the landowner." A protest against the new restrictions, led by local storyteller Martin Shaw, was held in January 2023. However, on 31 July the ban was overturned by the Court of Appeal.
Use by the Ministry of Defence
There is a history of military usage of Dartmoor dating back to the Napoleonic Wars. Today, a large British Army training camp remains at Okehampton — also the site of an airbase during the Second World War.
The Ministry of Defence (MoD) uses three areas of the northern moor for manoeuvres and live-firing exercises, totalling ,
The disused Rippon Tor Rifle Range was built to train soldiers during the Second World War, and remained in use until its closure in 1977.Preservation
at Postbridge]]
near Widecombe in the Moor]]
Throughout human history, the landscape has been exploited for industrial purposes. In recent years, controversy has surrounded the work of industrial conglomerates Imerys and Sibelco (formerly Watts Blake Bearne), who have used parts of the moor for china clay mining. Licences were granted by the British Government but were recently renounced after sustained public pressure from bodies such as the Dartmoor Preservation Association.
The British government has made promises to protect the integrity of the moor; however, the cost of compensating companies for these licences, which may not have been granted in today's political climate, could prove prohibitive.
The military use of the moor has been another source of controversy, as when training was extended in January 2003. The national park authority received 1,700 objections before making the decision. Objectors said that Dartmoor should be an area for recreation, and that the training disturbs the peace.
Those who objected included the Open Spaces Society and the Dartmoor Preservation Association. During her lifetime, Sylvia Sayer was another outspoken critic of the damage that she perceived that the army was doing to the moor.
Towns and villages
]]
The designated Dartmoor National Park area has a resident population of about 33,000,
* Buckfast Abbey – abbey near Buckfastleigh
* Burrator Reservoir – late Victorian reservoir
* Canonteign Falls – second highest waterfall in England
* Castle Drogo – Edwardian faux castle built by Edwin Lutyens on a crag above Teign Gorge, Drewsteignton
* Childe's Tomb – ancient burial site
* Cosdon Hill – prominent hill, northern extremity of moor, site of beacon fire for invasion warning
* Cranmere Pool – original letterbox site and location of the legend of Cranmere Binjie
* Crazywell Pool – artificial lake
* Dartmeet – meeting point of East and West Dart rivers
* Dartmoor Prison – a prison in the middle of Dartmoor at the village of Princetown
* Devonport Leat – human-made water channel
* Duck's Pool – location of a memorial to local writer William Crossing
* Fernworthy Dam & Reservoir – granite-faced concrete dam and lake in Fernworthy Forest, near Chagford
* Fingle Bridge – a 17th-century crossing of the River Teign near Chagford
* Great Links Tor – dominant tor on north west scarp of moor
* Grey Wethers – pair of ancient stone circles
* Grimspound – Bronze Age settlement
* Haytor Granite Tramway – early tramway with stone rails; ran from quarries at Haytor to Stover Canal
* Haytor Rock – prominent tor and viewpoint between Bovey Tracey and Widecombe
* Hay Tor – less prominent outcrop behind Haytor Rock when viewed from the south. Popular spot for rock climbing due to its large cliff face and relative ease of access.
* High Willhays – highest point on Dartmoor
* Hound Tor – rugged tor with remains of Iron Age village
* Jay's Grave – burial site
* Lydford Gorge – deep and narrow gorge with waterfalls
* Meldon Viaduct and reservoir – wide and high concrete dam and Victorian iron bridge which itself is wide and high
* North Hessary Tor transmitting station – a TV mast near Princetown which can be seen for many miles.
* Rippon Tor Rifle Range – disused rifle range
* Redlake Tramway – disused railway
* Spitchwick – a swimming spot where the River Webburn joins the River Dart
* Tavistock Canal – 19th-century canal
* Two Bridges – 18th-century coaching inn
* Warren House Inn – highest inn in south west England, rumoured to have a fire which has not gone out in hundreds of years.
* Widecombe in the moor, village in a valley in southern Dartmoor with a church rumoured to have been struck by lightning in medieval times.
* Wistman's Wood – copse of stunted oaks in the valley of the West Dart near Two Bridges
* Yes Tor – tor next to High Willhays, forming the second highest hill in Dartmoor.
In myths and popular culture
]]
Dartmoor is known for its myths and legends. It is reputedly the haunt of pixies, a headless horseman, a mysterious pack of "spectral hounds", and a large black dog, among others. During the Great Thunderstorm of 1638, the moorland village of Widecombe-in-the-Moor was said to have been visited by the Devil.
Many landmarks have ancient legends and ghost stories associated with them, such as the ancient burial site of Childe's Tomb, the rock pile called Bowerman's Nose, the stone crosses that mark former mediaeval routes across the moor and the allegedly haunted Jay's Grave.
A few stories have emerged in recent decades, such as the "hairy hands", that are said to attack motorists on the B3212 near Two Bridges; and the "Beast of Dartmoor", a supposed big cat.
Dartmoor has inspired a number of artists and writers, such as Sir Arthur Conan Doyle in The Hound of the Baskervilles and The Adventure of Silver Blaze, Bertram Fletcher Robinson, R. D. Blackmore, Eden Phillpotts, Beatrice Chase, Agatha Christie, Rosamunde Pilcher, Gilbert Adair and the Reverend Sabine Baring-Gould.
In 1820, the newly formed Royal Society of Literature offered a prize for a poem on the subject of Dartmoor, this being won by Felicia Hemans.
The Old Dark House is a 1963 comedy horror film directed by William Castle for Hammer Film Productions. It is a remake of Universal's 1932 film of the same name directed by James Whale. Both films are based upon the 1927 novel by J. B. Priestley originally published under the name Benighted. The 1963 film starred Tom Poston, Robert Morley, Janette Scott, Joyce Grenfell and Fenella Fielding, and it is predominantly set on Dartmoor.
In Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, the fictional 1994 Quidditch World Cup final between Ireland and Bulgaria was hosted on Dartmoor.
Dartmoor was the fictional location of a Ministry of Defence animal testing centre called 'Baskerville' in the second series of the multi-award-winning BBC drama Sherlock. The episode was titled The Hounds of Baskerville and was first broadcast in the UK on 15 January 2012 and in the US on 20 May of that same year. The episode features a character called ‘Fletcher’, modelled upon Bertram Fletcher Robinson and played by Stephen Wight.
Dartmoor was the fictional location for the IO Interactive video game titled Hitman 3, which was released during 2021. This depiction features a local and historic mansion house.
Leisure activities
Until the early 19th century Dartmoor was not considered to be a place worth visiting: in the 1540s John Leland wrote in his Itinerary that "Dartmore is muche a wilde Morish and forest Ground", and even by 1789 Richard Gough's opinion was that it is a "dreary mountainous tract". At the turn of the 19th century John Swete was one of the first people to visit Dartmoor for pleasure and his journals and watercolour paintings now provide a valuable historical resource.
The oldest leisure pursuit on the moor is hill walking. William Crossing's definitive Guide to Dartmoor was published in 1909, and in 1938 a plaque and letterbox in his memory were placed at Duck's Pool on the southern moor. Parts of the Abbots Way, Two Moors Way and the Templer Way are on Dartmoor.
Letterboxing originated on Dartmoor in the 19th century and has become increasingly popular in recent decades. Watertight containers, or 'letterboxes', are hidden throughout the moor, each containing a visitor's book and a rubber stamp. Visitors take an impression of the letterbox's rubber stamp as proof of finding the box and record their visit by stamping their own personal stamp in the letterbox's logbook. A recent related development is geocaching. Geocache clues make use of GPS coordinates, whereas letterboxing clues tend to consist of grid references and compass bearings.
Whitewater kayaking and canoeing are popular on the rivers due to the high rainfall and their high quality, though for environmental reasons access is restricted to the winter months. The River Dart is the most prominent meeting place, the section known as the Loop being particularly popular. Other white water rivers are the Erme, Tavy, Plym and Meavy.
Other activities are rock climbing on the granite tors and outcrops, some of the well-known venues being Haytor, Hound Tor and The Dewerstone; horse riding, which can be undertaken on any of the common land; cycling (but not on open moorland); and angling for wild brown trout, sea trout and salmon (although much of the river fishing on Dartmoor is privately owned, permits are available for some stretches)
.
Visitor centres
The park's main visitor centre is located in Princetown and features exhibits about Dartmoor's history, culture and wildlife, as well as changing displays of local art. The visitor centres located in Postbridge and Haytor feature information, maps, guidebooks and items for exploring the area.
Transport
Bus
Dartmoor is served by the following bus services:
* 359 Moretonhampstead – Exeter (Country bus)
* 271 Newton Abbot – Bovey Tracey – Widecombe (Summer Saturdays only) (Country bus)
GWR operate direct trains from Exeter to Okehampton.
See also
* Dartmoor Discovery, ultramarathon race
* Dartmoor Way long-distance footpath
* Museum of Dartmoor Life
References
Notes
Bibliography
* Crossing, William Crossing's Guide to Dartmoor, the 1912 edition reprinted with new introd. by Brian Le Messurier. Dawlish: David & Charles, 1965.
*
*
*
*
*
External links
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* [http://www.dartmoor-npa.gov.uk Dartmoor National Park Authority]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dartmoor
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Dante Alighieri
|
| birth_place = Florence, Republic of Florence
| birth_name Durante di Alighiero degli Alighieri
| death_date = <br />(aged )
| death_place = Ravenna, Papal States
| resting_place = Tomb of Dante, Ravenna
| occupation =
| nationality = Florentine
| movement =
| period = Late Middle Ages
| notableworks = Divine Comedy
| language =
| spouse = Gemma Donati
| children = 4, including Jacopo
| parents =
}}
Dante Alighieri (; most likely baptized Durante di Alighiero degli Alighieri;. The name 'Dante' is understood to be a hypocorism of the name 'Durante', though no document known to survive from Dante's lifetime refers to him as 'Durante' (including his own writings). A document prepared for Dante's son Jacopo refers to "Durante, often called Dante". He may have been named for his maternal grandfather Durante degli Abati.}} – September 14, 1321), widely known mononymously as Dante, .}} was an Italian Dante himself described himself as "an humble Italian, Florentine and guiltless exile" .}} poet, writer, and philosopher. His Divine Comedy, originally called (modern Italian: Commedia) and later christened by Giovanni Boccaccio, is widely considered one of the most important poems of the Middle Ages and the greatest literary work in the Italian language.
Dante chose to write in the vernacular, specifically, his own Tuscan dialect, at a time when much literature was still written in Latin, which was accessible only to educated readers, and many of his fellow Italian poets wrote in French or Provençal. His De vulgari eloquentia (On Eloquence in the Vernacular) was one of the first scholarly defenses of the vernacular. His use of the Florentine dialect for works such as The New Life (1295) and Divine Comedy helped establish the modern-day standardized Italian language. His work set a precedent that important Italian writers such as Petrarch and Boccaccio would later follow.
Dante was instrumental in establishing the literature of Italy, and is considered to be among the country's national poets and the Western world's greatest literary icons. His depictions of Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven provided inspiration for the larger body of Western art and literature. He influenced English writers such as Geoffrey Chaucer, John Milton, and Alfred Tennyson, among many others. In addition, the first use of the interlocking three-line rhyme scheme, or the terza rima, is attributed to him. He is described as the "father" of the Italian language, and in Italy he is often referred to as ("the Supreme Poet"). Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio are also called the ("three crowns") of Italian literature.
Early life
, in the chapel of the Bargello palace, Florence. It was painted and has been restored.]]
Dante was born in Florence, Republic of Florence, in what is now Italy. The exact date of his birth is unknown, although it is believed to be around May 1265. This can be deduced from autobiographic allusions in the Divine Comedy. Its first section, the Inferno, begins, "" ("Midway upon the journey of our life"), implying that Dante was around 35 years old, since the average lifespan according to the Bible (Psalm 89:10<!-- do not change to Ps. 90; in the Vulgate, as specified, the chapter is 89 -->, Vulgate) is 70 years; and since his imaginary travel to the netherworld took place in 1300, he was most probably born around 1265. Some verses of the Paradiso section of the Divine Comedy also provide a possible clue that he was born under the sign of Gemini: "As I revolved with the eternal twins, I saw revealed, from hills to river outlets, the threshing-floor that makes us so ferocious" (XXII 151–154). In 1265, the sun was in Gemini between approximately May 11 and June 11 (Julian calendar).
During Dante's time, most Northern Italian city states were split into two political factions: the Guelphs, who supported the papacy, and the Ghibellines, who supported the Holy Roman Empire. Dante's family was loyal to the Guelphs. The Ghibellines took over Florence at the Battle of Montaperti in 1260, forcing out many of the Guelphs. Although Dante's family were Guelphs, they suffered no reprisals after the battle, probably because of Alighiero's low public standing. The Guelphs later fought the Ghibellines again in 1266 at the Battle of Benevento, retaking Florence from the Ghibellines.
Dante said he first met Beatrice Portinari, daughter of Folco Portinari, when he was nine (she was eight), and he claimed to have fallen in love with her "at first sight", apparently without even talking with her. When he was 12, however, he was promised in marriage to Gemma di Manetto Donati, daughter of Manetto Donati, member of the powerful Donati family. This victory brought about a reformation of the Florentine constitution. To take part in public life, one had to enroll in one of the city's many commercial or artisan guilds, so Dante entered the Physicians' and Apothecaries' Guild. His name is occasionally recorded as speaking or voting in the councils of the republic. Many minutes from such meetings between 1298 and 1300 were lost, so the extent of his participation is uncertain.
Education and poetry
, Florence, by Andrea del Castagno, ]]
Not much is known about Dante's education; he presumably studied at home or in a chapter school attached to a church or monastery in Florence. It is known that he studied Tuscan poetry and that he admired the compositions of the Bolognese poet Guido Guinizelli—in Purgatorio XXVI he characterized him as his "father"—at a time when the Sicilian School (), a cultural group from Sicily, was becoming known in Tuscany. He also discovered the Provençal poetry of the troubadours, such as Arnaut Daniel, and the Latin writers of classical antiquity, including Cicero, Ovid and especially Virgil.
Dante's interactions with Beatrice set an example of so-called courtly love, a phenomenon developed in French and Provençal poetry of prior centuries. Dante's experience of such love was typical, but his expression of it was unique. It was in the name of this love that Dante left his imprint on the ("sweet new style", a term that Dante himself coined), and he would join other contemporary poets and writers in exploring never-before-emphasized aspects of love. Love for Beatrice (as Petrarch would express for Laura somewhat differently) would be his reason for writing poetry and for living, together with political passions. In many of his poems, she is depicted as semi-divine, watching over him constantly and providing spiritual instruction, sometimes harshly. When Beatrice died in 1290, Dante sought refuge in Latin literature. The Convivio chronicles his having read Boethius's and Cicero's .
, by Henry Holiday, inspired by La Vita Nuova, 1883]]
He next dedicated himself to philosophical studies at religious schools like the Dominican one in Santa Maria Novella. He took part in the disputes that the two principal mendicant orders (Franciscan and Dominican) publicly or indirectly held in Florence, the former explaining the doctrines of the mystics and of St. Bonaventure, the latter expounding on the theories of St. Thomas Aquinas.
At around the age of 18, Dante met Guido Cavalcanti, Lapo Gianni, Cino da Pistoia and, soon after, Brunetto Latini; together they became the leaders of the . Brunetto later received special mention in the Divine Comedy (Inferno, XV, 28) for what he had taught Dante: "Nor speaking less on that account I go With Ser Brunetto, and I ask who are his most known and most eminent companions". Some fifty poetical commentaries by Dante are known (the so-called Rime, rhymes), others being included in the later and . Other studies are reported, or deduced from or the Comedy, regarding painting and music.
Florence and politics
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Dante, like most Florentines of his day, was embroiled in the Guelph–Ghibelline conflict. He fought in the Battle of Campaldino (June 11, 1289), with the Florentine Guelphs against Arezzo Ghibellines; he fought as a '', responsible for the first attack. To further his political career, he obtained admission to the Guild of Physicians and Apothecaries around 1295. He likely joined the guild due to association between philosophy and medicine, but also may have joined as apothecaries were also booksellers. His guild membership allowed him to hold public office in Florence. As a politician, he held various offices over some years in a city rife with political unrest.
After defeating the Ghibellines, the Guelphs divided into two factions: the White Guelphs ()—Dante's party, led by Vieri dei Cerchi—and the Black Guelphs (), led by Corso Donati. Although the split was along family lines at first, ideological differences arose based on opposing views of the papal role in Florentine affairs. The Blacks supported the Pope and the Whites wanted more freedom from Rome. The Whites took power first and expelled the Blacks. In response, Pope Boniface VIII planned a military occupation of Florence. In 1301, Charles of Valois, brother of King Philip IV of France, was expected to visit Florence because the Pope had appointed him as peacemaker for Tuscany, but the city's government had treated the Pope's ambassadors badly a few weeks before, seeking independence from papal influence. It was believed Charles had received other unofficial instructions, so the council sent a delegation that included Dante to Rome to persuade the Pope not to send Charles to Florence.
Exile from Florence
in the Piazza Santa Croce in Florence, Enrico Pazzi, 1865]]
Pope Boniface quickly dismissed the other delegates and asked Dante alone to remain in Rome. At the same time (November 1, 1301), Charles of Valois entered Florence with the Black Guelphs, who in the next six days destroyed much of the city and killed many of their enemies. A new Black Guelph government was installed, and Cante dei Gabrielli da Gubbio was appointed of the city. In March 1302, Dante, a White Guelph by affiliation, along with the Gherardini family, was condemned to exile for two years and ordered to pay a large fine. Dante was accused of corruption and financial wrongdoing by the Black Guelphs for the time that Dante was serving as city prior (Florence's highest position) for two months in 1300. The poet was still in Rome in 1302, as the Pope, who had backed the Black Guelphs, had "suggested" that Dante stay there. Florence under the Black Guelphs, therefore, considered Dante an absconder.
Dante did not pay the fine, in part because he believed he was not guilty and in part because all his assets in Florence had been seized by the Black Guelphs. He was condemned to perpetual exile; if he had returned to Florence without paying the fine, he could have been burned at the stake. (In June 2008, nearly seven centuries after his death, the city council of Florence passed a motion rescinding Dante's sentence.) In 1306–07, Dante was a guest of in the region of Lunigiana.
Dante took part in several attempts by the White Guelphs to regain power, but these failed due to treachery. Bitter at the treatment he received from his enemies, he grew disgusted with the infighting and ineffectiveness of his former allies and vowed to become a party of one. He went to Verona as a guest of Bartolomeo I della Scala, then moved to Sarzana in Liguria. Later he is supposed to have lived in Lucca with a woman named Gentucca. She apparently made his stay comfortable (and he later gratefully mentioned her in Purgatorio, XXIV, 37). Some speculative sources claim he visited Paris between 1308 and 1310, and other sources even less trustworthy say he went to Oxford; these claims, first made in Giovanni Boccaccio's book on Dante several decades after his death, seem inspired by readers who were impressed with the poet's wide learning and erudition. No longer occupied with the day-to-day affairs of Florentine politics after his exile, Dante deepened his engagement with philosophy and literature, as seen in the intellectual rigor and thematic scope of his prose works from this period. Yet, while his ideas traveled widely, there is no definitive evidence that he ever left Italy. Dante's to Henry VII of Luxembourg confirms his residence "beneath the springs of Arno, near Tuscany" in April 1311.
In 1310, Holy Roman Emperor Henry VII of Luxembourg marched into Italy at the head of 5,000 troops. Dante saw in him a new Charlemagne who would restore the office of the Holy Roman Emperor to its former glory and also retake Florence from the Black Guelphs. He wrote to Henry and several Italian princes, demanding that they destroy the Black Guelphs. Mixing religion and private concerns in his writings, he invoked the worst anger of God against his city and suggested several particular targets, who were also his personal enemies. It was during this time that he wrote , proposing a universal monarchy under Henry VII.
's fresco in the Chapel of San Brizio, Orvieto Cathedral]]
At some point during his exile, he conceived of the Comedy, but the date is uncertain. The work is far more assured and ambitious than anything he had written in Florence. It is likely that he would have undertaken such a project only after accepting that his political ambitions, which had been central to him before his banishment, may have been indefinitely disrupted. It is also noticeable that Beatrice has returned to his imagination with renewed force and with a wider meaning than in the ; in (written –07) he had declared that the memory of this youthful romance belonged to the past.
An early indication that the poem was underway is a notice by Francesco da Barberino, tucked into his (Lessons of Love), probably written in 1314 or early 1315. Francesco notes that Dante followed the Aeneid in a poem called "Comedy" and that the setting of this poem (or part of it) was the underworld; i.e., hell. The brief note gives no incontestable indication that Barberino had seen or read even the Inferno, or that this part had been published at the time, but it indicates composition was well underway and that the sketching of the poem might have begun some years before. (It has been suggested that a knowledge of Dante's work also underlies some of the illuminations in Francesco da Barberino's earlier Officiolum [c. 1305–08], a manuscript that came to light in 2003.) It is known that the Inferno had been published by 1317; this is established by quoted lines interspersed in the margins of contemporary dated records from Bologna, but there is no certainty as to whether the three parts of the poem were each published in full or, rather, a few cantos at a time. Paradiso was likely finished before he died, but it may have been published posthumously.
In 1312, Henry assaulted Florence and defeated the Black Guelphs, but there is no evidence that Dante was involved. Some say he refused to participate in the attack on his city by a foreigner; others suggest that he had become unpopular with the White Guelphs, too, and that any trace of his passage had carefully been removed. Henry VII died (from a fever) in 1313 and with him any hope for Dante to see Florence again. He returned to Verona, where Cangrande I della Scala allowed him to live in certain security and, presumably, in a fair degree of prosperity. Cangrande was admitted to Dante's Paradise (Paradiso, XVII, 76).
During the period of his exile, Dante corresponded with Dominican theologian Fr. Nicholas Brunacci (1240–1322), who had been a student of Thomas Aquinas at the Santa Sabina studium in Rome, later at Paris, and of Albert the Great at the Cologne studium. Brunacci became lector at the Santa Sabina studium, forerunner of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, and later served in the papal curia.
In 1315, Florence was forced by Uguccione della Faggiuola (the military officer controlling the town) to grant an amnesty to those in exile, including Dante. But for this, Florence required public penance in addition to payment of a high fine. Dante refused, preferring to remain in exile. When Uguccione defeated Florence, Dante's death sentence was commuted to house arrest, on condition that he go to Florence to swear he would never enter the town again. He refused to go, and his death sentence was confirmed and extended to his sons. Despite this, he still hoped late in life that he might be invited back to Florence on honorable terms, particularly in praise of his poetry.
Death and burial
Dante's final days were spent in Ravenna, where he had been invited to stay in the city in 1318 by its prince, Guido II da Polenta. Dante died in Ravenna on September 14, 1321, aged about 56, of quartan malaria contracted while returning from a diplomatic mission to the Republic of Venice. He was attended by his three children, and possibly by Gemma Donati, and by friends and admirers he had in the city. He was buried in Ravenna at the Church of San Pier Maggiore (later called Basilica di San Francesco). Bernardo Bembo, praetor of Venice, erected a tomb for him in 1483.
On the grave, a verse of Bernardo Canaccio, a friend of Dante, is dedicated to Florence:
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Florence, mother of little love}}
In 1329, Bertrand du Pouget, Cardinal and nephew of Pope John XXII, classified Dante's Monarchia as heretical and sought to have his bones burned at the stake. Ostasio I da Polenta and Pino della Tosa, allies of Pouget, interceded to prevent the destruction of Dante's remains.
Florence eventually came to regret having exiled Dante. The city made repeated requests for the return of his remains. The custodians of the body in Ravenna refused, at one point going so far as to conceal the bones in a false wall of the monastery. Florence built a tomb for Dante in 1829, in the Basilica of Santa Croce. That tomb has been empty ever since, with Dante's body remaining in Ravenna. The front of his tomb in Florence reads —which roughly translates as "Honor the most exalted poet" and is a quote from the fourth canto of the Inferno.
In 1945, the fascist government discussed bringing Dante's remains to the Valtellina Redoubt, the Alpine valley in which the regime intended to make its last stand against the Allies. The case was made that "the greatest symbol of Italianness" should be present at fascism's "heroic" end, but ultimately, no action was taken.
A copy of Dante's death mask has been displayed since 1911 in the Palazzo Vecchio; scholars today believe it is not a true death mask and was probably carved in 1483, perhaps by Pietro and Tullio Lombardo.
Legacy
The first formal biography of Dante was the (also known as ), written after 1348 by Giovanni Boccaccio. Although several statements and episodes of it have been deemed unreliable on the basis of modern research, an earlier account of Dante's life and works had been included in the of the Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani.
Some 16th-century English Protestants, such as John Bale and John Foxe, argued that Dante was a proto-Protestant because of his opposition to the pope.
The 19th century saw a "Dante revival", a product of the medieval revival, which was itself an important aspect of Romanticism. Thomas Carlyle profiled him in "The Hero as Poet", the third lecture in On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History (1841): "He is world-great not because he is worldwide, but because he is world-deep… Dante is the spokesman of the Middle Ages; the Thought they lived by stands here, in everlasting music." Leigh Hunt, Henry Francis Cary and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow were among Dante's translators of the era.
in Manhattan, New York City]]
Italy's first dreadnought battleship was completed in 1913 and named Dante Alighieri in honor of him.
On April 30, 1921, in honor of the 600th anniversary of Dante's death, Pope Benedict XV promulgated an encyclical named , naming Dante as one "of the many celebrated geniuses of whom the Catholic faith can boast" and the "pride and glory of humanity".
, donated in 1922 by the Italian community of Quito, Ecuador|193x193px]]
On December 7, 1965, Pope Paul VI promulgated the Latin titled , which was dedicated to Dante's figure and poetry. In that year, the pope also donated a golden iron Greek Cross to Dante's burial site in Ravenna, on the occasion of the 700th anniversary of his birth. The same cross was blessed by Pope Francis in October 2020.
In 2007, a reconstruction of Dante's face was undertaken in a collaborative project. Artists from the University of Pisa and forensic engineers at the University of Bologna at Forlì constructed the model, portraying Dante's features as somewhat different from what was once thought.
In 2008, the Municipality of Florence officially apologized for expelling Dante 700 years earlier. In May 2021, a symbolic re-trial was held virtually in Florence to posthumously clear his name.
A celebration was held in 2015 at Italy's Senate of the Republic for the 750th anniversary of Dante's birth. It included a commemoration from Pope Francis, who also issued the apostolic letter in honor of the anniversary.WorksOverviewMost of Dante's literary work was composed after his exile in 1301. ("The New Life") is the only major work that predates it; it is a collection of lyric poems (sonnets and songs) with commentary in prose, ostensibly intended to be circulated in manuscript form, as was customary for such poems. It also contains, or constructs, the story of his love for Beatrice Portinari, who later served as the ultimate symbol of salvation in the Comedy, a function already indicated in the final pages of the . The work contains many of Dante's love poems in Tuscan, which was not unprecedented; the vernacular had been regularly used for lyric works before, during all the thirteenth century. However, Dante's commentary on his own work is also in the vernacular—both in the and in the —instead of the Latin that was almost universally used.
The Divine Comedy describes Dante's journey through Hell (Inferno), Purgatory (Purgatorio), and Paradise (Paradiso); he is first guided by the Roman poet Virgil and then by Beatrice. Of the books, Purgatorio is arguably the most lyrical of the three, referring to more contemporary poets and artists than Inferno; Paradiso is the most heavily theological, and the one in which, many scholars have argued, the Divine Comedy most beautiful and mystic passages appear.
With its seriousness of purpose, its literary stature and the range—both stylistic and thematic—of its content, the Comedy soon became a cornerstone in the evolution of Italian as an established literary language. Dante was more aware than most early Italian writers of the variety of Italian dialects and of the need to create a literature and a unified literary language beyond the limits of Latin writing at the time; in that sense, he is a forerunner of the Renaissance, with its effort to create vernacular literature in competition with earlier classical writers. Dante's in-depth knowledge (within the limits of his time) of Roman antiquity, and his evident admiration for some aspects of pagan Rome, also point forward to the 15th century.
Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita in a detail of Domenico di Michelino's painting, Florence, 1465.]]
He wrote the Comedy in a language he called "Italian", in some sense an amalgamated literary language predominantly based on the regional dialect of Tuscany, but with some elements of Latin and other regional dialects. He deliberately aimed to reach a readership throughout Italy including laymen, clergymen and other poets. By creating a poem of epic structure and philosophic purpose, he established that the Italian language was suitable for the highest sort of expression. In French, Italian is sometimes nicknamed la langue de Dante. Unlike Boccaccio, Milton or Ariosto, Dante did not really become an author read across Europe until the Romantic era. To the Romantics, Dante, like Homer and Shakespeare, was a prime example of the "original genius" who set his own rules, created persons of overpowering stature and depth, and went beyond any imitation of the patterns of earlier masters; and who, in turn, could not truly be imitated. Throughout the 19th century, Dante's reputation grew and solidified; and by 1865, the 600th anniversary of his birth, he had become established as one of the greatest literary icons of the Western world.
visiting Hell, as depicted in Inferno, painted by Rafael Flores, 1855]]
New readers often wonder how such a serious work may be called a "comedy". In the classical sense the word comedy refers to works that reflect belief in an ordered universe, in which events tend toward not only a happy or amusing ending but one influenced by a Providential will that orders all things to an ultimate good. By this meaning of the word, as Dante himself allegedly wrote in a letter to Cangrande, the progression of the pilgrimage from Hell to Paradise is the paradigmatic expression of comedy, since the work begins with the pilgrim's moral confusion and ends with the vision of God.
A number of other works are credited to Dante. ("The Banquet") is a collection of his longest poems with an (unfinished) allegorical commentary. ("Monarchy") is a summary treatise of political philosophy in Latin which was condemned and burned after Dante's death by the Papal Legate Bertrando del Poggetto; it argues for the necessity of a universal or global monarchy to establish universal peace in this life, and this monarchy's relationship to the Roman Catholic Church as guide to eternal peace. ("On the Eloquence in the Vernacular") is a treatise on vernacular literature, partly inspired by the of Raimon Vidal de Bezaudun. ("A Question of the Water and of the Land") is a theological work discussing the arrangement of Earth's dry land and ocean. The Eclogues are two poems addressed to the poet Giovanni del Virgilio. Dante is also sometimes credited with writing ("The Flower"), a series of sonnets summarizing , and ("Tale of Love"), a short narrative poem also based on . These would be the earliest, and most novice, of his known works. is a posthumous collection of miscellaneous poems.List of worksThe major works of Dante include the following:
* Il Fiore and ''Detto d'Amore ("The Flower" and "Tale of Love", 1283–87)
* La Vita Nuova ("The New Life", 1294)
* ("On the Eloquence in the Vernacular", 1302–05)
* ("The Banquet", 1307)
* Monarchia ("Monarchy", 1313)
* Divine Comedy (1320)
* Eclogues (1320)
* ("A Question of the Water and of the Land", 1320)
* Le Rime ("The Rhymes")
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200px">
File:Purgatory (Purgatorio).jpg|Illustration for Purgatorio (of The Divine Comedy) by Gustave Doré
File:Gustave Dore XIV.jpg|Illustration for Paradiso (of The Divine Comedy) by Gustave Doré
File:Paradise (Paradiso) II.jpg|Illustration for Paradiso (of The Divine Comedy'') by Gustave Doré
</gallery>
Collections
Dante's works reside in cultural institutions across the world. Many items have been digitized or are available for public consultation.
* (Florence, Italy) opened in Dante's residence in 1965 and was refurbished in 2020.
* Princeton University Library (New Jersey, US) holds 160 volumes of Dante's works and books about his life, including two 15th-century editions of the Divine Comedy.
* University College London Special Collections (London, UK) holds 3,000 volumes of material by and about Dante, including 36 editions of the Divine Comedy. The collection was bequeathed to the university by the scholar Henry Clark Barlow in 1876.
* The Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library (Yale University Library, Connecticut, US) holds a manuscript edition of the Divine Comedy (c. 1385–1400).See also* Dante Alighieri SocietyNotes
Citations
References
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Further reading
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* Barolini, Teodolinda (ed.). ''Dante's Lyric Poetry: Poems of Youth and of the 'Vita Nuova'. University of Toronto Press, 2014.
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* Guénon, René (1925). The Esoterism of Dante, trans. by C.B. Berhill, in the Perennial Wisdom Series. Ghent, NY: Sophia Perennis et Universalis, 1996. viii, 72 p. N.B''.: Originally published in French, entitled L'Esoterisme de Danté, in 1925.
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External links
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* [https://onemorelibrary.com/index.php/en/search-results/author/dante-alighieri-381?orderloc&ord_tasc Works by Dante Alighieri] at [https://onemorelibrary.com/index.php/en One More Library] (Works in English, Italian, Latin, Arabic, German, French and Spanish)
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* The [http://www.museocasadidante.it/en/ Dante Museum in Florence]: his life, his books and a history & literature blog about Dante
* The [https://web.archive.org/web/20170830160755/http://www.worldofdante.org/ World of Dante] multimedia, texts, maps, gallery, searchable database, music, teacher resources, timeline
* The [http://etcweb.princeton.edu/dante/index.html Princeton Dante Project] texts and multimedia
* The [http://dante.dartmouth.edu/ Dartmouth Dante Project] searchable database of commentary
* [http://www.danteonline.it/english/home_ita.asp Dante Online] manuscripts of works, images and text transcripts by Società Dantesca Italiana
* [http://dante.ilt.columbia.edu/ Digital Dante] – Divine Comedy with commentary, other works, scholars on Dante
* [http://oyc.yale.edu/italian-language-and-literature/ital-310 Open Yale Course on Dante] by Yale University
* [http://perunaenciclopediadantescadigitale.eu/dantesources/en/ DanteSources] project about Dante's primary sources developed by ISTI-CNR and the University of Pisa
* [https://research.bowdoin.edu/dante-today/ Dante Today] citings and sightings of Dante in contemporary culture
* [https://repository.upenn.edu/bibdant/ Bibliotheca Dantesca] journal dedicated to Dante and his reception
*[https://www.ucl.ac.uk/library/special-collections/a-z/barlow-dante Dante Collection] at University College London (c. 3000 volumes of works by and about Dante)
}}
Category:1265 births
Category:1321 deaths
Category:13th-century Italian poets
Category:13th-century Italian writers
Category:14th-century Italian poets
Category:14th-century Italian writers
Category:14th-century people from the Republic of Florence
Category:14th-century writers in Latin
Category:Catholic poets
Category:Characters in the Divine Comedy
Category:Culture in Florence
Category:Demonologists
Category:Epic poets
Category:Italian apothecaries
Category:Italian exiles
Category:Italian-language poets
Category:Italian male poets
Category:Italian political philosophers
Category:Italian Roman Catholic writers
Category:Latin-language writers from Italy
Category:Medieval Latin-language poets
Category:Politicians from Florence
Category:Sonneteers
Category:Writers from Florence
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Dennis the Menace
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Dennis the Menace may refer to either of two comic strip characters that both appeared in March 1951, one in the UK and one in the US.
United Kingdom character
Dennis the Menace is the original title of a British comic strip, written and published in Dundee, which first appeared in The Beano on 12 March 1951 and became the longest-running strip in the magazine in 2004.
Various television adaptations of the comic strip:
Dennis the Menace and Gnasher (1996 TV series) is an animated television series based on the Beano comic strip, known internationally as Dennis And Gnasher.
Dennis the Menace and Gnasher (2009 TV series) was released on September 7, 2009.
Dennis & Gnasher: Unleashed! (2017 TV series) is the latest animated CGI series, first broadcast in November 2017.
United States character
Dennis the Menace (U.S. comics), a daily US syndicated newspaper comic strip since March 12, 1951
Various television and film adaptations of the comic strip:
Dennis the Menace (1959 TV series), a CBS network live action television show
Dennis the Menace (1986 TV series), an animated TV series
The All-New Dennis the Menace, a 1993 animated television series
Dennis the Menace (1993 film), a live-action film released in 1993
Dennis the Menace (video game), based on the 1993 film
Dennis the Menace Strikes Again, a 1998 direct-to-video sequel of the 1993 film
See also
"Tennis the Menace", a 2001 episode of The Simpsons
Dennis Kucinich, Mayor of Cleveland Ohio, From 1977 to 1979 who earned the nickname "Dennis the Menace" for bankrupting the City of Cleveland
Dennis L. A. White, American actor and rapper who rapped under the name "Dennis da Menace"
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Dave Brubeck
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| birth_place = Concord, California, U.S.
| instrument = Piano
| death_date =
| death_place = Norwalk, Connecticut, U.S.
| genre =
| discography = Dave Brubeck discography
| occupation =
| years_active = 1940s–2012
| label =
| website =
}}
David Warren Brubeck (; December 6, 1920 – December 5, 2012) was an American jazz pianist and composer. Often regarded as a foremost exponent of cool jazz, Brubeck's work is characterized by unusual time signatures and superimposing contrasting rhythms, meters, tonalities, and combining different styles and genres, like classic, jazz, and blues.
Born in Concord, California, Brubeck was drafted into the US Army, but was spared from combat service when a Red Cross show he had played at became a hit. Within the US Army, Brubeck formed one of the first racially diverse bands. In 1951, he formed the Dave Brubeck Quartet, which kept its name despite shifting personnel. The most successful—and prolific—lineup of the quartet was the one between 1958 and 1968. This lineup, in addition to Brubeck, featured saxophonist Paul Desmond, bassist Eugene Wright and drummer Joe Morello. A U.S. Department of State-sponsored tour in 1958 featuring the band inspired several of Brubeck's subsequent albums, most notably the 1959 album Time Out. Despite its esoteric theme and contrarian time signatures, Time Out became Brubeck's highest-selling album, and the first jazz album to sell over one million copies. The lead single from the album, "Take Five", a tune written by Desmond in time, similarly became the highest-selling jazz single of all time. The quartet followed up Time Out with four other albums in non-standard time signatures, and some of the other songs from this series became hits as well, including "Blue Rondo à la Turk" (in ) and "Unsquare Dance" (in ). Brubeck continued releasing music until his death in 2012.
Brubeck's style ranged from refined to bombastic, reflecting both his mother's classical training and his own improvisational skills. He expressed elements of atonality and fugue. Brubeck, with Desmond, used elements of West Coast jazz near the height of its popularity, combining them with the unorthodox time signatures seen in Time Out. Like many of his contemporaries, Brubeck played into the style of the French composer Darius Milhaud, especially his earlier works, including "Serenade Suite" and "Playland-At-The-Beach". Brubeck's fusion of classical music and jazz would come to be known as "third stream", although Brubeck's use of third stream would predate the coining of the term. John Fordham of The Guardian commented: "Brubeck's real achievement was to blend European compositional ideas, very demanding rhythmic structures, jazz song-forms, and improvisation in expressive and accessible ways." and his maternal grandparents were English and German. He was born on December 6, 1920, in Concord, California, and grew up in the rural town of Ione, California. His father, Peter Howard "Pete" Brubeck, was a cattle rancher. His mother, Elizabeth (née Ivey), had studied piano in England under Myra Hess and intended to become a concert pianist. She taught piano for extra money.
Brubeck did not intend to become a musician, although his two older brothers, Henry and Howard, were already on that track. Brubeck did, however, take lessons from his mother. He could not read music during these early lessons, attributing the difficulty to poor eyesight, but "faked" his way through well enough that his deficiency went mostly unnoticed.
Planning to work with his father on their ranch, Brubeck entered the liberal arts college College of the Pacific in Stockton, California, in 1938 to study veterinary science. He switched his major to music at the urging of the head of zoology at the time, Dr. Arnold, who told him, "Brubeck, your mind's not here. It's across the lawn in the conservatory. Please go there. Stop wasting my time and yours." Later, Brubeck was nearly expelled when one of his music professors discovered that he was unable to sight-read. Several others came forward to his defense, however, arguing that his ability to write counterpoint and harmony more than compensated, and demonstrated his skill with music notation. The college was still concerned, but agreed to allow Brubeck to graduate after he promised never to teach piano.Military serviceAfter graduating in 1942, Brubeck was drafted into the United States Army, serving in Europe in the Third Army under George S. Patton. He volunteered to play piano at a Red Cross show; the show was a resounding success, and Brubeck was spared from combat service. He created one of the U.S. armed forces' first racially integrated bands, "The Wolfpack".
After serving nearly four years in the army, he returned to California for graduate study at Mills College in Oakland. He was a student of composer Darius Milhaud, who encouraged him to study fugue and orchestration, but not classical piano. While on active duty, he had received two lessons from Arnold Schoenberg at UCLA in an attempt to connect with high modernist theory and practice. However, the encounter did not end on good terms since Schoenberg believed that every note should be accounted for, an approach which Brubeck could not accept.
But, according to his son Chris Brubeck, there is a twelve-tone row in The Light in the Wilderness, Dave Brubeck's first oratorio. In it, Jesus's Twelve Disciples are introduced, each singing their own individual notes; it is described as "quite dramatic, especially when Judas starts singing 'Repent' on a high and straining dissonant note".
Jack Sheedy owned San Francisco-based Coronet Records, which had previously recorded area Dixieland bands. (This Coronet Records is distinct from the late 1950s New York-based budget label, and also from Australia-based Coronet Records.) In 1949, Sheedy was convinced to make the first recording of Brubeck's octet and later his trio. But Sheedy was unable to pay his bills and in 1949 gave up his masters to his record stamping company, the Circle Record Company, owned by Max and Sol Weiss. The Weiss brothers soon changed the name of their business to Fantasy Records.
The first Brubeck records sold well, and he made new records for Fantasy. Soon the company was shipping 40,000 to 50,000 copies of Brubeck records each quarter, making a good profit.
Career
Dave Brubeck Quartet
, Paul Desmond, Dave Brubeck, Eugene Wright.]]
In 1951, Brubeck organized the Dave Brubeck Quartet, with Paul Desmond on alto saxophone. The two took up residency at San Francisco's Black Hawk nightclub and had success touring college campuses, recording a series of live albums.
The first of these live albums, Jazz at Oberlin, was recorded in March 1953 in the Finney Chapel at Oberlin College. Brubeck's live performance was credited with legitimizing the field of jazz music at Oberlin, and the album is one of the earliest examples of cool jazz. Brubeck returned to College of the Pacific to record Jazz at the College of the Pacific in December of that year.
Following the release of Jazz at the College of the Pacific, Brubeck signed with Fantasy Records, believing that he had a stake in the company. He worked as an artists and repertoire promoter for the label, encouraging the Weiss brothers to sign other contemporary jazz performers, including Gerry Mulligan, Chet Baker and Red Norvo. Upon discovering that the deal was for a half interest in his own recordings, Brubeck quit to sign with another label, Columbia Records.
College success
In June 1954, Brubeck released Jazz Goes to College, with double bassist Bob Bates and drummer Joe Dodge. The album is a compilation of the quartet's visits to three colleges: Oberlin College, University of Michigan, and University of Cincinnati, and features seven songs, two of which were written by Brubeck and Desmond. "Balcony Rock", the opening song on the album, was noted for its timing and uneven tonalities, themes that would be explored by Brubeck later.
Brubeck was featured on the cover of Time in November 1954, the second jazz musician to be featured, following Louis Armstrong in February 1949. Brubeck personally found this acclaim embarrassing, since he considered Duke Ellington more deserving and was convinced that he had been favored as a white man. In one encounter with Ellington, he knocked on the door of Brubeck's hotel room to show him the cover; Brubeck's response was, "It should have been you."
Early bassists for the group included Ron Crotty, Bates, and Bates's brother Norman; Lloyd Davis and Dodge held the drum chair. In 1956, Brubeck hired drummer Joe Morello, who had been working with pianist Marian McPartland; Morello's presence made possible the rhythmic experiments that were to come.
In 1958, African-American bassist Eugene Wright joined for the group's Department of State tour of Europe and Asia. The group visited Poland, Turkey, India, Ceylon, Pakistan, Iran and Iraq on behalf of the Department of State. They spent two weeks in Poland, giving thirteen concerts and visiting with Polish musicians and citizens as part of the People-to-People program. Wright became a permanent member in 1959, finishing the "classic era" of the quartet's personnel. During this time, Brubeck was strongly supportive of Wright's inclusion in the band, and reportedly canceled several concerts when the club owners or hall managers objected to presenting an integrated band. He also canceled a television appearance when he found out that the producers intended to keep Wright off-camera. In January 1960, he cancelled a 25-date tour of colleges and universities in the American South because 22 of the schools refused to allow Wright to perform.
Time Out
In 1959, the Dave Brubeck Quartet recorded Time Out. The album, which featured pieces entirely written by members of the quartet, notably uses unusual time signatures in the field of music—and especially jazz—a crux which Columbia Records was enthusiastic about, but which they were nonetheless hesitant to release.
The release of Time Out required the cooperation of Columbia Records president Goddard Lieberson, who underwrote and released Time Out, on the condition that the quartet record a conventional album of the American South, Gone with the Wind, to cover the risk of Time Out becoming a commercial failure. Nonetheless, on the strength of these unusual time signatures, the album quickly went Gold (and was eventually certified Double Platinum), and peaked at number two on the Billboard 200. It was the first jazz album to sell more than a million copies. The single "Take Five" off the album quickly became a jazz standard, despite its unusual composition and its time signature: time.
Time Out was followed by several albums with a similar approach, including Time Further Out: Miro Reflections (1961), using more , , and , plus the first attempt at ; Countdown—Time in Outer Space (dedicated to John Glenn, 1962), featuring and more ; Time Changes (1963), with much , and ; and Time In (1966). These albums (except Time In) were also known for using contemporary paintings as cover art, featuring the work of Joan Miró on Time Further Out, Franz Kline on Time in Outer Space, and Sam Francis on Time Changes.
Later work
On a handful of albums in the early 1960s, clarinetist Bill Smith replaced Desmond. These albums were devoted to Smith's compositions and thus had a somewhat different aesthetic than other Brubeck Quartet albums. Nonetheless, according to critic Ken Dryden, "[Smith] proves himself very much in Desmond's league with his witty solos". Smith was an old friend of Brubeck's; they would record together, intermittently, from the 1940s until the final years of Brubeck's career.
In 1961, Brubeck and his wife, Iola, developed a jazz musical, The Real Ambassadors, based in part on experiences they and their colleagues had during foreign tours on behalf of the Department of State. The soundtrack album, which featured Louis Armstrong, Lambert, Hendricks & Ross, and Carmen McRae was recorded in 1961; the musical was performed at the 1962 Monterey Jazz Festival.
At its peak in the early 1960s, the Brubeck Quartet was releasing as many as four albums a year. Apart from the "College" and the "Time" series, Brubeck recorded four LP records featuring his compositions based on the group's travels, and the local music they encountered. Jazz Impressions of the U.S.A. (1956, Morello's debut with the group), Jazz Impressions of Eurasia (1958), Jazz Impressions of Japan (1964), and Jazz Impressions of New York (1964) are less well-known albums, but they produced Brubeck standards such as "Summer Song", "Brandenburg Gate", "Koto Song", and "Theme from Mr. Broadway". (Brubeck wrote, and the Quartet performed, the theme song for this Craig Stevens CBS drama series; the music from the series became material for the New York album.)
In 1961, Brubeck appeared in a few scenes of the British jazz/beat film All Night Long, which starred Patrick McGoohan and Richard Attenborough. Brubeck plays himself, with the film featuring close-ups of his piano fingerings. Brubeck performs "It's a Raggy Waltz" from the Time Further Out album and duets briefly with bassist Charles Mingus in "Non-Sectarian Blues".
Brubeck also served as the program director of WJZZ-FM (now WEZN-FM) while recording for the quartet. He achieved his vision of an all-jazz format radio station along with his friend and neighbor John E. Metts, one of the first African Americans in senior radio management.
The final studio album for Columbia by the Desmond/Wright/Morello quartet was Anything Goes (1966), featuring the songs of Cole Porter. A few concert recordings followed, and The Last Time We Saw Paris (1967) was the "Classic" quartet's swan-song.
Later career
Brubeck produced The Gates of Justice in 1968, a cantata mixing Biblical scripture with the words of Martin Luther King Jr. In 1971, the new senior management at Columbia Records decided not to renew Brubeck's contract, as they wished to focus on rock music. He moved to Atlantic Records.
Brubeck's music was used in the 1985 film Ordeal by Innocence. He also composed for—and performed with his ensemble on—"The NASA Space Station", a 1988 episode of the CBS TV series This Is America, Charlie Brown.
Personal life
, Germany, in 2005]]
Brubeck founded the Brubeck Institute in 2000 with his wife, Iola, at their alma mater, the University of the Pacific. What began as a special archive, consisting of the personal document collection of the Brubecks, has since expanded to provide fellowships and educational opportunities in jazz for students. One of the main streets on which the school resides is named in his honor, Dave Brubeck Way.
In 2008, Brubeck became a supporter of the Jazz Foundation of America in its mission to save the homes and the lives of elderly jazz and blues musicians, including those who had survived Hurricane Katrina. Brubeck supported the Jazz Foundation by performing in its annual benefit concert "A Great Night in Harlem".
Family
Dave Brubeck married jazz lyricist Iola Whitlock in September 1942; the couple were married for 70 years, until his death in 2012. Iola died at age 90 on March 12, 2014, from cancer in Wilton, Connecticut.
Brubeck had six children with Iola, including a daughter Catherine. Four of their sons became professional musicians. The eldest, Darius, named after Brubeck's mentor Darius Milhaud, is a pianist, producer, educator and performer. Dan is a percussionist, Chris is a multi-instrumentalist and composer, and Matthew, the youngest, is a cellist, with an extensive list of composing and performance credits. Another son, Michael, died in 2009.
Honors
In 1996, he received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. In 2006, Brubeck was awarded the University of Notre Dame's Laetare Medal, the oldest and most prestigious honor given to American Catholics, during the university's commencement. He performed "Travellin' Blues" for the graduating class of 2006.DeathBrubeck died of heart failure on December 5, 2012, in Norwalk, Connecticut, one day before his 92nd birthday. He was on his way to a cardiology appointment, accompanied by his son Darius. A birthday party concert had been planned for him with family and famous guests. A memorial tribute was held in May 2013.
Brubeck is interred at Umpawaug Cemetery in Redding, Connecticut.LegacyThe Los Angeles Times noted that he "was one of Jazz's first pop stars", even though he was not always happy with his fame. He felt uncomfortable, for example, that Time magazine had featured him on the cover before it did so for Duke Ellington, saying, "It just bothered me." The New York Times noted he had continued to play well into his old age, performing in 2011 and in 2010 only a month after getting a pacemaker, with Times music writer Nate Chinen commenting that Brubeck had replaced "the old hammer-and-anvil attack with something almost airy" and that his playing at the Blue Note Jazz Club in New York City was "the picture of judicious clarity".
In The Daily Telegraph, music journalist Ivan Hewett wrote: "Brubeck didn't have the réclame of some jazz musicians who lead tragic lives. He didn't do drugs or drink. What he had was endless curiosity combined with stubbornness", adding: "His work list is astonishing, including oratorios, musicals and concertos, as well as hundreds of jazz compositions. This quiet man of jazz was truly a marvel."
In The Guardian, John Fordham said: "Brubeck's real achievement was to blend European compositional ideas, very demanding rhythmic structures, jazz song-forms and improvisation in expressive and accessible ways. His son Chris told The Guardian: "when I hear Chorale, it reminds me of the very best Aaron Copland, something like Appalachian Spring. There's a sort of American honesty to it." Robert Christgau dubbed Brubeck the "jazz hero of the rock and roll generation".
The Economist wrote: "Above all they found it hard to believe that the most successful jazz in America was being played by a family man, a laid-back Californian, modest, gentle and open, who would happily have been a rancher all his days—except that he couldn't live without performing, because the rhythm of jazz, under all his extrapolation and exploration, was, he had discovered, the rhythm of his heart."
While on tour performing "Hot House" in Toronto, Chick Corea and Gary Burton completed a tribute to Brubeck on the day of his death. Corea played "Strange Meadow Lark", from Brubeck's album Time Out.
In the United States, May 4 is informally observed as "Dave Brubeck Day". In the format most commonly used in the U.S., May 4 is written "5/4", recalling the time signature of "Take Five", Brubeck's best-known recording. In September 2019, musicologist Stephen A. Crist's book, ''Dave Brubeck's Time Out'', provided the first scholarly book-length analysis of the seminal album. In addition to his musical analyses of each of the album's original compositions, Crist provides insight into Brubeck's career during a time he was rising to the top of the jazz charts.
Recognition
2009, flanked by President and Mrs. Obama at the Blue Room, White House, December 6, 2009 (his 89th birthday)]]
In 1975, the main-belt asteroid 5079 Brubeck was named after Brubeck.
Brubeck recorded five of the seven tracks of his album Jazz Goes to College in Ann Arbor, Michigan. He returned to Michigan many times, including a performance at Hill Auditorium where he received a Distinguished Artist Award from the University of Michigan's Musical Society in 2006. Brubeck was presented with a "Benjamin Franklin Award for Public Diplomacy" by United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice in 2008 for offering an American "vision of hope, opportunity and freedom" through his music. The State Department said in a statement that "as a pianist, composer, cultural emissary and educator, Dave Brubeck's life's work exemplifies the best of America's cultural diplomacy".
On October 18, 2008, Brubeck received an honorary Doctor of Music degree from the prestigious Eastman School of Music in Rochester, New York. Similarly, at the Monterey Jazz Festival in September 2009, Brubeck was awarded an honorary Doctor of Music degree (D.Mus. honoris causa) from Berklee College of Music. On May 16, 2010, Brubeck was awarded an honorary Doctor of Music degree (honoris causa) from the George Washington University in Washington, D.C. The ceremony took place on the National Mall.
]]
In September 2009, the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts announced Brubeck as a Kennedy Center Honoree for exhibiting excellence in performance arts. The Kennedy Center Honors Gala took place on Sunday, December 6 (Brubeck's 89th birthday), and was broadcast nationwide on CBS on December 29 at 9:00 pm EST. When the award was made, President Barack Obama recalled a 1971 concert Brubeck had given in Honolulu and said, "You can't understand America without understanding jazz, and you can't understand jazz without understanding Dave Brubeck." In 2010, Bruce Ricker and Clint Eastwood produced Dave Brubeck: In His Own Sweet Way, a documentary about Brubeck for Turner Classic Movies (TCM) to commemorate his 90th birthday in December 2010.
The Concord Boulevard Park in his hometown of Concord, California, was posthumously renamed to "Dave Brubeck Memorial Park" in his honor. Mayor Dan Helix favorably recalled one of his performances at the park, saying: "He will be with us forever because his music will never die."Awards
* Connecticut Arts Award (1987)
* National Medal of Arts, National Endowment for the Arts (1994)
* DownBeat Hall of Fame (1994)
* Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award (1996)
* Doctor of Sacred Theology, Doctorate honoris causa, University of Fribourg, Switzerland (2004)
* Laetare Medal (University of Notre Dame) (2006)
* BBC Jazz Lifetime Achievement Award (2007)
* Benjamin Franklin Award for Public Diplomacy (2008)
* Inducted into California Hall of Fame (2008)
* Eastman School of Music Honorary Degree (2008)
* Kennedy Center Honors (2009)
* George Washington University Honorary Degree (2010)
*Honorary Fellow of Westminster Choir College, Princeton, New Jersey (2011)
Discography
References
External links
*
*
*
*
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120924064420/http://www.pacific.edu/Community/Centers-Clinics-and-Institutes/Brubeck-Institute.html Brubeck Institute] at the University of the Pacific
* [https://www.pbs.org/brubeck/ Rediscovering Dave Brubeck], PBS, December 16, 2001, documentary
* [http://www.cosmopolis.ch/english/cosmo17/dave_brubeck.htm Brubeck biography and concert review in cosmopolis.ch]
* [http://library.pacific.edu/ha/digital/index.asp University of the Pacific Library's Digital Collections website]
* [https://www.namm.org/library/oral-history/dave-brubeck Dave Brubeck Interview] at NAMM Oral History Library, September 21, 2006
* [http://www.theartsdesk.com/new-music/qa-special-dave-brubeck-life-music "Q&A Special: Dave Brubeck, a Life in Music" theartsdesk.com]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140707075621/http://www.portlandmonthly.com/portmag/2012/12/dave-brubeck/ Interview: Dave Brubeck & the First Annual Maine Jazz Festival], Portland Magazine
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00942q4 Dave Brubeck] interview on BBC Radio 4, Desert Island Discs, January 8, 1998
* [http://thankyouoneandall.co.uk/letters/brubeck.htm Thank you Dave Brubeck...for showing us yet again that music wells up in the most unlikely places!] Includes the complete eight-part BBC interview of 1994, Unsquare Dances.
}}
Category:1920 births
Category:2012 deaths
Category:A&M Records artists
Category:American jazz composers
Category:American male jazz composers
Category:American jazz pianists
Category:American male jazz pianists
Category:American jazz songwriters
Category:American male songwriters
Category:United States Army personnel of World War II
Category:Atlantic Records artists
Category:Bebop ensembles
Category:Catholics from California
Category:Catholics from Connecticut
Category:Columbia Records artists
Category:Concord Records artists
Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism
Category:Cool jazz pianists
Category:Dave Brubeck Quartet members
Category:Decca Records artists
Category:DownBeat Jazz Hall of Fame members
Category:Fantasy Records artists
Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Category:Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners
Category:Jazz musicians from California
Category:Kennedy Center honorees
Category:Laetare Medal recipients
Category:Members of Phi Kappa Phi
Category:Musicians from Norwalk, Connecticut
Category:Musicians from the San Francisco Bay Area
Category:Naxos Records artists
Category:People from Amador County, California
Category:People from Concord, California
Category:People from Wilton, Connecticut
Category:Pupils of Arnold Schoenberg
Category:Pupils of Darius Milhaud
Category:Ragtime composers
Category:Sony Classical Records artists
Category:Telarc Records artists
Category:United States Army soldiers
Category:United States National Medal of Arts recipients
Category:University of the Pacific (United States) alumni
Category:West Coast jazz pianists
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Dye
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, the blue coloration of blue jeans. Although once extracted from plants, indigo dye is now almost exclusively synthesized industrially.]]
A dye is a colored substance that chemically bonds to the material to which it is being applied. This distinguishes dyes from pigments which do not chemically bind to the material they color. Dye is generally applied in an aqueous solution and may require a mordant to improve the fastness of the dye on the fiber.
The majority of natural dyes are derived from non-animal sources such as roots, berries, bark, leaves, wood, fungi and lichens. However, due to large-scale demand and technological improvements, most dyes used in the modern world are synthetically produced from substances such as petrochemicals.
Some are extracted from insects and/or minerals.
Synthetic dyes are produced from various chemicals. The great majority of dyes are obtained in this way because of their superior cost, optical properties (color), and resilience (fastness, mordancy). and the dyestuffs of Europe were carried by colonists to America.
Dyed flax fibers have been found in the Republic of Georgia in a prehistoric cave dated to 36,000 BP. Archaeological evidence shows that, particularly in India and Phoenicia, dyeing has been widely carried out for over 5,000 years. Early dyes were obtained from animal, vegetable or mineral sources, with no to very little processing. By far the greatest source of dyes has been from the plant kingdom, notably roots, berries, bark, leaves and wood, only few of which are used on a commercial scale.
Early industrialization was conducted by J. Pullar and Sons in Scotland. The first synthetic dye, mauve, was discovered serendipitously by William Henry Perkin in 1856. The discovery of mauveine started a surge in synthetic dyes and in organic chemistry in general. Other aniline dyes followed, such as fuchsine, safranine, and induline. Many thousands of synthetic dyes have since been prepared.
The discovery of mauve also led to developments within immunology and chemotherapy. In 1863 the forerunner to Bayer AG was formed in what became Wuppertal, Germany. In 1891, Paul Ehrlich discovered that certain cells or organisms took up certain dyes selectively. He then reasoned that a sufficiently large dose could be injected to kill pathogenic microorganisms, if the dye did not affect other cells. Ehrlich went on to use a compound to target syphilis, the first time a chemical was used in order to selectively kill bacteria in the body. He also used methylene blue to target the plasmodium responsible for malaria.
, Germany]]
Chemistry
The color of a dye is dependent upon the ability of the substance to absorb light within the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum (380–750 nm). An earlier theory known as Witt theory stated that a colored dye had two components, a chromophore which imparts color by absorbing light in the visible region (some examples are nitro, azo, quinoid groups) and an auxochrome which serves to deepen the color. This theory has been superseded by modern electronic structure theory which states that the color in dyes is due to excitation of valence π-electrons by visible light.
Types
]]
dyeing her hair]]
Dyes are classified according to their solubility and chemical properties.
Mordant dyes require a mordant, which improves the fastness of the dye against water, light and perspiration. The choice of mordant is very important as different mordants can change the final color significantly. Most natural dyes are mordant dyes and there is therefore a large literature base describing dyeing techniques. The most important mordant dyes are the synthetic mordant dyes, or chrome dyes, used for wool; these comprise some 30% of dyes used for wool, and are especially useful for black and navy shades. The mordant potassium dichromate is applied as an after-treatment. It is important to note that many mordants, particularly those in the heavy metal category, can be hazardous to health and extreme care must be taken in using them.
Vat dyes are essentially insoluble in water and incapable of dyeing fibres directly. However, reduction in alkaline liquor produces the water-soluble alkali metal salt of the dye. This form is often colorless, in which case it is referred to as a Leuco dye, and has an affinity for the textile fibre. Subsequent oxidation reforms the original insoluble dye. The color of denim is due to indigo, the original vat dye.
Reactive dyes utilize a chromophore attached to a substituent that is capable of directly reacting with the fiber substrate. The covalent bonds that attach reactive dye to natural fibers make them among the most permanent of dyes. "Cold" reactive dyes, such as Procion MX, Cibacron F, and Drimarene K, are very easy to use because the dye can be applied at room temperature. Reactive dyes are by far the best choice for dyeing cotton and other cellulose fibers at home or in the art studio.
Disperse dyes were originally developed for the dyeing of cellulose acetate, and are water-insoluble. The dyes are finely ground in the presence of a dispersing agent and sold as a paste, or spray-dried and sold as a powder. Their main use is to dye polyester, but they can also be used to dye nylon, cellulose triacetate, and acrylic fibers. In some cases, a dyeing temperature of is required, and a pressurized dyebath is used. The very fine particle size gives a large surface area that aids dissolution to allow uptake by the fiber. The dyeing rate can be significantly influenced by the choice of dispersing agent used during the grinding.
Azoic dyeing is a technique in which an insoluble Azo dye is produced directly onto or within the fiber. This is achieved by treating a fiber with both diazoic and coupling components. With suitable adjustment of dyebath conditions the two components react to produce the required insoluble azo dye. This technique of dyeing is unique, in that the final color is controlled by the choice of the diazoic and coupling components. This method of dyeing cotton is declining in importance due to the toxic nature of the chemicals used.
Sulfur dyes are inexpensive dyes used to dye cotton with dark colors. Dyeing is effected by heating the fabric in a solution of an organic compound, typically a nitrophenol derivative, and sulfide or polysulfide. The organic compound reacts with the sulfide source to form dark colors that adhere to the fabric. Sulfur Black 1, the largest selling dye by volume, does not have a well defined chemical structure.
Some dyes commonly used in Staining:
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Basic Dyes
!Acidic Dyes
|-
|Safranin
|Eosin
|-
|Basic fuchsin
|Acid fuchsin
|-
|Crystal violet
|Congo red
|-
|Methylene blue
|
|}
Food dyes
One other class that describes the role of dyes, rather than their mode of use, is the food dye. Because food dyes are classed as food additives, they are manufactured to a higher standard than some industrial dyes. Food dyes can be direct, mordant and vat dyes, and their use is strictly controlled by legislation. Many are azo dyes, although anthraquinone and triphenylmethane compounds are used for colors such as green and blue. Some naturally occurring dyes are also used.
Other important dyes
A number of other classes have also been established, including:
* Oxidation bases, for mainly hair and fur
* Laser dyes: rhodamine 6G and coumarin dyes.
* Leather dyes, for leather
* Fluorescent brighteners, for textile fibres and paper
* Solvent dyes, for wood staining and producing colored lacquers, solvent inks, coloring oils, waxes.
* Contrast dyes, injected for magnetic resonance imaging, are essentially the same as clothing dye except they are coupled to an agent that has strong paramagnetic properties.
* Mayhems dye, used in water cooling for looks, often rebranded RIT dye
Chromophoric dyes
By the nature of their chromophore, dyes are divided into:
* :Category:Acridine dyes, derivates of acridine
* :Category:Anthraquinone dyes, derivates of anthraquinone
* Arylmethane dyes
** :Category:Diarylmethane dyes, based on diphenyl methane
** :Category:Triarylmethane dyes, derivates of triphenylmethane
* :Category:Azo dyes, based on -N=N- azo structure
* Phthalocyanine dyes, derivatives of phthalocyanine
* Quinone-imine dyes, derivatives of quinone
** :Category:Azin dyes
*** :Category:Eurhodin dyes
*** Category:Safranih
*** dyes, derivates of safranin
** Indamins
** :Category:Indophenol dyes, derivates of indophenol
** :Category:Oxazin dyes, derivates of oxazin
** Oxazone dyes, derivates of oxazone
** :Category:Thiazine dyes
* :Category:Thiazole dyes
* :Category:Safranin dyes
* Xanthene dyes
** Fluorene dyes, derivatives of fluorene
*** Pyronin dyes
** :Category:Fluorone dyes, based on fluorone
*** :Category:Rhodamine dyes, derivatives of rhodamine
Pollution
Dyes produced by the textile, printing and paper industries are a source of pollution of rivers and waterways. An estimated 700,000 tons of dyestuffs are produced annually (1990 data). The disposal of that material has received much attention, using chemical and biological means.
Vital dyes
A "vital dye" or stain is a dye capable of penetrating living cells or tissues without causing immediate visible degenerative changes. Such dyes are useful in medical and pathological fields in order to selectively color certain structures (such as cells) in order to distinguish them from surrounding tissue and thus make them more visible for study (for instance, under a microscope). As the visibility is meant to allow study of the cells or tissues, it is usually important that the dye not have other effects on the structure or function of the tissue that might impair objective observation.
A distinction is drawn between dyes that are meant to be used on cells that have been removed from the organism prior to study (supravital staining) and dyes that are used within a living body - administered by injection or other means (intravital staining) - as the latter is (for instance) subject to higher safety standards, and must typically be a chemical known to avoid causing adverse effects on any biochemistry (until cleared from the tissue), not just to the tissue being studied, or in the short term.
The term "vital stain" is occasionally used interchangeably with both intravital and supravital stains, the underlying concept in either case being that the cells examined are still alive.
In a stricter sense, the term "vital staining" means the polar opposite of "supravital staining."
If living cells absorb the stain during supravital staining, they exclude it during "vital staining"; for example, they color negatively while only dead cells color positively, and thus viability can be determined by counting the percentage of total cells that stain negatively.
Because the dye determines whether the staining is supravital or intravital, a combination of supravital and vital dyes can be used to more accurately classify cells into various groups (e.g., viable, dead, dying).
See also
* Biological pigment, any colored substance in organisms
* Blue Wool Scale
* Hair coloring
* Industrial dye degradation
* J-aggregate
* Laser dyes
* List of dyes
* Oxidant
* Phototendering
* Stain
* Natural dyes
* Pigments
** Inorganic pigments
** Organic pigments
References
Further reading
* Abelshauser, Werner. German History and Global Enterprise: BASF: The History of a Company (2004) covers 1865 to 2000
* Beer, John J. The Emergence of the German Dye Industry (1959)
* ScienceDirect Topics |urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/synthetic-dye |access-date2022-11-18 |websitewww.sciencedirect.com}}
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Dwight D. Eisenhower
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November 10, 1945
| predecessor5 = Position established
| successor5 = George S. Patton (acting)
| office6 = Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force
| appointer6 = Franklin D. Roosevelt
| deputy6 = Arthur Tedder
| term_start6 = December 24, 1943
| term_end6 = July 14, 1945
| predecessor6 = Position established
| successor6 = Position abolished
| birth_name = David Dwight Eisenhower
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Denison, Texas, US
| death_date =
| death_place = Washington, D.C., US
| resting_place = Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum and Boyhood Home
| party = Republican (from 1952)
| spouse =
| children =
| relatives = Eisenhower family
| occupation =
| education = United States Military Academy (BS)
| signature = Dwight Eisenhower Signature.svg
| signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink
<!--Military service-->| nickname "Ike"
| allegiance = United States
| branch = United States Army
| serviceyears =
| rank = General of the Army
| battles =
*Border War
**Pancho Villa Expedition
*World War I
*World War II
**North African campaign
***Operation Torch
****Battle of Port Lyautey
***Tunisian campaign
****Battle of Kasserine Pass
**Italian campaign
***Operation Husky
***Allied invasion of Italy
****Operation Avalanche
**Operation Overlord
***Normandy landings
****Battle of the Falaise Pocket
*** Liberation of Paris
**Operation Dragoon
**Siegfried Line campaign
***Operation Market Garden
***Operation Queen
**Battle of the Bulge
**Western Allied invasion of Germany
***Battle of Remagen
**Occupation of Germany
*Korean War
|-
|headerstyle=background:#dbdbdb
|style=text-align:center;
}}
| mawards = }}
}}
| module
| otherparty Democratic (1909)
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Dwight David Eisenhower .}} (born David Dwight Eisenhower;<!-- Do not remove. His birth name is different from his legal name. It must be in the lead and bolded.--> October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969), also known by his nickname Ike, was the 34th President of the United States, serving from 1953 to 1961. During World War II, he was Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force in Europe and achieved the five-star rank as General of the Army. Eisenhower planned and supervised two of the most consequential military campaigns of World War II: Operation Torch in the North Africa campaign in 1942–1943 and the invasion of Normandy in 1944.
Eisenhower was born in Denison, Texas, and raised in Abilene, Kansas. His family had a strong religious background, and his mother became a Jehovah's Witness. Eisenhower, however, belonged to no organized church until 1952. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud, with whom he had two sons. During World War I, he was denied a request to serve in Europe and instead commanded a unit that trained tank crews. Between the wars he served in staff positions in the US and the Philippines, reaching the rank of brigadier general shortly before the entry of the US into World War II in 1941. After further promotion Eisenhower oversaw the Allied invasions of North Africa and Sicily before supervising the invasions of France and Germany. After the war ended in Europe, he served as military governor of the American-occupied zone of Germany (1945), Army Chief of Staff (1945–1948), president of Columbia University (1948–1953), and as the first supreme commander of NATO (1951–1952).
In 1952, Eisenhower entered the presidential race as a Republican to block the isolationist foreign policies of Senator Robert A. Taft, who opposed NATO. Eisenhower won that year's election and the 1956 election in landslides, both times defeating Adlai Stevenson II. Eisenhower's main goals in office were to contain the spread of communism and reduce federal deficits. In 1953, he considered using nuclear weapons to end the Korean War and may have threatened China with nuclear attack if an armistice was not reached quickly. China did agree and an armistice resulted, which remains in effect. His New Look policy of nuclear deterrence prioritized "inexpensive" nuclear weapons while reducing funding for expensive Army divisions. He continued Harry S. Truman's policy of recognizing Taiwan as the legitimate government of China, and he won congressional approval of the Formosa Resolution. His administration provided major aid to help the French fight off Vietnamese Communists in the First Indochina War. After the French left, he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam.
He supported regime-changing military coups in Iran and Guatemala orchestrated by his own administration. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, he condemned the Israeli, British, and French invasion of Egypt, and he forced them to withdraw. He also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. He deployed 15,000 soldiers during the 1958 Lebanon crisis. Near the end of his term, a summit meeting with the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev was cancelled when a US spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union. Eisenhower approved the Bay of Pigs Invasion, which was left to John F. Kennedy to carry out.
On the domestic front, Eisenhower governed as a moderate conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security. He covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege. He signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and sent Army troops to enforce federal court orders which integrated schools in Little Rock, Arkansas. His administration undertook the development and construction of the Interstate Highway System, which remains the largest construction of roadways in American history. In 1957, following the Soviet launch of Sputnik, Eisenhower led the American response which included the creation of NASA and the establishment of a stronger, science-based education via the National Defense Education Act. The Soviet Union began to reinforce their own space program, escalating the Space Race. His two terms saw unprecedented economic prosperity except for a minor recession in 1958. In his farewell address, he expressed his concerns about the dangers of massive military spending, particularly deficit spending and government contracts to private military manufacturers, which he dubbed "the military–industrial complex". Historical evaluations of his presidency place him among the upper tier of US presidents.
Family background
The Eisenhauer (German for "iron hewer" or "iron miner") family migrated from the German village of Karlsbrunn to the Province of Pennsylvania in 1741. Accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was anglicized.
David Jacob Eisenhower, Eisenhower's father, was a college-educated engineer, despite his own father's urging to stay on the family farm. Eisenhower's mother, Ida Elizabeth (Stover) Eisenhower, of predominantly German Protestant ancestry, moved to Kansas from Virginia. She married David on September 23, 1885, in Lecompton, Kansas, on the campus of their alma mater, Lane University.
David owned a general store in Hope, Kansas, but the business failed due to economic conditions and the family became impoverished. The Eisenhowers lived in Texas from 1889 until 1892, and later returned to Kansas, with $24 () to their name. David worked as a railroad mechanic and then at a creamery. Early life and education Eisenhower was born David Dwight Eisenhower in Denison, Texas, on October 14, 1890, the third of seven sons born to Ida and David. His mother soon reversed his two forenames after his birth to avoid the confusion of having two Davids in the family. He was named Dwight after the evangelist Dwight L. Moody. All of the boys were nicknamed "Ike", such as "Big Ike" (Edgar) and "Little Ike" (Dwight); the nickname was intended as an abbreviation of their last name. By World War II, only Dwight was still called "Ike".
In 1892, the family moved to Abilene, Kansas, which Eisenhower considered his hometown. As a child, he was involved in an accident that cost his younger brother Earl an eye, for which he was remorseful for the remainder of his life. Eisenhower developed a keen and enduring interest in exploring the outdoors. He learned about hunting and fishing, cooking, and card playing from a man named Bob Davis who camped on the Smoky Hill River. While his mother was against war, it was her collection of history books that first sparked Eisenhower's interest in military history; he became a voracious reader on the subject. Other favorite subjects early in his education were arithmetic and spelling.
Eisenhower's parents set aside specific times at breakfast and at dinner for daily family Bible reading. Chores were regularly assigned and rotated among all the children, and misbehavior was met with unequivocal discipline, usually from David. His mother, previously a member (with David) of the River Brethren (Brethren in Christ Church) sect of the Mennonites, His later decision to attend West Point saddened his mother, who felt that warfare was "rather wicked", but she did not overrule his decision. Speaking of himself in 1948, Eisenhower said he was "one of the most deeply religious men I know" though unattached to any "sect or organization". He was baptized in the Presbyterian Church in 1953.
Eisenhower attended Abilene High School and graduated in 1909. As a freshman, he injured his knee and developed a leg infection that extended into his groin, which his doctor diagnosed as life-threatening. The doctor insisted that the leg be amputated but Dwight refused to allow it, and surprisingly recovered, though he had to repeat his freshman year. He and brother Edgar both wanted to attend college, though they lacked the funds. They made a pact to take alternate years at college while the other worked to earn the tuitions.
Edgar took the first turn at school, and Dwight was employed as a night supervisor at the Belle Springs Creamery. When Edgar asked for a second year, Dwight consented. At that time, a friend Edward "Swede" Hazlett was applying to the Naval Academy and urged Dwight to apply, since no tuition was required. Eisenhower requested consideration for either Annapolis or West Point with his Senator, Joseph L. Bristow. Though Eisenhower was among the winners of the entrance-exam competition, he was beyond the age limit for the Naval Academy. He accepted an appointment to West Point in 1911.
In athletics, Eisenhower later said that "not making the baseball team at West Point was one of the greatest disappointments of my life, maybe my greatest". He made the varsity football team and was a starter at halfback in 1912, when he tried to tackle the legendary Jim Thorpe of the Carlisle Indians. Eisenhower suffered a torn knee while being tackled in the next game, which was the last he played; he reinjured his knee on horseback and in the boxing ring, so he turned to fencing and gymnastics.
Eisenhower later served as junior varsity football coach and cheerleader, which caught the attention of General Frederick Funston. He graduated from West Point in the middle of the class of 1915, which became known as "the class the stars fell on", because 59 members eventually became general officers. After graduation in 1915, Second Lieutenant Eisenhower requested an assignment in the Philippines, which was denied; because of the ongoing Mexican Revolution, he was posted to Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas, under the command of General Funston. In 1916, while stationed at Fort Sam Houston, Funston convinced him to become the football coach for Peacock Military Academy; and was an honorary member of the Sigma Beta Chi fraternity there. Personal life
While Eisenhower was stationed in Texas, he met Mamie Doud of Boone, Iowa. They were immediately taken with each other. He proposed to her on Valentine's Day in 1916. A November wedding date in Denver was moved up to July 1 due to the impending American entry into World War I; Funston approved 10 days of leave for their wedding. The Eisenhowers moved many times during their first 35 years of marriage.
The Eisenhowers had two sons. In late 1917 while he was in charge of training at Fort Oglethorpe in Georgia, his wife Mamie had their first son, Doud Dwight "Icky" Eisenhower, who died of scarlet fever at the age of three. Eisenhower was mostly reluctant to discuss his death. Their second son, John Eisenhower, was born in Denver, Colorado. John served in the United States Army, retired as a brigadier general, became an author and served as Ambassador to Belgium from 1969 to 1971. He married Barbara Jean Thompson and had four children: David, Barbara Ann, Susan Elaine and Mary Jean. David, after whom Camp David is named, married Richard Nixon's daughter Julie in 1968.
Eisenhower was a golf enthusiast later in life, and he joined the Augusta National Golf Club in 1948. He played golf frequently during and after his presidency and was unreserved in his passion for the game, to the point of golfing during winter; he ordered his golf balls painted black so he could see them better against snow. He had a basic golf facility installed at Camp David, and he became close friends with the Augusta National Chairman Clifford Roberts, inviting Roberts to stay at the White House on numerous occasions. Roberts, an investment broker, also handled the Eisenhower family's investments.
He began oil painting while at Columbia University, after watching Thomas E. Stephens paint Mamie's portrait. Eisenhower painted about 260 oils during the last 20 years of his life. The images were mostly landscapes but also portraits of subjects such as Mamie, their grandchildren, General Montgomery, George Washington, and Abraham Lincoln. Wendy Beckett stated that Eisenhower's paintings, "simple and earnest", caused her to "wonder at the hidden depths of this reticent president". A conservative in both art and politics, Eisenhower in a 1962 speech denounced modern art as "a piece of canvas that looks like a broken-down Tin Lizzie, loaded with paint, has been driven over it".
Angels in the Outfield was Eisenhower's favorite movie. His favorite reading material for relaxation were the Western novels of Zane Grey. With his excellent memory and ability to focus, Eisenhower was skilled at cards. He learned poker, which he called his "favorite indoor sport", in Abilene. Eisenhower recorded West Point classmates' poker losses for payment after graduation and later stopped playing because his opponents resented having to pay him. A friend reported that after learning to play contract bridge at West Point, Eisenhower played the game six nights a week for five months. Eisenhower continued to play bridge throughout his military career. While stationed in the Philippines, he played regularly with President Manuel Quezon, earning him the nickname the "Bridge Wizard of Manila". An unwritten qualification for an officer's appointment to Eisenhower's staff during World War II was the ability to play bridge. He played even during the stressful weeks leading up to the D-Day landings. His favorite partner was General Alfred Gruenther, considered the best player in the US Army; he appointed Gruenther his second-in-command at NATO partly because of his skill at bridge. Saturday night bridge games at the White House were a feature of his presidency. He was a strong player, though not an expert by modern standards. The great bridge player and popularizer Ely Culbertson described his game as classic and sound with "flashes of brilliance" and said that "you can always judge a man's character by the way he plays cards. Eisenhower is a calm and collected player and never whines at his losses. He is brilliant in victory but never commits the bridge player's worst crime of gloating when he wins." Bridge expert Oswald Jacoby frequently participated in the White House games and said, "The President plays better bridge than golf. He tries to break 90 at golf. At bridge, you would say he plays in the 70s." World War I (1914–1918)
Eisenhower served initially in logistics and then the infantry at various camps in Texas and Georgia until 1918. When the US entered World War I, he immediately requested an overseas assignment but was denied and assigned to Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas. In February 1918, he was transferred to Camp Meade in Maryland with the 65th Engineers. His unit was later ordered to France, but, to his chagrin, he received orders for the new tank corps, where he was promoted to brevet lieutenant colonel in the National Army. He commanded a unit that trained tank crews at Camp Colt – his first command. Though Eisenhower and his tank crews never saw combat, he displayed excellent organizational skills as well as an ability to accurately assess junior officers' strengths and make optimal placements of personnel.
His spirits were raised when the unit under his command received orders overseas to France. This time his wishes were thwarted when the armistice was signed a week before his departure date. Completely missing out on the warfront left him depressed and bitter for a time, despite receiving the Distinguished Service Medal for his work at home. In World War II, rivals who had combat service in the Great War (led by Gen. Bernard Montgomery) sought to denigrate Eisenhower for his previous lack of combat duty, despite his stateside experience establishing a camp for thousands of troops and developing a full combat training schedule.Between the Wars (1918–1939) In service of generals
at West Point]]
After the war, Eisenhower reverted to his regular rank of captain and a few days later was promoted to major, a rank he held for 16 years. The major was assigned in 1919 to a transcontinental Army convoy to test vehicles and dramatize the need for improved roads. Indeed, the convoy averaged only from Washington, D.C. to San Francisco; later the improvement of highways became a signature issue for Eisenhower as president.
He assumed duties again at Camp Meade, Maryland, commanding a battalion of tanks, where he remained until 1922. His schooling continued, focused on the nature of the next war and the role of the tank. His new expertise in tank warfare was strengthened by a close collaboration with George S. Patton, Sereno E. Brett, and other senior tank leaders. Their leading-edge ideas of speed-oriented offensive tank warfare were strongly discouraged by superiors, who considered the new approach too radical and preferred to continue using tanks in a strictly supportive role for the infantry. Eisenhower was even threatened with court-martial for continued publication of these proposed methods of tank deployment, and he relented.
From 1920, Eisenhower served under a succession of talented generals – Fox Conner, John J. Pershing, Douglas MacArthur and George Marshall. He first became executive officer to General Conner in the Panama Canal Zone, where, joined by Mamie, he served until 1924. Under Conner's tutelage, he studied military history and theory (including Carl von Clausewitz's On War), and later cited Conner's enormous influence on his military thinking, saying in 1962 that "Fox Conner was the ablest man I ever knew." Conner's comment on Eisenhower was, "[He] is one of the most capable, efficient and loyal officers I have ever met." On Conner's recommendation, in 1925–1926 he attended the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, where he graduated first in a class of 245 officers.
During the late 1920s and early 1930s, Eisenhower's career stalled somewhat, as military priorities diminished; many of his friends resigned for high-paying business jobs. He was assigned to the American Battle Monuments Commission directed by General Pershing, and with the help of his brother Milton Eisenhower, then a journalist at the Agriculture Department, he produced a guide to American battlefields in Europe. He then was assigned to the Army War College and graduated in 1928. After a one-year assignment in France, Eisenhower served as executive officer to General George V. Moseley, Assistant Secretary of War, from 1929 to February 1933. Major Eisenhower graduated from the Army Industrial College in 1933 and later served on the faculty (it was later expanded to become the Industrial College of the Armed Services and is now known as the Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy).
His primary duty was planning for the next war, which proved most difficult in the midst of the Great Depression. He then was posted as chief military aide to General Douglas MacArthur, Army Chief of Staff. In 1932, he participated in the clearing of the Bonus March encampment in Washington, D.C. Although he was against the actions taken against the veterans and strongly advised MacArthur against taking a public role in it, he later wrote the Army's official incident report, endorsing MacArthur's conduct.
Philippine tenure (1935–1939)
In 1935, Eisenhower accompanied MacArthur to the Philippines, where he served as assistant military adviser to the Philippine government in developing their army. MacArthur allowed Eisenhower to handpick an officer whom he thought would contribute to the mission. Hence he chose James Ord, a classmate of his at West Point. Having been brought up in Mexico, which inculcated into him the Spanish culture which influenced both Mexico and the Philippines, Ord was deemed the right pick for the job. Eisenhower had strong philosophical disagreements with MacArthur regarding the role of the Philippine Army and the leadership qualities that an American army officer should exhibit and develop in his subordinates. The antipathy between Eisenhower and MacArthur lasted the rest of their lives.
Historians have concluded that this assignment provided valuable preparation for handling the challenging personalities of Winston Churchill, George S. Patton, George Marshall, and Bernard Montgomery during World War II. Eisenhower later emphasized that too much had been made of the disagreements with MacArthur and that a positive relationship endured. While in Manila, Mamie suffered a life-threatening stomach ailment but recovered fully. Eisenhower was promoted to the rank of permanent lieutenant colonel in 1936. He also learned to fly with the Philippine Army Air Corps at the Zablan Airfield in Camp Murphy under Capt. Jesus Villamor, making a solo flight over the Philippines in 1937, and obtained his private pilot's license in 1939 at Fort Lewis. Also around this time, he was offered a post by the Philippine Commonwealth Government, namely by then Philippine President Manuel L. Quezon on recommendations by MacArthur, to become the chief of police of a new capital being planned, now named Quezon City, but he declined the offer. World War II (1939–1945) Eisenhower returned to the United States in December 1939 and was assigned as commanding officer of the 1st Battalion, 15th Infantry Regiment at Fort Lewis, Washington, later becoming the regimental executive officer. In March 1941 he was promoted to colonel and assigned as chief of staff of the newly activated IX Corps under Major General Kenyon Joyce. In June 1941, he was appointed chief of staff to General Walter Krueger, Commander of the Third Army, at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas. After successfully participating in the Louisiana Maneuvers, he was promoted to brigadier general on October 3, 1941.
After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Eisenhower was assigned to the General Staff in Washington, where he served until June 1942 with responsibility for creating the major war plans to defeat Japan and Germany. He was appointed Deputy Chief in charge of Pacific Defenses under the Chief of War Plans Division (WPD), General Leonard T. Gerow, and then succeeded Gerow as Chief of the War Plans Division. Next, he was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff in charge of the new Operations Division (which replaced WPD) under Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall, who spotted talent and promoted accordingly.
At the end of May 1942, Eisenhower accompanied Lt. Gen. Henry H. Arnold, commanding general of the Army Air Forces, to London to assess the effectiveness of the theater commander in England, Maj. Gen. James E. Chaney. He returned to Washington on June 3 with a pessimistic assessment, stating he had an "uneasy feeling" about Chaney and his staff. On June 23, 1942, he returned to London as Commanding General, European Theater of Operations (ETOUSA), based in London and with a house in Coombe, Kingston upon Thames, and took over command of ETOUSA from Chaney. He was promoted to lieutenant general on July 7.
Operations Torch and Avalanche
, 1942]]
In November 1942, Eisenhower was also appointed Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force of the North African Theater of Operations (NATOUSA) through the new operational Headquarters Allied (Expeditionary) Force Headquarters (A(E)FHQ). The word "expeditionary" was dropped soon after his appointment for security reasons. The campaign in North Africa was designated Operation Torch and was planned in the underground headquarters within the Rock of Gibraltar. Eisenhower was the first non-British person to command Gibraltar in 200 years.
French cooperation was deemed necessary to the campaign and Eisenhower encountered a "preposterous situation" with the multiple rival factions in France. His primary objective was to move forces successfully into Tunisia and intending to facilitate that objective, he gave his support to François Darlan as High Commissioner in North Africa, despite Darlan's previous high offices in Vichy France and his continued role as commander-in-chief of the French armed forces. The Allied leaders were "thunderstruck" by this from a political standpoint, though none had offered Eisenhower guidance with the problem in planning the operation. Eisenhower was severely criticized for the move. Darlan was assassinated on December 24 by Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle, a French antifascist monarchist. Eisenhower later appointed as High Commissioner General Henri Giraud, who had been installed by the Allies as Darlan's commander-in-chief.
Operation Torch also served as a valuable training ground for Eisenhower's combat command skills; during the initial phase of Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel's move into the Kasserine Pass, Eisenhower created some confusion in the ranks by interference with the execution of battle plans by his subordinates. He also was initially indecisive in his removal of Lloyd Fredendall, commanding II Corps. He became more adroit in such matters in later campaigns. In February 1943, his authority was extended as commander of AFHQ across the Mediterranean basin to include the British Eighth Army, commanded by General Sir Bernard Montgomery. The Eighth Army had advanced across the Western Desert from the east and was ready for the start of the Tunisia Campaign.
After the capitulation of Axis forces in North Africa, Eisenhower oversaw the invasion of Sicily. Once Mussolini, the Italian leader, had fallen in Italy, the Allies switched their attention to the mainland with Operation Avalanche. But while Eisenhower argued with President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill, who both insisted on unconditional surrender in exchange for helping the Italians, the Germans pursued an aggressive buildup of forces in the country. The Germans made the already tough battle more difficult by adding 19 divisions and initially outnumbering the Allied forces 2 to 1. Supreme Allied commander and Operation Overlord In December 1943, President Roosevelt decided that Eisenhower – not Marshall – would be Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. The following month, he resumed command of ETOUSA and the following month was officially designated as the Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), serving in a dual role until the end of hostilities in Europe in May 1945. He was charged in these positions with planning and carrying out the Allied assault on the coast of Normandy in June 1944 under the code name Operation Overlord, the liberation of Western Europe and the invasion of Germany.
(PIR), part of the 101st "Screaming Eagles" Airborne Division, on June 5, 1944, the day before the D-Day invasion. The officer Eisenhower is speaking to is First Lieutenant Wallace Strobel.]]
Eisenhower, as well as the officers and troops under him, had learned valuable lessons in their previous operations, and their skills had all strengthened in preparation for the next most difficult campaign against the Germans—a beach landing assault. His first struggles, however, were with Allied leaders and officers on matters vital to the success of the Normandy invasion; he argued with Roosevelt over an essential agreement with De Gaulle to use French resistance forces in covert operations against the Germans in advance of Operation Overlord. Admiral Ernest J. King fought with Eisenhower over King's refusal to provide additional landing craft from the Pacific. Eisenhower also insisted that the British give him exclusive command over all strategic air forces to facilitate Overlord, to the point of threatening to resign unless Churchill relented, which he did. Eisenhower then designed a bombing plan in France in advance of Overlord and argued with Churchill over the latter's concern with civilian casualties; de Gaulle interjected that the casualties were justified, and Eisenhower prevailed. He also had to skillfully manage to retain the services of the often unruly George S. Patton, by severely reprimanding him when Patton earlier had slapped a subordinate, and then when Patton gave a speech in which he made improper comments about postwar policy.
The D-Day Normandy landings on June 6, 1944, were costly but successful. Two months later (August 15), the invasion of Southern France took place, and control of forces in the southern invasion passed from the AFHQ to the SHAEF. Many thought that victory in Europe would come by summer's end, but the Germans did not capitulate for almost a year. From then until the end of the war in Europe on May 8, 1945, Eisenhower, through SHAEF, commanded all Allied forces, and through his command of ETOUSA had administrative command of all US forces on the Western Front north of the Alps. He was ever mindful of the inevitable loss of life and suffering that would be experienced by the troops under his command and their families. This prompted him to make a point of visiting every division involved in the invasion. Eisenhower's sense of responsibility was underscored by his draft of a statement to be issued if the invasion failed. It has been called one of the great speeches of history:
Liberation of France and victory in Europe
at Reims]]
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Once the coastal assault had succeeded, Eisenhower insisted on retaining personal control over the land battle strategy and was immersed in the command and supply of multiple assaults through France on Germany. Field Marshal Montgomery insisted priority be given to his 21st Army Group's attack being made in the north, while Generals Bradley (12th US Army Group) and Devers (Sixth US Army Group) insisted they be given priority in the center and south of the front (respectively). Eisenhower worked tirelessly to address the demands of the rival commanders to optimize Allied forces, often by giving them tactical latitude; many historians conclude this delayed the Allied victory in Europe. However, due to Eisenhower's persistence, the pivotal supply port at Antwerp was successfully, albeit belatedly, opened in late 1944.
In recognition of his senior position in the Allied command, on December 20, 1944, he was promoted to General of the Army, equivalent to the rank of Field Marshal in most European armies. In this and the previous high commands he held, Eisenhower showed his great talents for leadership and diplomacy. Although he had never seen action himself, he won the respect of front-line commanders. He interacted adeptly with allies such as Winston Churchill, Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery and General Charles de Gaulle. He had serious disagreements with Churchill and Montgomery over questions of strategy, but these rarely upset his relationships with them. He dealt with Soviet Marshal Zhukov, his Russian counterpart, and they became good friends.
In December 1944, the Germans launched a surprise counteroffensive, the Battle of the Bulge, which the Allies successfully repelled in early 1945 after Eisenhower repositioned his armies and improved weather allowed the Army Air Force to engage. German defenses continued to deteriorate on both the Eastern Front with the Red Army and the Western Front with the Western Allies. The British wanted to capture Berlin, but Eisenhower decided it would be a military mistake for him to attack Berlin and said orders to that effect would have to be explicit. The British backed down but then wanted Eisenhower to move into Czechoslovakia for political reasons. Washington refused to support Churchill's plan to use Eisenhower's army for political maneuvers against Moscow. The actual division of Germany followed the lines that Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin had previously agreed upon. The Soviet Red Army captured Berlin in a very bloody large-scale battle, and the Germans finally surrendered on May 7, 1945.
Throughout 1945, the allied armies liberated numerous Nazi concentration camps throughout Europe. As the allies learned the full extent of the Holocaust, Eisenhower anticipated that, in the future, attempts to recharacterize Nazi crimes as propaganda (Holocaust denial) would be made, and took steps against it by demanding extensive photo and film documentation of Nazi death camps. After World War II (1945–1953) Military Governor of the American-occupied zone of Germany
from May through November 1945.]]
Following the German unconditional surrender, Eisenhower was appointed military governor of the American-occupied zone of Germany, located primarily in Southern Germany, and headquartered in Frankfurt am Main. Upon discovery of the Nazi concentration camps, he ordered camera crews to document evidence for use in the Nuremberg Trials. He reclassified German prisoners of war (POWs) in US custody as Disarmed Enemy Forces (DEFs), who were no longer subject to the Geneva Convention. Eisenhower followed the orders laid down by the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) in directive JCS 1067 but softened them by bringing in 400,000 tons of food for civilians and allowing more fraternization. In response to the devastation in Germany, including food shortages and an influx of refugees, he arranged distribution of American food and medical equipment. His actions reflected the new American attitudes of the German people as Nazi victims not villains, while aggressively purging the ex-Nazis.Army Chief of StaffIn November 1945, Eisenhower returned to Washington to replace Marshall as Chief of Staff of the Army. His main role was the rapid demobilization of millions of soldiers, which was delayed by lack of shipping. Eisenhower was convinced in 1946 that the Soviet Union did not want war and that friendly relations could be maintained; he strongly supported the new United Nations and favored its involvement in the control of atomic bombs. However, in formulating policies regarding the atomic bomb and relations with the Soviets, Truman was guided by the State Department and ignored Eisenhower and the Pentagon. Indeed, Eisenhower had opposed the use of the atomic bomb against the Japanese, writing, "First, the Japanese were ready to surrender and it wasn't necessary to hit them with that awful thing. Second, I hated to see our country be the first to use such a weapon." Initially, Eisenhower hoped for cooperation with the Soviets. He even visited Warsaw in 1945. Invited by Bolesław Bierut and decorated with the highest military decoration, he was shocked by the scale of destruction in the city. However, by mid-1947, as east–west tensions over economic recovery in Germany and the Greek Civil War escalated, Eisenhower agreed with a containment policy to stop Soviet expansion. and in 1947 he offered to run as Eisenhower's running mate on the Democratic ticket if MacArthur won the Republican nomination.
As the election approached, other prominent citizens and politicians from both parties urged Eisenhower to run. In January 1948, after learning of plans in New Hampshire to elect delegates supporting him for the forthcoming Republican National Convention, Eisenhower stated through the Army that he was "not available for and could not accept nomination to high political office"; "life-long professional soldiers", he wrote, "in the absence of some obvious and overriding reason, [should] abstain from seeking high political office". Eisenhower maintained no political party affiliation during this time. Many believed he was forgoing his only opportunity to be president as Republican Thomas E. Dewey was considered the probable winner and would presumably serve two terms, meaning that Eisenhower, at age 66 in 1956, would be too old to run. President at Columbia University and NATO Supreme Commander
In 1948, Eisenhower became President of Columbia University, an Ivy League university in New York City, where he was inducted into Phi Beta Kappa. The choice was subsequently characterized as not having been a good fit for either party. During that year, Eisenhower's memoir, Crusade in Europe, was published. It was a major financial success. and in due course Eisenhower's profit on the book was substantially aided by what author David Pietrusza calls "a ruling without precedent" by the Department of the Treasury. It held that Eisenhower was not a professional writer, but rather, marketing the lifetime asset of his experiences, and thus he had to pay only capital gains tax on his $635,000 advance instead of the much higher personal tax rate. This ruling saved Eisenhower about $400,000.
Eisenhower's stint as the president of Columbia was punctuated by his activity within the Council on Foreign Relations, a study group he led concerning the political and military implications of the Marshall Plan and The American Assembly, Eisenhower's "vision of a great cultural center where business, professional and governmental leaders could meet from time to time to discuss and reach conclusions concerning problems of a social and political nature". Through his involvement in the Council on Foreign Relations, he also gained exposure to economic analysis, which became the bedrock of his understanding in economic policy. "Whatever General Eisenhower knows about economics, he has learned at the study group meetings", one Aid to Europe member claimed.
Eisenhower accepted the presidency of the university to expand his ability to promote "the American form of democracy" through education. He was clear on this point to the trustees on the search committee. He informed them that his main purpose was "to promote the basic concepts of education in a democracy".
Within months of becoming university president, Eisenhower was requested to advise Secretary of Defense James Forrestal on the unification of the armed services. About six months after his appointment, he became the informal Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in Washington. Two months later he fell ill with what was diagnosed as acute gastroenteritis, and he spent over a month in recovery at the Augusta National Golf Club. He returned to his post in New York in mid-May, and in July 1949 took a two-month vacation out-of-state. Because the American Assembly had begun to take shape, he traveled around the country during summer and fall 1950, building financial support for it, including from Columbia Associates, a recently created alumni and benefactor organization for which he had helped recruit members.
Eisenhower was unknowingly building resentment and a reputation among the Columbia University faculty and staff as an absentee president who was using the university for his own interests. As a career military man, he naturally had little in common with the academics. The contacts gained through university and American Assembly fundraising activities would later become important supporters in Eisenhower's bid for the Republican party nomination and the presidency. Meanwhile, Columbia University's liberal faculty members became disenchanted with the university president's ties to oilmen and businessmen.
He did have some successes at Columbia. Puzzled as to why no American university had undertaken the "continuous study of the causes, conduct and consequences of war", Eisenhower was able to use his network of wealthy friends and acquaintances to secure initial funding for it. Under its founding director, international relations scholar William T. R. Fox, the institute began in 1951 and became a pioneer in international security studies, one that would be emulated by other institutes in the United States and Britain later in the decade. The Institute of War and Peace Studies thus became one of the projects which Eisenhower considered his "unique contribution" to Columbia.
The trustees of Columbia University declined to accept Eisenhower's offer to resign in December 1950, when he took an extended leave from the university to become the Supreme Commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and he was given operational command of NATO forces in Europe. Eisenhower retired from active service as an army general on June 3, 1952, and he resumed his presidency of Columbia. Meanwhile, Eisenhower had become the Republican Party nominee for president of the United States, a contest that he won on November 4. Eisenhower tendered his resignation as university president on November 15, 1952, effective January 19, 1953, the day before his inauguration.
At home, Eisenhower was more effective in making the case for NATO in Congress than the Truman administration had been. By the middle of 1951, with American and European support, NATO was a genuine military power. Nevertheless, Eisenhower thought that NATO would become a truly European alliance, with the American and Canadian commitments ending after about ten years. Presidential campaign of 1952
President Truman sensed a broad-based desire for an Eisenhower candidacy for president, and he again pressed him to run for the office as a Democrat in 1951. But Eisenhower voiced his disagreements with the Democrats and declared himself to be a Republican. A "Draft Eisenhower" movement in the Republican Party persuaded him to declare his candidacy in the 1952 presidential election to counter the candidacy of non-interventionist Senator Robert A. Taft. The effort was a long struggle; Eisenhower had to be convinced that political circumstances had created a genuine duty to offer himself as a candidate and that there was a mandate from the public for him to be their president. Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. and others succeeded in convincing him, and he resigned his command at NATO in June 1952 to campaign full-time.
Eisenhower defeated Taft for the nomination, having won critical delegate votes from Texas. His campaign was noted for the simple slogan "I Like Ike". It was essential to his success that Eisenhower express opposition to Roosevelt's policy at the Yalta Conference and to Truman's policies in Korea and China—matters in which he had once participated. In defeating Taft for the nomination, it became necessary for Eisenhower to appease the right-wing Old Guard of the Republican Party; his selection of Richard Nixon as the vice-president on the ticket was designed in part for that purpose. Nixon also provided a strong anti-communist reputation, as well as youth to counter Eisenhower's more advanced age.
Eisenhower insisted on campaigning in the South in the general election, against the advice of his campaign team, refusing to surrender the region to the Democrats. The campaign strategy was dubbed "K<sub>1</sub>C<sub>2</sub>" and was intended to focus on attacking the Truman administration on three failures: the Korean War, Communism, and corruption.
Two controversies tested him and his staff, but they did not damage the campaign. One involved a report that Nixon had improperly received funds from a secret trust. Nixon spoke out adroitly to avoid potential damage, but the matter permanently alienated the two candidates. The second issue centered on Eisenhower's relented decision to confront the controversial methods of Joseph McCarthy on his home turf in a Wisconsin appearance. Eisenhower condemned "wickedness in government", an allusion to gay government employees who were conflated with communism during McCarthyism.
Eisenhower defeated Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson II in a landslide, with an electoral margin of 442 to 89, marking the first Republican return to the White House in 20 years.
Eisenhower was the last president born in the 19th century, and he was the oldest president-elect at age 62 since James Buchanan in 1856. He was the third commanding general of the Army to serve as president, after George Washington and Ulysses S. Grant, and the last not to have held political office prior to becoming president until Donald Trump entered office in January 2017.
Election of 1956
In the United States presidential election of 1956, Eisenhower, the popular incumbent, was re-elected. The election was a re-match of 1952, as his opponent in 1956 was Stevenson, a former Illinois governor, whom Eisenhower had defeated four years earlier. Compared to the 1952 election, Eisenhower gained Kentucky, Louisiana, and West Virginia from Stevenson, while losing Missouri. His voters were less likely to bring up his leadership record. Instead what stood out this time "was the response to personal qualities — to his sincerity, his integrity and sense of duty, his virtue as a family man, his religious devotion, and his sheer likeableness."
Presidency (1953–1961)
Truman and Eisenhower had minimal discussions about the transition of administrations due to a complete estrangement between them as a result of campaigning. Eisenhower selected Joseph M. Dodge as his budget director, then asked Herbert Brownell Jr. and Lucius D. Clay to make recommendations for his cabinet appointments. He accepted their recommendations without exception; they included John Foster Dulles and George M. Humphrey with whom he developed his closest relationships, as well as Oveta Culp Hobby. His cabinet consisted of several corporate executives and one labor leader, and one journalist dubbed it "eight millionaires and a plumber". The cabinet was known for its lack of personal friends, office seekers, or experienced government administrators. He also upgraded the role of the National Security Council in planning all phases of the Cold War.
Before his inauguration, Eisenhower led a meeting of advisors at Pearl Harbor where they set goals for his first term: balance the budget, end the Korean War, defend vital interests at lower cost through nuclear deterrent, and end price and wage controls. He also conducted the first pre-inaugural cabinet meeting in history in late 1952; he used this meeting to articulate his anti-communist Russia policy. His inaugural address was exclusively devoted to foreign policy and included this same philosophy as well as a commitment to foreign trade and the United Nations.
Eisenhower made greater use of press conferences than any previous president, holding almost 200 over his two terms. He saw the benefit of maintaining a good relationship with the press, and he saw value in them as a means of direct communication with the American people.
Throughout his presidency, Eisenhower adhered to a political philosophy of dynamic conservatism. He described himself as a "progressive conservative", and used terms such as "progressive moderate" and "dynamic conservatism" to describe his approach. He continued all the major New Deal programs still in operation, especially Social Security. He expanded its programs and rolled them into the new Cabinet-level agency of the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, while extending benefits to an additional ten million workers. He implemented racial integration in the Armed Services in two years, which had not been completed under Truman.
In a private letter, Eisenhower wrote:
When the 1954 Congressional elections approached, it became evident that the Republicans were in danger of losing their thin majority in both houses. Eisenhower was among those who blamed the Old Guard for the losses, and he took up the charge to stop suspected efforts by the right wing to take control of the GOP. He then articulated his position as a moderate, progressive Republican: "I have just one purpose ... and that is to build up a strong progressive Republican Party in this country. If the right wing wants a fight, they are going to get it ... before I end up, either this Republican Party will reflect progressivism or I won't be with them anymore."
Eisenhower initially planned on serving only one term, but he remained flexible in case leading Republicans wanted him to run again. He was recovering from a heart attack late in September 1955 when he met with his closest advisors to evaluate the GOP's potential candidates; the group concluded that a second term was well advised, and he announced that he would run again in February 1956. Eisenhower was publicly noncommittal about having Nixon as the Vice President on his ticket; the question was an especially important one in light of his heart condition. He personally favored Robert B. Anderson, a Democrat who rejected his offer, so Eisenhower resolved to leave the matter in the hands of the party, which chose Nixon nearly unanimously. In 1956, Eisenhower faced Adlai Stevenson again and won by an even larger landslide, with 457 of 531 electoral votes and 57.6 percent of the popular vote. His campaigning was curtailed out of health considerations.
Eisenhower made full use of his valet, chauffeur, and secretarial support; he rarely drove or even dialed a phone number. He was an avid fisherman, golfer, painter, and bridge player. On August 26, 1959, he was aboard the maiden flight of Air Force One, which replaced the Columbine as the presidential aircraft.
Atoms for Peace
Eisenhower gave the Atoms for Peace speech to the United Nations General Assembly on 8 December 1953, advocating for constructive use of nuclear fission for electrical energy and nuclear medicine instead of nuclear arms race proliferation. The speech led to the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 which allowed the civilian world to develop nuclear fission technology for peaceful and prosperous purposes.
Interstate Highway System
Eisenhower championed and signed the bill that authorized the Interstate Highway System in 1956. He justified the project through the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 as essential to American security during the Cold War.
Eisenhower's goal to create improved highways was influenced by his involvement in the Army's 1919 Transcontinental Motor Convoy. He was assigned as an observer for the mission, which involved sending a convoy of Army vehicles coast to coast. His subsequent experience with the German autobahn convinced him of the benefits of an Interstate Highway System. The system could also be used as a runway for airplanes, which would be beneficial to war efforts. Franklin D. Roosevelt put this system into place with the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944. He thought that an interstate highway system would be beneficial for military operations and would support continued economic growth. The legislation initially stalled in Congress over the issuance of bonds to finance the project, but the legislative effort was renewed and Eisenhower signed the law in June 1956.ARPAThe Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was put together by Eisenhower and his Science Advisory Committee in early 1958 in response to the successful launch of the first orbital satellite from the Soviet Union, Sputnik 1. ARPA eventually created the ARPANET which was a predecessor to the internet. Foreign policy
during Nasser's visit to United Nations in New York, September 1960.]]
.]]
in Taipei.]]
Space Race
celebrated America's Moon landings, which began 11 years after NASA was created during Eisenhower's presidency]]
Eisenhower and the CIA had known since at least January 1957, nine months before Sputnik, that Russia had the capability to launch a small payload into orbit and was likely to do so within a year.
Eisenhower's support of the nation's fledgling space program was officially modest until the Soviet launch of Sputnik in 1957, gaining the Cold War enemy enormous prestige. He then launched a national campaign that funded not just space exploration but a major strengthening of science and higher education. The Eisenhower administration determined to adopt a non-aggressive policy that would allow "space-crafts of any state to overfly all states, a region free of military posturing and launch Earth satellites to explore space". His Open Skies Policy attempted to legitimize illegal Lockheed U-2 flyovers and Project Genetrix while paving the way for spy satellite technology to orbit over sovereign territory, but Nikolai Bulganin and Nikita Khrushchev declined Eisenhower's proposal at the Geneva conference in July 1955. In response to Sputnik being launched in October 1957, Eisenhower created NASA as a civilian space agency in October 1958, signed a landmark science education law, and improved relations with American scientists.
Fear spread through the United States that the Soviet Union would invade and spread communism, so Eisenhower wanted to not only create a surveillance satellite to detect any threats but ballistic missiles that would protect the United States. In strategic terms, it was Eisenhower who devised the American basic strategy of nuclear deterrence based upon the triad of strategic bombers, land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs).
NASA planners projected that human spaceflight would pull the United States ahead in the Space Race; however, in 1960, an Ad Hoc Panel on Man-in-Space concluded that "man-in-space can not be justified" and was too costly. Eisenhower later resented the space program and its gargantuan price tag—he was quoted as saying, "Anyone who would spend $40 billion in a race to the moon for national prestige is nuts."
Korean War, Free China and Red China
In late 1952, Eisenhower went to Korea and discovered a military and political stalemate. Once in office, when the Chinese People's Volunteer Army began a buildup in the Kaesong sanctuary, he considered using nuclear weapons if an armistice was not reached. Whether China was informed of the potential for nuclear force is unknown. His earlier military reputation in Europe was effective with the Chinese communists. The National Security Council, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Strategic Air Command (SAC) devised detailed plans for nuclear war against Red China. With the death of Stalin in March 1953, Russian support for a Chinese communist hard-line weakened and China decided to compromise on the prisoner issue.
, and Baik Seon-yup, 1952]]
In July 1953, an armistice took effect with Korea divided along approximately the same boundary as in 1950. The armistice and boundary remain in effect today. The armistice, which concluded despite opposition from Secretary Dulles, South Korean President Syngman Rhee, and also within Eisenhower's party, has been described by biographer Stephen E. Ambrose as the greatest achievement of the administration. Eisenhower had the insight to realize that unlimited war in the nuclear age was unthinkable, and limited war unwinnable. Throughout his terms Eisenhower took a hard-line attitude toward China, as demanded by conservative Republicans, with the goal of driving a wedge between China and the Soviet Union.
Eisenhower continued Truman's policy of recognizing the Republic of China (Taiwan) as the legitimate government of China, not the Peking (Beijing) regime. There were localized flare-ups when the People's Liberation Army began shelling the islands of Quemoy and Matsu in September 1954. Eisenhower received recommendations embracing every variation of response; he thought it essential to have every possible option available to him as the crisis unfolded.
The Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty with the Republic of China was signed in December 1954. He requested and secured from Congress their "Free China Resolution" in January 1955, which gave Eisenhower unprecedented power in advance to use military force at any level in defense of Free China and the Pescadores. The Resolution bolstered the morale of the Chinese nationalists and signaled to Beijing that the US was committed to holding the line. These threats prompted Mao Zedong to launch China's nuclear weapons program. Defense of the Republic of China from an invasion remains a core American policy.
China invited some American reporters to China in 1956, having previously ousted American reporters after the PRC's founding. Eisenhower upheld the US ban on travel to China. Chief of Staff Matthew Ridgway dissuaded the President from intervening by presenting a comprehensive estimate of the massive military deployment that would be necessary. Eisenhower stated prophetically that "this war would absorb our troops by divisions."
Eisenhower did provide France with bombers and non-combat personnel. After a few months with no success by the French, he added other aircraft to drop napalm for clearing purposes. Further requests for assistance from the French were agreed to but only on conditions Eisenhower knew were impossible to meet – allied participation and congressional approval. When the French fortress of Dien Bien Phu fell to the Vietnamese Communists in May 1954, Eisenhower refused to intervene despite urging from the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs, the Vice President and the head of NCS.
Eisenhower responded to the French defeat with the formation of the SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) Alliance with the UK, France, New Zealand and Australia in defense of Vietnam against communism. At that time the French and Chinese reconvened the Geneva peace talks; Eisenhower agreed the US would participate only as an observer. After France and the Communists agreed to a partition of Vietnam, Eisenhower rejected the agreement, offering military and economic aid to southern Vietnam. Ambrose argues that Eisenhower, by not participating in the Geneva agreement, had kept the US out of Vietnam; nevertheless, with the formation of SEATO, he had put the US back into the conflict.
In late 1954, Gen. J. Lawton Collins was made ambassador to "Free Vietnam", effectively elevating the country to sovereign status. Collins' instructions were to support the leader Ngo Dinh Diem in subverting communism, by helping him to build an army and wage a military campaign. In February 1955, Eisenhower dispatched the first American soldiers to Vietnam as military advisors to Diem's army. After Diem announced the formation of the Republic of Vietnam (commonly known as South Vietnam) in October, Eisenhower immediately recognized the new state and offered military, economic, and technical assistance.
In the years that followed, Eisenhower increased the number of US military advisors in South Vietnam to 900. This was due to North Vietnam's support of "uprisings" in the south and concern the nation would fall.
After the election of November 1960, Eisenhower, in a briefing with John F. Kennedy, pointed out the communist threat in Southeast Asia as requiring prioritization in the next administration. Eisenhower told Kennedy he considered Laos "the cork in the bottle" with regard to the regional threat.
Legitimation of Francoist Spain
and Eisenhower in Madrid in 1959]]
The Pact of Madrid, signed on September 23, 1953, by Francoist Spain and the United States, was a significant effort to break international isolation of Spain, together with the Concordat of 1953. This development came at a time when other victorious Allies and much of the rest of the world remained hostile to a fascist regime sympathetic to the cause of the former Axis powers and established with Nazi assistance. This accord took the form of three separate executive agreements that pledged the United States to furnish economic and military aid to Spain.
Middle East and Eisenhower doctrine
(1959)]]
Even before he was inaugurated Eisenhower accepted a request from the British government to restore the Shah of Iran (Mohammad Reza Pahlavi) to power. He therefore authorized the CIA to overthrow Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh. This resulted in increased strategic control over Iranian oil by American and British companies.
In November 1956, Eisenhower forced an end to the combined British, French and Israeli invasion of Egypt in response to the Suez Crisis, receiving praise from Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser. Simultaneously he condemned the brutal Soviet invasion of Hungary in response to the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. He publicly disavowed his allies at the United Nations and used financial and diplomatic pressure to make them withdraw from Egypt. Eisenhower explicitly defended his strong position against Britain and France in his memoirs, published in 1965.
After the Suez Crisis, the United States became the protector of unstable friendly governments in the Middle East via the "Eisenhower Doctrine". Designed by Secretary of State Dulles, it held the US would be "prepared to use armed force ... [to counter] aggression from any country controlled by international communism". Further, the US would provide economic and military aid and, if necessary, use military force to stop the spread of communism in the Middle East.
Eisenhower applied the doctrine in 1957–1958 by dispensing economic aid to Jordan, and by encouraging Syria's neighbors to consider military operations against it. More dramatically, in July 1958, he sent 15,000 Marines and soldiers to Lebanon as part of Operation Blue Bat, a non-combat peacekeeping mission to stabilize the pro-Western government and to prevent a radical revolution. The Marines departed three months later. Washington considered the military intervention successful since it brought about regional stability, weakened Soviet influence, and intimidated the Egyptian and Syrian governments, whose anti-West political position had hardened after the Suez Crisis.
As the Cold War deepened, Dulles sought to isolate the Soviet Union by building regional alliances against it. Critics sometimes called it "pacto-mania". 1960 U-2 incident Civil rights While President Truman's 1948 Executive Order 9981 had begun the process of desegregating the Armed Forces, actual implementation had been slow. Eisenhower made clear his stance in his first State of the Union address in February 1953, saying "I propose to use whatever authority exists in the office of the President to end segregation in the District of Columbia, including the Federal Government, and any segregation in the Armed Forces". When he encountered opposition from the services, he used government control of military spending to force the change through, stating "Wherever Federal Funds are expended ..., I do not see how any American can justify ... a discrimination in the expenditure of those funds". When Robert B. Anderson, Eisenhower's first Secretary of the Navy, argued that the US Navy must recognize the "customs and usages prevailing in certain geographic areas of our country which the Navy had no part in creating," Eisenhower overruled him: "We have not taken and we shall not take a single backward step. There must be no second class citizens in this country."
The administration declared racial discrimination a national security issue, as Communists around the world used the racial discrimination and history of violence in the US as a point of propaganda attack.
Eisenhower told Washington, D.C. officials to make the city a model for the rest of the country in integrating black and white public-school children. He proposed to Congress the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and of 1960 and signed those acts into law. The 1957 act for the first time established a permanent civil rights office inside the Justice Department and a Civil Rights Commission to hear testimony about abuses of voting rights. Although both acts were much weaker than subsequent civil rights legislation, they constituted the first significant civil rights acts since 1875.
In 1957, Arkansas refused to honor a federal court order to integrate their public school system stemming from the Brown decision. Eisenhower demanded that Arkansas governor Orval Faubus obey the court order. When Faubus balked, the president placed the Arkansas National Guard under federal control and sent in the 101st Airborne Division. They protected nine black students' entry to Little Rock Central High School, an all-white public school, marking the first time since the Reconstruction Era the federal government had used federal troops in the South to enforce the Constitution. Martin Luther King Jr. wrote to Eisenhower to thank him for his actions, writing "The overwhelming majority of southerners, Negro and white, stand firmly behind your resolute action to restore law and order in Little Rock". with Eisenhower issuing Executive Order 10450 in his first year in office in 1953. The order subjected all federal employees to invasive in-depth investigations and interviews of their friends and family in a witch hunt to fire (in large part) lesbian, gay, and bisexual federal employees. The indifference of Eisenhower to the extreme application of his order allowed for mass persecution of queer people within federal agencies, resulting in thousands of job losses, public outing of sexual orientation, and some suicides. During Eisenhower's two presidency terms, thousands of applicants were barred from federal employment and over 5,000 to 10,000 federal employees were fired under suspicions of being homosexual. Relations with Congress Eisenhower had a Republican Congress for only his first two years in office; in the Senate, Republicans held the majority by a one-vote margin. Despite being Eisenhower's political opponent for the 1952 Republican presidential nomination, Senator Majority Leader Robert A. Taft assisted Eisenhower a great deal by promoting the President's proposals among the "Old Guard" Republican Senators. Taft's death in July 1953—six months into Eisenhower's presidency—affected Eisenhower both personally and professionally. The President noted he had lost "a dear friend" with Taft's passing. Eisenhower disliked Taft's successor as Majority Leader, Senator William Knowland, and the relationship between the two men led to tension between the Senate and the White House.
This prevented Eisenhower from openly condemning Joseph McCarthy's highly criticized methods against communism. To facilitate relations with Congress, Eisenhower decided to ignore McCarthy's controversies and thereby deprive them of more energy from the involvement of the White House. This position drew criticism from a number of corners. In late 1953, McCarthy declared on national television that the employment of communists within the government was a menace and would be a pivotal issue in the 1954 Senate elections. Eisenhower was urged to respond directly and specify the various measures he had taken to purge the government of communists.
Among Eisenhower's objectives in not directly confronting McCarthy was to prevent McCarthy from dragging the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) into McCarthy's witchhunt, which might interfere with the AEC's work on hydrogen bombs and other weapons programs. In December 1953, Eisenhower learned that nuclear scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer had been accused of being a spy for the Soviet Union. Although Eisenhower never really believed these allegations, in January 1954 he ordered that "a blank wall" be placed between Oppenheimer and all defense-related activities. The Oppenheimer security hearing later that year resulted in the physicist losing his security clearance. The matter was controversial at the time and remained so in later years, with Oppenheimer achieving a certain martyrdom. Eisenhower later suffered a major political defeat when his nomination of Strauss to be Secretary of Commerce was defeated in the Senate in 1959, in part due to Strauss's role in the Oppenheimer matter.
In May 1955, McCarthy threatened to issue subpoenas to White House personnel. Eisenhower was furious, and issued an order as follows: "It is essential to efficient and effective administration that employees of the Executive Branch be in a position to be completely candid in advising with each other on official matters ... it is not in the public interest that any of their conversations or communications, or any documents or reproductions, concerning such advice be disclosed." This was an unprecedented step by Eisenhower to protect communication beyond the confines of a cabinet meeting, and soon became a tradition known as executive privilege. Eisenhower's denial of McCarthy's access to his staff reduced McCarthy's hearings to rants about trivial matters and contributed to his ultimate downfall.
In early 1954, the Old Guard put forward a constitutional amendment, called the Bricker Amendment, which would curtail international agreements by the Chief Executive, such as the Yalta Agreements. Eisenhower opposed the measure. The Old Guard agreed with Eisenhower on the development and ownership of nuclear reactors by private enterprises, which the Democrats opposed. The President succeeded in getting legislation creating a system of licensure for nuclear plants by the AEC.
The Democrats gained a majority in both houses in the 1954 election. Eisenhower had to work with the Democratic Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson (later US president) in the Senate and Speaker Sam Rayburn in the House. Joe Martin, the Republican Speaker from 1947 to 1949 and again from 1953 to 1955, wrote that Eisenhower "never surrounded himself with assistants who could solve political problems with professional skill. There were exceptions, Leonard W. Hall, for example, who as chairman of the Republican National Committee tried to open the administration's eyes to the political facts of life, with occasional success. However, these exceptions were not enough to right the balance."
Speaker Martin concluded that Eisenhower worked too much through subordinates in dealing with Congress, with results, "often the reverse of what he has desired" because Members of Congress, "resent having some young fellow who was picked up by the White House without ever having been elected to office himself coming around and telling them 'The Chief wants this'. The administration never made use of many Republicans of consequence whose services in one form or another would have been available for the asking."
Judicial appointments
Supreme Court
Eisenhower appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:
* Earl Warren, 1953 (Chief Justice)
* John Marshall Harlan II, 1954
* William J. Brennan, 1956
* Charles Evans Whittaker, 1957
* Potter Stewart, 1958
Whittaker was unsuited for the role and retired in 1962, after Eisenhower's presidency had ended. Stewart and Harlan were conservative Republicans, while Brennan was a Democrat who became a leading voice for liberalism. In selecting a Chief Justice, Eisenhower looked for an experienced jurist who could appeal to liberals in the party as well as law-and-order conservatives, noting privately that Warren "represents the kind of political, economic, and social thinking that I believe we need on the Supreme Court ... He has a national name for integrity, uprightness, and courage that, again, I believe we need on the Court".
States admitted to the Union
Two states were admitted to the Union during Eisenhower's presidency.
* Alaska – January 3, 1959 (49th state)
* Hawaii – August 21, 1959 (50th state)
Health issues
Eisenhower began chain smoking cigarettes at West Point, often three or four packs a day. He joked that he "gave [himself] an order" to stop cold turkey in 1949. However, Evan Thomas says the true story was more complex. At first, he removed cigarettes and ashtrays, but that did not work. He told a friend:
He was the first president to release information about his health and medical records while in office, but people around him deliberately misled the public about his health. On September 24, 1955, while vacationing in Colorado, he had a serious heart attack. While convalescing at Building 500 Howard McCrum Snyder, his personal physician, misdiagnosed the symptoms as indigestion, and failed to call in help that was urgently needed. Snyder later falsified his own records to cover his blunder and to allow Eisenhower to imply that he was healthy enough to do his job.
The heart attack required six weeks' hospitalization, during which time Nixon, Dulles, and Sherman Adams assumed administrative duties and provided communication with the president. He was treated by Paul Dudley White, a cardiologist with a national reputation, who regularly informed the press of the president's progress. His physician recommended a second presidential term as essential to his recovery.
As a consequence of his heart attack, Eisenhower developed a left ventricular aneurysm, which caused a mild stroke during a cabinet meeting on November 25, 1957, when Eisenhower suddenly found himself unable to move his right hand or to speak. The president also suffered from Crohn's disease, which necessitated surgery for a bowel obstruction on June 9, 1956. To treat the intestinal block, surgeons bypassed about ten inches of his small intestine. His scheduled meeting with Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru was postponed so he could recover at his farm. He was still recovering from this operation during the Suez Crisis. Eisenhower's health issues forced him to give up smoking and make some changes to his diet, but he still drank alcohol. During a visit to England, he complained of dizziness and had to have his blood pressure checked on August 29, 1959; however, before dinner at prime ministerial manor house Chequers on the next day his physician, General Howard Snyder, recalled that Eisenhower "drank several gin-and-tonics, and one or two gins on the rocks ... three or four wines with the dinner".
Eisenhower's health during the last three years of his second term in office was relatively good. After leaving the White House, he suffered several additional and ultimately crippling heart attacks. A severe heart attack in August 1965 largely ended his participation in public affairs. a benign adrenalin-secreting tumor that may have made him more vulnerable to heart disease. Eisenhower had seven heart attacks from 1955 until his death.
In the 1960 election to choose his successor, Eisenhower endorsed Nixon over Democrat John F. Kennedy. He told friends, "I will do almost anything to avoid turning my chair and country over to Kennedy."
thumb|Eisenhower sharing a light moment
with President-elect John F. Kennedy during their meeting in the Oval Office at White House
On January 17, 1961, Eisenhower gave his final televised Address to the Nation from the Oval Office. In his farewell speech, Eisenhower raised the issue of the Cold War and role of the armed forces. He described the Cold War: "We face a hostile ideology global in scope, atheistic in character, ruthless in purpose and insidious in method ..." and warned about what he saw as unjustified government spending proposals. He continued with a warning that "we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military–industrial complex."
Post-presidency (1961–1969)
with Eisenhower aboard Air Force One in October 1965]]
Following the presidency, Eisenhower moved to the place where he and Mamie had spent much of their post-war time, a working farm adjacent to the battlefield at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. They also maintained a retirement home in Palm Desert, California.
After leaving office, Eisenhower did not completely retreat from political life. He flew to San Antonio, where he had been stationed years earlier, to support John W. Goode, the unsuccessful Republican candidate against the Democrat Henry B. Gonzalez for Texas's 20th congressional district seat. He addressed the 1964 Republican National Convention, in San Francisco, and appeared with party nominee Barry Goldwater in a campaign commercial. That endorsement came somewhat reluctantly, because Goldwater had in the late 1950s criticized Eisenhower's administration as "a dime-store New Deal". On January 20, 1969, the day Nixon was inaugurated as President, Eisenhower issued a statement praising his former vice president and calling it a "day for rejoicing".
Death
At 12:25 p.m. on March 28, 1969, Eisenhower died from congestive heart failure at Walter Reed Army Medical Center in Washington, D.C., at age 78. His last words were: "I've always loved my wife, my children, and my grandchildren, and I've always loved my country. I want to go. God, take me." The following day, his body was moved to the Washington National Cathedral's Bethlehem Chapel, where he lay in repose for 28 hours. He was then transported to the United States Capitol, where he lay in state in the Capitol Rotunda on March 30 and 31. A state funeral was conducted at the Washington National Cathedral on March 31. The president and First Lady, Richard and Pat Nixon, attended, as did former president Lyndon B. Johnson. Former President Harry S. Truman was unable to attend due to having vacation. Also among the 2,000 guests that were invited were the UN Secretary-General U Thant and 191 foreign delegates from 78 countries, including 10 foreign heads of state and government. Guests included President Charles de Gaulle of France, who was in the United States for the first time since the state funeral of John F. Kennedy, Chancellor Kurt-Georg Kiesinger of West Germany, King Baudouin of Belgium and Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran. That evening, Eisenhower's body was placed onto a special funeral train for its journey from the capital to his hometown of Abilene, Kansas. First incorporated into President Abraham Lincoln's funeral in 1865, a funeral train would not be part of a US state funeral again until 2018. on 2 April 1969 Eisenhower is buried inside the Place of Meditation, the chapel on the grounds of the Eisenhower Presidential Center in Abilene. As requested, he was buried in a Government Issue casket, wearing his World War II uniform, decorated with Army Distinguished Service Medal with three oak leaf clusters, Navy Distinguished Service Medal, and the Legion of Merit. Buried alongside Eisenhower are his son Doud, who died at age 3 in 1921, and wife Mamie, who died in 1979.}}
Legacy and memory
Public and scholarly assessments
by Jim Brothers stands in the rotunda of the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C.]]
During his two terms as president, Eisenhower's approval ratings were consistently high, only briefly falling below 50 percent in 1958 and again in 1960. His overall average of 63 percent in the Gallup poll remains the second highest in history. With the popularity of his successor, John F. Kennedy, Eisenhower's reputation declined in the years after he left office. He was widely seen by critics as an inactive, uninspiring, golf-playing president, which was in stark contrast to Kennedy, who was 26 years his junior. Critics also compared Eisenhower with the likes of Calvin Coolidge as a "do nothing president". Despite his unprecedented use of Army troops to enforce a federal desegregation order at Central High School in Little Rock, Eisenhower was criticized for his reluctance to support the civil rights movement to the degree that activists wanted. Eisenhower also attracted criticism for his handling of the 1960 U-2 incident and the associated international embarrassment, for the Soviet Union's perceived leadership in the nuclear arms race and the Space Race, and for his failure to publicly oppose McCarthyism. In particular, Eisenhower was criticized for failing to defend George C. Marshall from attacks by Joseph McCarthy, though he privately deplored McCarthy's tactics.
Following the access of Eisenhower's private papers, his reputation changed amongst presidential historians. Historian John Lewis Gaddis has summarized a more recent turnaround in evaluations by historians:
Since 1982, scholars and historians have typically ranked Eisenhower among the ten best US presidents. Rexford Tugwell, a top aide to Franklin Roosevelt, referred to Eisenhower as "the least partisan president since George Washington." Historian Garry Wills called Eisenhower "a political genius" for making difficult foreign policy goals "look easy" to the general public to prevent further stress.
Although he sought to slow or contain the New Deal and other federal programs, he did not attempt to repeal them outright. In doing so, Eisenhower was popular among the liberal wing of the Republican Party.
Since the 19th century, many if not all presidents were assisted by a central figure or "gatekeeper", sometimes described as the president's private secretary, sometimes with no official title. Eisenhower formalized this role, introducing the office of White House Chief of Staff – an idea he borrowed from the United States Army. Every president after Lyndon Johnson has appointed staff to this position.
As president, Eisenhower also initiated the "up or out" policy that still prevails in the US military. Officers who are passed over for promotion twice are then usually honorably but quickly discharged to make way for younger and more able officers.
On December 20, 1944, Eisenhower was appointed to the rank of General of the Army, placing him in the company of George Marshall, Henry "Hap" Arnold, and Douglas MacArthur, the only four men to achieve the rank in World War II. Along with Omar Bradley, they were the only five men to achieve the rank since the August 5, 1888, death of Philip Sheridan, and the only five men to hold the rank of five-star general. The rank was created by an Act of Congress on a temporary basis, when Public Law 78-482 was passed on December 14, 1944, as a temporary rank, subject to reversion to permanent rank six months after the end of the war. The temporary rank was declared permanent on March 23, 1946, by Public Law 333 of the 79th Congress, which also awarded full pay and allowances in the grade to those on the retired list. It was created to give the most senior American commanders parity of rank with their British counterparts holding the ranks of field marshal and admiral of the fleet.
Eisenhower founded People to People International in 1956, believing that citizen interaction would promote cultural interaction and world peace. The program includes a student ambassador component, which sends American youth on educational trips to other countries.
During his second term as president, Eisenhower awarded a series of specially designed US Mint presidential appreciation medals. Eisenhower presented the medal to individuals as an expression of his appreciation. The development of the appreciation medals was initiated by the White House and executed by the United States Mint, through the Philadelphia Mint. The medals were struck from September 1958 through October 1960. A total of twenty designs are cataloged with a total mintage of 9,858. Prior to the end of his second term as president, 1,451 medals were turned in to the Bureau of the Mint and destroyed.
Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy is a senior war college of the Department of Defense's National Defense University in Washington, DC. Eisenhower graduated from this school when it was known as the Army Industrial College.
Eisenhower was honored on the Eisenhower dollar, minted from 1971 to 1978. His centenary was honored on the Eisenhower commemorative dollar issued in 1990.
In 1969 four major record companies – ABC Records, MGM Records, Buddha Records and Caedmon Audio – released tribute albums in Eisenhower's honor.
In 1999, the United States Congress created the Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Commission, to create an enduring national memorial in Washington, D.C. In 2009 the commission chose the architect Frank Gehry to design the memorial. The groundbreaking ceremony of the memorial was held on November 3, 2017, and was dedicated on September 17, 2020. It stands on a site near the National Mall on Maryland Avenue, across the street from the National Air and Space Museum.
In December 1999 he was listed on Gallup's List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th century. In 2009 he was named to the World Golf Hall of Fame in the Lifetime Achievement category for his contributions to the sport. In 1973, he was inducted into the Hall of Great Westerners of the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum. On 27 October 2023, Fort Gordon was redesignated Fort Eisenhower.
Honors
Awards and decorations
awarded to Eisenhower]]
granted to Eisenhower upon his incorporation as a knight of the Danish Order of the Elephant in 1950. The anvil represents the fact that his name is derived from the German for "iron hewer", making these an example of canting arms.|alt=]]
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#ccf; text-align:center;"
| colspan2 |US military decorations
|-
|
|Army Distinguished Service Medal w/ 4 oak leaf clusters
|-
|
|Navy Distinguished Service Medal
|-
|
|Legion of Merit
|- style="background:#ccf; text-align:center;"
| colspan2 |US service medals
|-
|
|Order of the Liberator San Martin, Grand Cross (Argentina)
|-
|
|Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold with Sash (Austria)
|-
|
|Order of Leopold, Grand Cordon (Belgium) – 1945
|-
|
| w/ palm (Belgium)
|-
|
|Order of the Southern Cross, Grand Cross (Brazil)
|-
|
|Order of Military Merit (Brazil), Grand Cross
|-
|
|Order of Aeronautical Merit, Grand Cross (Brazil)
|-
|
|War Medal (Brazil)
|-
|
|Campaign Medal (Brazil)
|-
|
|Order of Merit, Grand Cross (Chile)
|-
|
|Order of the Cloud and Banner, with Special Grand Cordon, (China)
|-
|
|Military Order of the White Lion, Grand Cross (Czechoslovakia)
|-
|
|War Cross 1939–1945 (Czechoslovakia)
|-
|
|Order of the Elephant, Knight (Denmark) – December 15, 1945
|-
|
|Order of Abdon Calderón, First Class (Ecuador)
|-
|
|Order of Ismail, Grand Cordon (Egypt)
|-
|
|Order of Solomon, Knight Grand Cross with Cordon (Ethiopia)
|-
|
|Order of the Queen of Sheba, Member (Ethiopia)
|-
|
|Legion of Honour, Grand Cross (France) – 1943
|-
|
|Order of Liberation, Companion (France)
|-
|
|Military Medal (France)
|-
|
|Croix de guerre w/ palm (France)
|-
|
|Royal Order of George I, Knight Grand Cross with Swords (Greece)
|-
|
|Order of the Redeemer, Knight Grand Cross (Greece)
|-
|
|Cross of Military Merit, First Class (Guatemala)
|-
|
|National Order of Honour and Merit, Grand Cross with Gold Badge (Haiti)
|-
|
|Order of the Holy Sepulchre, Knight Grand Cross (Holy See)
|-
|
|Military Order of Italy, Knight Grand Cross (Italy)
|-
|
|Order of the Chrysanthemum, Collar (Japan)
|-
|
|Order of the Oak Crown, Grand Cross (Luxembourg)
|-
|
|Military Medal (Luxembourg)
|-
|
|Order pro merito Melitensi, KGC (Sovereign Military Order of Malta)
|-
|
|Order of the Aztec Eagle, Collar (Mexico) – 1945
|-
|
|Medal of Military Merit (Mexico)
|-
|
|Medal of Civic Merit (Mexico)
|-
|
|Order of Muhammad, (Morocco)
|-
|
|Order of Ouissam Alaouite, Grand Cross (Morocco)
|-
|
|Order of the Netherlands Lion, Knight Grand Cross (Netherlands) – October 6, 1945
|-
|
|Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav, Grand Cross (Norway)
|-
|
|Order of Nishan-e-Pakistan, First Class (Pakistan) – December 7, 1957
|-
|
|Order of Manuel Amador Guerrero, Grand Officer (Panama)
|-
|
|Orden Vasco Núñez de Balboa, Grand Cross (Panama)
|-
|
|Order of Sikatuna, Grand Collar (Philippines)
|-
|
|Legion of Honor (Philippines), Chief Commander (Philippines)
|-
|
|Distinguished Service Star, (Philippines)
|-
|
|Order of Polonia Restituta, Grand Cross (Poland)
|-
|
|Order of Virtuti Militari, First Class (Poland)
|-
|
|Cross of Grunwald, First Class (Poland)
|-
|
|Order of the Royal House of Chakri, Knight (Thailand)
|-
|
|Order of Glory, Grand Cordon (Tunisia)
|-
|
|Order of the Bath, Knight Grand Cross (United Kingdom)
* Military Division 1945
* Civil Division 1957
|-
|
|Order of Merit (United Kingdom)
* Member Military Division June 12, 1945
|-
|
|Africa Star, with 8th Army clasp (United Kingdom)
|-
|
|War Medal 1939–1945 (United Kingdom)
|-
|
|Order of Victory (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics)
|-
|
|Order of Suvorov First Class (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics)
* Freedom of the City of Belfast on August 24, 1945
* Freedom of the City of Edinburgh in 1946
* Freedom of the Burgh of Maybole in October 1946Honorary degrees
Eisenhower received many honorary degrees from universities and colleges around the world. These included:
{| class"wikitable" style"width:100%;"
! style="width:20%;"| Location
! style="width:20%;"| Date
! style="width:40%;"| School
! style="width:20%;"| Degree
! style="width:20%;"| Gave commencement address
|-
| || August 24, 1945 || Queen's University Belfast || Doctor of Laws (LL.D) ||
|-
| || 1945 || University of Oxford || Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) ||
|-
| || 1946 || Harvard University || Doctor of Laws (LL.D) ||
|-
| || 1946 || Gettysburg College || Doctorate ||
|-
| || 1946 || University of Toronto || Doctor of Laws (LL.D) ||
|-
| || 1947 || University of Pennsylvania || Doctor of Laws (LL.D) ||
|-
| || 1948 || Yale University || Doctor of Laws (LL.D) ||
|-
| || 1950 || Hofstra University || Doctorate ||
|-
| || June 14, 1953 || Dartmouth College || Doctorate || Yes
|-
| || November 19, 1953 || Catholic University of America || Doctor of Laws (LL.D) ||
|-
| || 1953 || College of William and Mary || Doctor of Laws (LL.D) ||
|-
| || 1954 || Northwestern University || Doctor of Laws (LL.D) ||
|-
| || June 7, 1954 || Washington College || Doctor of Laws (LL.D) || Yes
|-
| || 1958 || Johns Hopkins University || Doctor of Laws (LL.D) ||
|-
| || December 17, 1959 || University of Delhi || Doctor of Laws (LL.D) ||
|-
| || June 5, 1960 || University of Notre Dame || Doctor of Laws (LL.D) ||
|-
| || June 20, 1964 || Bard College || Doctor of Laws (LL.D) ||
|-
| || 1965 || Grinnell College || Doctor of Laws (LL.D) ||
|-
| || October 5, 1965 || Ohio University || Doctor of Humane Letters (DHL) || Yes
|-
|}
Promotions
{|class"wikitable" style"background:white"
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|No insignia
|Cadet, United States Military Academy: June 14, 1911
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|No pin insignia in 1915
|Second Lieutenant, Regular Army: June 12, 1915
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
|First Lieutenant, Regular Army: July 1, 1916
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
|Captain, Regular Army: May 15, 1917
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
|Major, National Army: June 17, 1918
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
|Lieutenant Colonel, National Army: October 20, 1918
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
|Captain, Regular Army: June 30, 1920<br />(Reverted to permanent rank.)
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
|Major, Regular Army: July 2, 1920
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
|Captain, Regular Army: November 4, 1922<br />(Discharged as major and appointed as captain due to reduction of Army.)
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
|Major, Regular Army: August 26, 1924
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
|Lieutenant Colonel, Regular Army: July 1, 1936
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
|Colonel, Army of the United States: March 6, 1941
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
|Brigadier General, Army of the United States: September 29, 1941<br />(temporary)
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
|Major General, Army of the United States: March 27, 1942<br />(temporary)
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
|Lieutenant General, Army of the United States: July 7, 1942<br />(temporary)
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
|General, Army of the United States: February 11, 1943<br />(temporary)
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
|Brigadier General, Regular Army: August 30, 1943
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
|Major General, Regular Army: August 30, 1943
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
|General of the Army, Army of the United States: December 20, 1944
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|
|General of the Army, Regular Army: April 11, 1946
|}
See also
* "And I don't care what it is", phrase on religion by Eisenhower, 1952
* Atoms for Peace, speech to the UN General Assembly, 1953
* Committee on Scientists and Engineers
* Eisenhower baseball controversy
* Eisenhower method for time management
* Eisenhower National Historic Site
* Eisenhower Presidential Center
* Ike: Countdown to D-Day, American television film, 2004
* Kay Summersby, chauffeur and secretary
* People to People Student Ambassador Program
General:
* Historical rankings of presidents of the United States
* History of the United States (1945–1964)
* List of presidents of the United States
* List of presidents of the United States by previous experience
Notes
References
Citations
Print sources
General biographies
*
*
*
*
* Krieg, Joann P. ed. (1987). Dwight D. Eisenhower, Soldier, President, Statesman. 24 essays by scholars.
* , popular history.
*
*
* , popular history Military career * |title The Supreme Commander|isbn 9780307946638|last1 Ambrose|first1 Stephen E.|date January 17, 2012| publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing }}
*
* Eisenhower, David (1986). Eisenhower at War 1943–1945, Random House. . A detailed study by his grandson.
* Eisenhower, John S. D. (2003). General Ike, Free Press. , by his son.
* Hatch, Alden. General Eisenhower (1944) [https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.523343 online], early popular biography.
* |date1999|publisherJohns Hopkins University Press |isbn0801862191}}
* Irish, Kerry E. "Apt Pupil: Dwight Eisenhower and the 1930 Industrial Mobilization Plan", The Journal of Military History 70.1 (2006) 31–61 online in Project Muse.
*
* }}
*
* |isbn=0253133335}}
* Civilian career *
*
*
* Damms, Richard V. (2002). The Eisenhower Presidency, 1953–1961
* David Paul T., ed. (1954). Presidential Nominating Politics in 1952. 5 vols., Johns Hopkins Press.
* Divine, Robert A. (1981). Eisenhower and the Cold War.
* Gellman, Irwin F. (2015). The President and the Apprentice: Eisenhower and Nixon, 1952–1961. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
* Greenstein, Fred I. (1991). The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader. Basic Books.
* Harris, Douglas B. "Dwight Eisenhower and the New Deal: The Politics of Preemption", Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 27, 1997.
* Harris, Seymour E. (1962). The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy.
*
*
* Mason, Robert. "War Hero in the White House: Dwight Eisenhower and the Politics of Peace, Prosperity, and Party." in Profiles in Power (Brill, 2020) pp. 112–128.
* Medhurst, Martin J. (1993). Dwight D. Eisenhower: Strategic Communicator. Greenwood Press.
* Mayer, Michael S. (2009). The Eisenhower Years Facts on File.
* Newton, Jim. (2011) Eisenhower: The White House Years
* Pach, Chester J., and Richardson, Elmo (1991). Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. University Press of Kansas.
*
*
* Watry, David M. (2014). Diplomacy at the Brink: Eisenhower, Churchill and Eden in the Cold War. Louisiana State University Press.
General history
*
*
*
*
*
Primary sources
* Boyle, Peter G., ed. (1990). The Churchill–Eisenhower Correspondence, 1953–1955. University of North Carolina Press.
* Boyle, Peter G., ed. (2005). The Eden–Eisenhower correspondence, 1955–1957. University of North Carolina Press.
* Butcher, Harry C. (1946). My Three Years With Eisenhower The Personal Diary of Captain Harry C. Butcher, USNR, candid memoir by a top aide. [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.284625 online]
* Eisenhower, Dwight D. (1948). Crusade in Europe, his war memoirs.
*
* Eisenhower, Dwight D. (1965). The White House Years: Waging Peace 1956–1961, Doubleday and Co.
* Eisenhower Papers 21-volume scholarly edition; complete for 1940–1961.
* Summersby, Kay (1948). Eisenhower Was My Boss, Prentice Hall; (1949) Dell paperback.
External links
<!---->
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<!---->
* [https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/dwight-d-eisenhower/ White House biography]
* [https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/ Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum]
* [http://www.nps.gov/eise/index.htm Eisenhower National Historic Site]
* [http://eisenhowerfoundation.net/ Eisenhower Foundation]
* [https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/eisenhowers/speeches Major speeches of Dwight Eisenhower]
*
* [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/eisenhower/index.html Dwight D. Eisenhower: A Resource Guide] from the Library of Congress
* [http://millercenter.org/president/eisenhower Extensive essays on Dwight Eisenhower] and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs
* [http://www.c-span.org/video/?151630-1/life-portrait-dwight-d-eisenhower "Life Portrait of Dwight D. Eisenhower"], from C-SPAN's American Presidents: Life Portraits, October 25, 1999
*
*
*
}}
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower
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Dejima
|
|name = Dejima
|country = Japan
|location = Nagasaki
|image_map = Plattegrond van Deshima.jpg
|image_map_caption = An imagined bird's-eye view of Dejima's layout and structures (copied from a woodblock print by Toshimaya Bunjiemon of 1780 and published in Isaac Titsingh's (1824/25)
}}
collection)]]
in Leiden]]
|leadyes}} or Deshima, in the 17th century also called }}, was an artificial island off Nagasaki, Japan, that served as a trading post for the Portuguese (1570–1639) and subsequently the Dutch (1641–1858). For 220 years, it was the central conduit for foreign trade and cultural exchange with Japan during the isolationist Edo period (1600–1869), and the only Japanese territory open to Westerners.
Spanning or , Dejima was created in 1636 by digging a canal through a small peninsula and linking it to the mainland with a small bridge. The island was constructed by the Tokugawa shogunate, whose isolationist policies sought to preserve the existing sociopolitical order by forbidding outsiders from entering Japan while prohibiting most Japanese from leaving. Dejima housed European merchants and separated them from Japanese society while still facilitating lucrative trade with the West.
Following a rebellion by mostly Catholic converts, the Portuguese were expelled in 1639. The Dutch were moved to Dejima in 1641, under stricter control and scrutiny, and segregated from Japanese society. The open practice of Christianity was banned, and interactions between Dutch and Japanese traders were tightly regulated, with only a small number of foreign merchants being allowed to disembark in Dejima. Until the mid-19th century, the Dutch were the only Westerners with access to the Japanese markets. Dejima consequently played a key role in the Japanese movement of , an organized scholarly effort to learn the Dutch language in order to understand Western science, medicine, and technology.
After the 1854 Treaty of Kanagawa set a precedent for more fully opening Japan to foreign trade and diplomatic relations, the Dutch negotiated their own treaty in 1858, which ended Dejima's status as exclusive trading post, greatly reducing its importance. The island was eventually subsumed into Nagasaki city through land reclamation. In 1922, the "Dejima Dutch Trading Post" was designated a Japanese national historic site, and there are ongoing efforts in the 21st century to restore Dejima as an island.
History
In 1543, the history of direct contact between Japan and Europe began with the arrival of storm-blown Portuguese merchants on Tanegashima. Six years later the Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier landed in Kagoshima. At first Portuguese traders were based in Hirado, but they moved in search of a better port. In 1570 daimyō Ōmura Sumitada converted to Catholicism (choosing Bartolomeu as his Christian name) and made a deal with the Portuguese to develop Nagasaki; soon the port was open for trade.
In 1580 Sumitada gave the jurisdiction of Nagasaki to the Jesuits, and the Portuguese obtained the de facto monopoly on the silk trade with China through Macau. The shōgun Iemitsu ordered the construction of the artificial island in 1634, to accommodate the Portuguese traders living in Nagasaki and prevent the propagation of their religion. This was one of the many edicts put forth by Iemitsu between 1633 and 1639 moderating contact between Japan and other countries. However, in response to the uprising of the predominantly Christian population in the Shimabara-Amakusa region, the Tokugawa government decided to expel the Portuguese in 1639.
Since 1609, the Dutch East India Company had run a trading post on the island of Hirado. The departure of the Portuguese left the Dutch employees of the "Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie" ("VOC") as the sole Westerners with trade access to Japan. For 33 years they were allowed to trade relatively freely. At its maximum, the covered a large area. In 1637 and 1639 stone warehouses were constructed within the ambit of this Hirado trading post. Christian-era year dates were used on the stonework of the new warehouses and these were used in 1640 as a pretext to demolish the buildings and relocate the trading post to Nagasaki.
With the expulsion of the last Portuguese in 1639, Dejima became a failed commercial post and without the annual trading with Portuguese ships from Macau, the economy of Nagasaki suffered greatly. The Dutch were forced by government officials to move from Hirado to Dejima in Nagasaki. From 1641 on, only Chinese and Dutch ships were allowed to come to Japan, and Nagasaki harbor was the only one they were allowed to enter.OrganizationOn the administrative level, the island of Dejima was part of the city of Nagasaki. The 25 local Japanese families who owned the land received an annual rent from the Dutch. Dejima was a small island, by , linked to the mainland by a small bridge, guarded on both sides, and with a gate on the Dutch side. It contained houses for about twenty Dutchmen, warehouses, and accommodation for Japanese officials.
The Dutch were watched by several Japanese officials, gatekeepers, night watchmen, and a with about fifty subordinates. Numerous merchants supplied goods and catering, and about 150 served. They all had to be paid by the VOC. As the city of Nagasaki, Dejima was under the direct supervision of Edo through a governor (Nagasaki bugyō).
Every ship that arrived in Dejima was inspected. Its sails were held by the Japanese until they released the ship to leave. They confiscated religious books and weapons. Christian churches were banned on the island and the Dutch were not allowed to hold any religious services.
Despite the financial burden of maintaining the isolated outpost on Dejima, the trade with Japan was very profitable for the Dutch, initially yielding profits of 50% or more. Trade declined in the 18th century, as only two ships per year were allowed to dock at Dejima. After the bankruptcy of the East-India Company in 1795, the Dutch government took over the exchange with Japan. Times were especially hard when the Netherlands, then called the Batavian Republic, was under French Napoleonic rule. All ties with the homeland were severed at Dejima, and for a while, it was the only place in the world where the Dutch flag was flown.
The chief VOC trading post officer in Japan was called the Opperhoofd by the Dutch, or Kapitan (from Portuguese capitão) by the Japanese. This descriptive title did not change when the VOC went bankrupt and trade with Japan was continued by the Dutch Indies government at Batavia. According to the Sakoku rules of the Tokugawa shogunate, the VOC had to transfer and replace the opperhoofd every year with a new one. And each opperhoofd was expected to travel to Edo to offer tribute to the shogun.TradeOriginally, the Dutch mainly traded in silk, cotton, and materia medica from China and India. Sugar became more important later. Deer pelts and shark skin were transported to Japan from Formosa, as well as books, scientific instruments and many other rarities from Europe. In return, the Dutch traders bought Japanese copper, silver, camphor, porcelain, lacquer ware, and rice.
To this was added the personal trade of VOC employees on Dejima, which was an important source of income for them and their Japanese counterparts. They sold more than 10,000 foreign books on various scientific subjects to the Japanese from the end of the 18th to the early 19th century. These became the basis of knowledge and a factor in the Rangaku movement, or Dutch studies.Ships
In all, 606 Dutch ships arrived at Dejima during its two centuries of settlement, from 1641 to 1847.
* The first period, from 1641 to 1671, was rather free and saw an average of seven Dutch ships every year (12 sank during this period).
* From 1671 to 1715, about five Dutch ships were allowed to visit Dejima every year.
* From 1715, only two ships were permitted every year, which was reduced to one ship in 1790, and again increased to two ships in 1799.
* During the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), in which the Netherlands was occupied by (and a satellite of) France, Dutch ships abstained from sailing to Japan directly due to the possibility of being captured by Royal Navy ships. They relied on "neutral" American and Danish ships. The Netherlands was annexed by Napoleon Bonaparte (1810–1813), while Britain captured several Dutch colonial possessions and after the 1811 invasion of Java, Dejima was the only place in the world where the Dutch flag still flew, as ordered by commissioner Hendrik Doeff.
* In 1815 the Dutch East Indies was returned to the control of the Netherlands and regular Dutch trading traffic was reestablished.
Trade policy
For two hundred years, foreign merchants were generally not allowed to cross from Dejima to Nagasaki. Japanese civilians were likewise banned from entering Dejima, except interpreters, cooks, carpenters, clerks and yūjo ("women of pleasure") from the Maruyama teahouses. The yūjo were handpicked from 1642 by the Japanese, often against their will. From the 18th century, there were some exceptions to this rule, especially following Tokugawa Yoshimune's doctrine of promoting European practical sciences. A few Oranda-yuki ("those who stay with the Dutch") were allowed to stay for longer periods, but they had to report regularly to the Japanese guard post. Once a year the Europeans were allowed to attend the festivities at the Suwa-Shrine under escort. Sometimes physicians such as Engelbert Kaempfer, Carl Peter Thunberg, and Philipp Franz von Siebold were called to high-ranking Japanese patients with the permission of the authorities. Starting in the 18th century, Dejima became known throughout Japan as a center of medicine, military science, and astronomy. Many samurai traveled there for "Dutch studies" (Rangaku).
The Opperhoofd was treated like the representative of a tributary state, which meant that he had to pay a visit of homage to the shōgun in Edo. The Dutch delegation traveled to Edo yearly between 1660 and 1790, and once every four years thereafter. This prerogative was denied to the Chinese traders. The lengthy travel to the shogunal court broke the boredom of the Dutch stay, but it was a costly affair. Government officials told them in advance and in detail which (expensive) gifts were expected at the court, such as astrolabes, a pair of glasses, telescopes, globes, medical instruments, medical books, or exotic animals and tropical birds.
In return, the Dutch delegation received some gifts from the shōgun. On arrival in Edo, the Opperhoofd and his retinue, usually his scribe and the factory physician, had to wait in the , their mandatory residence, until they were summoned at the court. During the reign of the somewhat eccentric shōgun Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, they were expected to perform Dutch dances and songs for the amusement of the shōgun after their official audience, according to Engelbert Kaempfer. But they also used the opportunity of their stay of about two to three weeks in the capital to exchange knowledge with learned Japanese and, under escort, to visit the town.
Allegations published in the late 17th and early 18th century that Dutch traders were required by the Shogunate to renounce their Christian faith and undergo the test of treading on a fumi-e, an image of Jesus or Mary, are thought by modern scholars to be propaganda arising from the Anglo-Dutch Wars.
New introductions to Japan
* Photography, first lessons in photography given to Japanese in 1856 by the physician of the island, Dr. J. K. van den Broek.
* Badminton, a sport that originated in India, was introduced by the Dutch during the 18th century; it is mentioned in the Sayings of the Dutch.
* Billiards were introduced in Japan on Dejima in 1764; it is noted as in the paintings of .
* Beer seems to have been introduced as imports during the period of isolation. The Dutch governor Doeff made his own beer in Nagasaki, following the disruption of trade during the Napoleonic Wars. Local production of beer started in Japan in 1880.
* Clover was introduced in Japan by the Dutch as packing material for fragile cargo. The Japanese called it , in reference to its white flowers.
* Coffee was introduced in Japan by the Dutch under the name Moka and koffie. The latter name appears in 18th-century Japanese books. Siebold refers to Japanese coffee amateurs in Nagasaki around 1823.
* Japan's oldest piano was introduced by Siebold in 1823, and later given to a tradesperson in the name of . The piano is today on display in the , Hagi City.
* Paint (Tar), used for ships, was introduced by the Dutch. The original Dutch name () was also adopted in Japanese, .
* Cabbage and tomatoes were introduced in the 17th century by the Dutch.
* Chocolate was introduced between 1789 and 1801; it is mentioned as a drink in the pleasure houses of Maruyama.
* A diving bell with air supply by a pump was bought from Hugh Morton & Co. at Leith Docks near Edinburgh in 1834.
Nagasaki Naval Training Center
, next to Dejima (in the background)]]
Following the forced opening of Japan by US Navy Commodore Perry in 1854, the Bakufu suddenly increased its interactions with Dejima in an effort to build up knowledge of Western shipping methods. The , a naval training institute, was established in 1855 by the government of the shōgun at the entrance of Dejima, to enable maximum interaction with Dutch naval know-how. The center was equipped with Japan's first steamship, the Kankō Maru, given by the government of the Netherlands the same year. The future Admiral Enomoto Takeaki was one of the students of the Training Center.ReconstructionThe Dutch East India Company's trading post at Dejima was abolished when Japan concluded the Treaty of Kanagawa with the United States in 1858. This ended Dejima's role as Japan's only window on the Western world during the era of national isolation. Since then, the island was expanded by reclaimed land and merged into Nagasaki. Extensive redesigning of Nagasaki Harbor in 1904 obscured its original location. The original footprint of Dejima Island has been marked by rivets; but as restoration progresses, the ambit of the island will be easier to see at a glance.
Dejima today is a work in progress. The island was designated a national historic site in 1922, but further steps were slow to follow. Restoration work was started in 1953, but that project languished.
Long-term planning intends that Dejima will again be surrounded by water on all four sides; its characteristic fan-shaped form and all of its embankment walls will be fully restored. This long-term plan will include large-scale urban redevelopment in the area. To make Dejima an island again will require rerouting the Nakashima River and moving a part of Route 499.
Chronology
* 1550: Portuguese ships visit Hirado.
* 1561: Following the murder of foreigners in the area of the Hirado clan, the Portuguese began to look for other ports to trade.
* 1570: Christian daimyō Ōmura Sumitada make a deal with the Portuguese to develop Nagasaki, six town blocks are built.
* 1571: Nagasaki Harbor is opened for trade, the first Portuguese ships enter.
* 1580: Ōmura Sumitada cedes jurisdiction over Nagasaki and Mogi to the Jesuits.
* 1588: Toyotomi Hideyoshi exerts direct control over Nagasaki, Mogi, and Urakami from the Jesuits.
* 1609: The Dutch East India Company opens a factory in Hirado. It closes in 1641 when it is moved to Dejima.
* 1612: Japan's feudal government decrees that Christian proselytizing on Bakufu lands is forbidden.
* 1616: All trade with foreigners except that with China is confined to Hirado and Nagasaki.
* 1634: The construction of Dejima begins.
* 1636: Dejima is completed; the Portuguese are interned on Dejima (Fourth National Isolation Edict).
* 1638: Shimabara Rebellion of Christian peasants is repressed with Dutch support, Christianity in Japan is repressed.
* 1639: Portuguese ships are prohibited from entering Japan. Consequently, the Portuguese are banished from Dejima.
* 1641: The Dutch East India Company Trading Post in Hirado is moved to Nagasaki.
* 1649: German surgeon Caspar Schamberger comes to Japan. Beginning of a lasting interest in Western style medicine.
* 1662: A shop is opened on Dejima to sell Imari porcelain.
* 1673: The English ship Return enters Nagasaki, but the shogunate refuses its request for trade.
* 1678: A bridge connecting Dejima with the shore is replaced with a stone bridge.
* 1690: German physician Engelbert Kaempfer comes to Dejima.
* 1696: Warehouses for secondary cargo reach completion on Dejima.
* 1698: The Nagasaki Kaisho (trade association) is founded.
* 1699: The Sea Gate is built at Dejima.
* 1707: Water pipes are installed on Dejima.
* 1775: Carl Thunberg starts his term as physician on Dejima.
* 1779: Surgeon Isaac Titsingh arrives for his first tour of duty as "Opperhoofd".
* 1798: Many buildings, including the Chief Factor's Residence, are destroyed by the Great Kansei Fire of Dejima.
* 1804: Russian Ambassador Nikolai Rezanov visits Nagasaki to request an exchange of trade between Japan and Imperial Russia.
* 1808: The Phaeton Incident occurs.
* 1823: German physician Philipp Franz von Siebold posted to Dejima.
Trading post chiefs (Opperhoofden)
Opperhoofd is a Dutch word (plural opperhoofden) which literally means 'supreme head'. The Japanese used to call the trading post chiefs kapitan which is derived from Portuguese capitão (cf. Latin caput, head). In its historical usage, the word is a gubernatorial title, comparable to the English Chief factor, for the chief executive officer of a Dutch factory in the sense of trading post, as led by a Factor, i.e. agent.
Notable opperhoofden at Hirado
* François Caron: 03.02.1639 – 13.02.1641 [Caron was last Opperhoofd at Hirado.]
Notable opperhoofden at Dejima
* François Caron: 03.02.1639 – 13.02.1641 [Caron was the first Opperhoofd in Dejima following the forced move from Hirado.]
* Zacharias Wagenaer [Wagener]: 01.11.1656 – 27.10.1657
* Zacharias Wagenaer [Wagener]: 22.10.1658 – 04.11.1659
* Andreas Cleyer [Andries]: 20.10.1682 -08.11.1683
* Andreas Cleyer: 17.10.1685 – 05.11.1686
* Hendrik Godfried Duurkoop: 23.11.1776 – 11.11.1777
* Isaac Titsingh: 29.11.1779 – 05.11.1780
* Isaac Titsingh: 24.11.1781 – 26.10.1783
* Isaac Titsingh: _.08.1784 – 30.11.1784
* Hendrik Doeff: 14.11.1803 – 06.12.1817
* Jan Cock Blomhoff: 06.12.1817 – 20.11.1823
* Janus Henricus Donker Curtius: 02.11.1852 – 28.02.1860
Gallery
<gallery widths"180px" heights"120px">
File:Dutchmen with Courtesans Nagasaki c1800.jpg|Dutchmen with Keiseis (Courtesans), Nagasaki, ca. 1800
File:HendrikDoeffJapan.jpg|Hendrik Doeff and a Balinese servant in Dejima, Japanese painting, ca. early 19th century
File:Nagasaki Dejima C1821.jpg|A monument erected in Dejima by Siebold to honor Kaempfer and Thunberg
File:Dejima-scale-model.jpg|A scale model of a Dutch trading post on display in Dejima (1995)
</gallery>
See also
* Dutch missions to Edo
* Japan–Netherlands relations
* Nanban trade
* List of Jesuit sites
* Sakoku
* The Thousand Autumns of Jacob de Zoet – Historical novel set in Dejima
* Nagasaki foreign settlement
* Thirteen Factories, a former area of Guangzhou, China, where the first foreign trade was allowed in the 18th century since the hai jin (海禁) ban on maritime activities.
* Baan Hollanda – Site of former Dutch settlement in Ayutthaya (Thailand), now a museum
* Ghost in the Shell: S.A.C. 2nd GIG – Much of the action centers on refugees who are settled on the island and eventually try to declare independence
* [https://geheugen.delpher.nl/en/geheugen/view?collngvn&identifierKONB16%3A452323282 Nagasaki saikenzu]. Hayashi Jiza'emon, publisher. 1830.
Notes
References
Bibliography
* Blomhoff, J. C. (2000). The Court Journey to the Shogun of Japan: From a Private Account by Jan Cock Blomhoff. Amsterdam
* Blussé, L. et al., eds. (1995–2001) The Deshima Dagregisters: Their Original Tables of Content. Leiden.
* Blussé, L. et al., eds. (2004). The Deshima Diaries Marginalia 1740–1800. Tokyo.
* Boxer. C. R. (1950). Jan Compagnie in Japan, 1600–1850: An Essay on the Cultural, Artistic, and Scientific Influence Exercised by the Hollanders in Japan from the Seventeenth to the Nineteenth Centuries. Den Haag.
* Caron, François. (1671). A True Description of the Mighty Kingdoms of Japan and Siam. London.
* Doeff, Hendrik. (1633). Herinneringen uit Japan. Amsterdam. [Doeff, H. "Recollections of Japan" ()]
* Edo-Tokyo Museum exhibition catalog. (2000). A Very Unique Collection of Historical Significance: The Kapitan (the Dutch Chief) Collection from the Edo Period—The Dutch Fascination with Japan. Catalog of "400th Anniversary Exhibition Regarding Relations between Japan and the Netherlands", a joint project of the Edo-Tokyo Museum, the City of Nagasaki, the National Museum of Ethnology, the National Natuurhistorisch Museum and the National Herbarium of the Netherlands in Leiden, Netherlands. Tokyo.
* Leguin, F. (2002). Isaac Titsingh (1745–1812): Een passie voor Japan, leven en werk van de grondlegger van de Europese Japanologie. Leiden.
* Mitchell, David (2010). The Thousand Autumns of Jacob de Zoet. London.
* ''Nederland's Patriciaat, Vol. 13 (1923). Den Haag.
* Screech, Timon. (2006). Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns: Isaac Titsingh and Japan, 1779–1822. London: RoutledgeCurzon.
* Siebold, P.F.v. (1897). Nippon. Würzburg / Leipzig.[http://www.unterstein.net/Toyoashihara-no-Chiaki-Nagaioaki-no-Mitsuho-no-Kuni/SieboldNippon.pdf Click link for full text in modern German]
* Titsingh, I. (1820). Mémoires et Anecdotes sur la Dynastie régnante des Djogouns, Souverains du Japon. Paris: Nepveau.
* Titsingh, I. (1822). Illustrations of Japan; consisting of Private Memoirs and Anecdotes of the reigning dynasty of The Djogouns, or Sovereigns of Japan''. London: Ackerman.
External links
*[https://nagasakidejima.jp/ Dejima official website](Japanese & English)
* [http://wolfgangmichel.web.fc2.com/serv/histmed/dejimasurgeons.htm Trading-post chiefs, surgeons, physicians and other employees at the VOC factories Hirado and Dejima]
* Hendrick Hamel in Japan: [http://Hendrick-Hamel.henny-savenije.pe.kr/henny/Deshima.htm Deshima, layout and building placement]
* [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Japan.htm#Dejima WorldStatesmen – Japan]
* New York Public Library Digital Gallery: Engelbert Kaempfer's map of Nagasaki harbor, 1727 [http://digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital/id?481279 Deshima location]
Category:Artificial islands of Japan
Category:Dutch East India Company
Category:Maritime history of the Dutch East India Company
Category:Former trading posts of the Dutch East India Company
Category:Buildings and structures associated with the Dutch East India Company
Category:Edo period
Category:History of Nagasaki
Category:1641 establishments in Japan
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Descriptive statistics
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A descriptive statistic (in the count noun sense) is a summary statistic that quantitatively describes or summarizes features from a collection of information, while descriptive statistics (in the mass noun sense) is the process of using and analysing those statistics. Descriptive statistics is distinguished from inferential statistics (or inductive statistics) by its aim to summarize a sample, rather than use the data to learn about the population that the sample of data is thought to represent. This generally means that descriptive statistics, unlike inferential statistics, is not developed on the basis of probability theory, and are frequently nonparametric statistics. Even when a data analysis draws its main conclusions using inferential statistics, descriptive statistics are generally also presented. For example, in papers reporting on human subjects, typically a table is included giving the overall sample size, sample sizes in important subgroups (e.g., for each treatment or exposure group), and demographic or clinical characteristics such as the average age, the proportion of subjects of each sex, the proportion of subjects with related co-morbidities, etc.
Some measures that are commonly used to describe a data set are measures of central tendency and measures of variability or dispersion. Measures of central tendency include the mean, median and mode, while measures of variability include the standard deviation (or variance), the minimum and maximum values of the variables, kurtosis and skewness.
Use in statistical analysis
Descriptive statistics provide simple summaries about the sample and about the observations that have been made. Such summaries may be either quantitative, i.e. summary statistics, or visual, i.e. simple-to-understand graphs. These summaries may either form the basis of the initial description of the data as part of a more extensive statistical analysis, or they may be sufficient in and of themselves for a particular investigation.
For example, the shooting percentage in basketball is a descriptive statistic that summarizes the performance of a player or a team. This number is the number of shots made divided by the number of shots taken. For example, a player who shoots 33% is making approximately one shot in every three. The percentage summarizes or describes multiple discrete events. Consider also the grade point average. This single number describes the general performance of a student across the range of their course experiences.
The use of descriptive and summary statistics has an extensive history and, indeed, the simple tabulation of populations and of economic data was the first way the topic of statistics appeared. More recently, a collection of summarisation techniques has been formulated under the heading of exploratory data analysis: an example of such a technique is the box plot.
In the business world, descriptive statistics provides a useful summary of many types of data. For example, investors and brokers may use a historical account of return behaviour by performing empirical and analytical analyses on their investments in order to make better investing decisions in the future.
Univariate analysis
Univariate analysis involves describing the distribution of a single variable, including its central tendency (including the mean, median, and mode) and dispersion (including the range and quartiles of the data-set, and measures of spread such as the variance and standard deviation). The shape of the distribution may also be described via indices such as skewness and kurtosis. Characteristics of a variable's distribution may also be depicted in graphical or tabular format, including histograms and stem-and-leaf display.
Bivariate and multivariate analysis
When a sample consists of more than one variable, descriptive statistics may be used to describe the relationship between pairs of variables. In this case, descriptive statistics include:
Cross-tabulations and contingency tables
Graphical representation via scatterplots
Quantitative measures of dependence
Descriptions of conditional distributions
The main reason for differentiating univariate and bivariate analysis is that bivariate analysis is not only a simple descriptive analysis, but also it describes the relationship between two different variables. Quantitative measures of dependence include correlation (such as Pearson's r when both variables are continuous, or Spearman's rho if one or both are not) and covariance (which reflects the scale variables are measured on). The slope, in regression analysis, also reflects the relationship between variables. The unstandardised slope indicates the unit change in the criterion variable for a one unit change in the predictor. The standardised slope indicates this change in standardised (z-score) units. Highly skewed data are often transformed by taking logarithms. The use of logarithms makes graphs more symmetrical and look more similar to the normal distribution, making them easier to interpret intuitively.
References
External links
Descriptive Statistics Lecture: University of Pittsburgh Supercourse: http://www.pitt.edu/~super1/lecture/lec0421/index.htm
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Demographic statistics
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Demographic statistics are measures of the characteristics of, or changes to, a population. Records of births, deaths, marriages, immigration and emigration and a regular census of population provide information that is key to making sound decisions about national policy.
A useful summary of such data is the population pyramid. It provides data about the sex and age distribution of the population in an accessible graphical format.
Another summary is called the life table. For a cohort of persons born in the same year, it traces and projects their life experiences from birth to death. For a given cohort, the proportion expected to survive each year (or decade in an abridged life table) is presented in tabular or graphical form.
The ratio of males to females by age indicates the consequences of differing mortality rates on the sexes. Thus, while values above one are common for newborns, the ratio dwindles until it is well below one for the older population.
Collection
National population statistics are usually collected by conducting a census. However, because these are usually huge logistical exercises, countries normally conduct censuses only once every five to 10 years. Even when a census is conducted it may miss counting everyone (known as undercount). Also, some people counted in the census may be recorded in a different place than where they usually live, because they are travelling, for example (this may result in overcounting). Consequently, raw census numbers are often adjusted to produce census estimates that identify such statistics as resident population, residents, tourists and other visitors, nationals and aliens (non-nationals). For privacy reasons, particularly when there are small counts, some census results may be rounded, often to the nearest ten, hundred, thousand and sometimes randomly up, down or to another small number such as within 3 of the actual count.
Between censuses, administrative data collected by various agencies about population events such as births, deaths, and cross-border migration may be used to produce intercensal estimates.
Population estimates and projections
Population estimates are usually derived from census and other administrative data. Population estimates are normally produced after the date the estimate is for.
Some estimates, such as the Usually resident population estimate who usually lives in a locality as at the census date, even though the census did not count them within that locality. Census questions usually include a questions about where a person usually lives, whether they are a resident or visitor, or also live somewhere else, to allow these estimates to be made.
Other estimates are concerned with estimating population on a particular date that is different from the census date, for example the middle or end of a calendar or financial year. These estimates often use birth and death records and migration data to adjust census counts for the changes that have happened since the census.
Population projections are produced in advance of the date they are for. They use time series analysis of existing census data and other sources of population information to forecast the size of future populations. Because there are unknown factors that may affect future population changes, population projections often incorporate high and low as well as expected values for future populations. Population projections are often recomputed after a census has been conducted. It depends on how the area is adjusted in a particular demarcation.
History
While many censuses were conducted in antiquity, there are few population statistics that survive. One example though can be found in the Bible, in chapter 1 of the Book of Numbers. Not only are the statistics given, but the method used to compile those statistics is also described. In modern-day terms, this metadata about the census is probably of as much value as the statistics themselves as it allows researchers to determine not only what was being counted but how and why it was done.
Metadata
Modern population statistics are normally accompanied by metadata that explains how the statistics have been compiled and adjusted to compensate for any collection issues.
Statistical sources
Most countries have a census bureau or government agency responsible for conducting censuses. Many of these agencies publish their country's census results and other population statistics on their agency's website.
See also
Demographic window
Census - Census Bureau, Census tract, Census block group, Census block.
Intercensal estimate
Population projection
References
Further reading
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Detective fiction
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Detective Story}}
examines a suspect's boots in an illustration to the 1891 story "The Boscombe Valley Mystery"]]
Detective fiction is a subgenre of crime fiction and mystery fiction in which an investigator or a detective—whether professional, amateur or retired—investigates a crime, often murder. The detective genre began around the same time as speculative fiction and other genre fiction in the mid-nineteenth century and has remained extremely popular, particularly in novels. Some of the most famous heroes of detective fiction include C. Auguste Dupin, Sherlock Holmes, Kogoro Akechi, Miss Marple and Hercule Poirot. Juvenile stories featuring The Hardy Boys, Nancy Drew, and The Boxcar Children have also remained in print for several decades.HistoryAncientSome scholars, such as R. H. Pfeiffer, have suggested that certain ancient and religious texts bear similarities to what would later be called detective fiction. In the Old Testament story of Susanna and the Elders (the Protestant Bible locates this story within the apocrypha), the account told by two witnesses broke down when Daniel cross-examines them. In response, author Julian Symons has argued that "those who search for fragments of detection in the Bible and Herodotus are looking only for puzzles" and that these puzzles are not detective stories.
Early Arabic
One Thousand and One Nights contains several of the earliest detective stories, anticipating modern detective fiction. The oldest known example of a detective story was "The Three Apples", one of the tales narrated by Scheherazade in the One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights). In this story, a fisherman discovers a heavy, locked chest along the Tigris river, which he then sells to the Abbasid Caliph, Harun al-Rashid. When Harun breaks open the chest, he discovers the body of a young woman who has been cut into pieces. Harun then orders his vizier, Ja'far ibn Yahya, to solve the crime and to find the murderer within three days, or be executed if he fails in his assignment. Suspense is generated through multiple plot twists that occur as the story progresses. With these characteristics this may be considered an archetype for detective fiction. It anticipates the use of reverse chronology in modern detective fiction, where the story begins with a crime before presenting a gradual reconstruction of the past. This in turn leads to another assignment in which Ja'far has to find the culprit who instigated the murder within three days or else be executed. Ja'far again fails to find the culprit before the deadline, but owing to chance, he discovers a key item. In the end, he manages to solve the case through reasoning in order to prevent his own execution.
On the other hand, two other Arabian Nights stories, "The Merchant and the Thief" and "Ali Khwaja", contain two of the earliest fictional detectives, who uncover clues and present evidence to catch or convict a criminal known to the audience, with the story unfolding in normal chronology and the criminal already known to the audience. The latter involves a climax where the titular detective protagonist Ali Khwaja presents evidence from expert witnesses in a court.
* The detective is the local magistrate who is usually involved in several unrelated cases simultaneously;
* The criminal is introduced at the very beginning of the story and his crime and reasons are carefully explained, thus constituting an inverted detective story rather than a "puzzle";
* The stories have a supernatural element with ghosts telling people about their death and even accusing the criminal;
* The stories are filled with digressions into philosophy, the complete texts of official documents, and much more, resulting in long books; and
* The novels tend to have a huge cast of characters, typically in the hundreds, all described with their relation to the various main actors in the story.
Van Gulik chose Di Gong An to translate because in his view it was closer to the Western literary style and more likely to appeal to non-Chinese readers.
A number of Gong An works may have been lost or destroyed during the Literary Inquisitions and the wars in ancient China. In traditional Chinese culture, this genre was not prestigious, and was therefore considered less worthy of preservation than works of philosophy or poetry.
Early Western
(1809–1849)]]
One of the earliest examples of detective fiction in Western literature is Voltaire's Zadig (1748), which features a main character who performs feats of analysis. Thomas Skinner Sturr's anonymous Richmond, or stories in the life of a Bow Street officer was published in London in 1827; the Danish crime story The Rector of Veilbye by Steen Steensen Blicher was written in 1829; and the Norwegian crime novel Mordet paa Maskinbygger Roolfsen ("The Murder of Engine Maker Roolfsen") by Maurits Hansen was published in December 1839.
"Das Fräulein von Scuderi" is an 1819 short story by E. T. A. Hoffmann, in which Mlle de Scudery establishes the innocence of the police's favorite suspect in the murder of a jeweller. This story is sometimes cited as the first detective story and as a direct influence on Edgar Allan Poe's "The Murders in the Rue Morgue" (1841). Also suggested as a possible influence on Poe is 'The Secret Cell', a short story published in September 1837 by William Evans Burton. It has been suggested that this story may have been known to Poe, who worked for Burton in 1839. The story was about a London policeman who solves the mystery of a kidnapped girl. Burton's fictional detective relied on practical methods such as dogged legwork, knowledge of the underworld and undercover surveillance, rather than brilliance of imagination or intellect.English genre establishmentDetective fiction in the English-language literature is considered to have begun in 1841 with the publication of Poe's "The Murders in the Rue Morgue", featuring "the first fictional detective, the eccentric and brilliant C. Auguste Dupin". When the character first appeared, the word detective had not yet been used in English; however, the character's name, "Dupin", originated from the English word dupe or deception. Poe devised a "plot formula that's been successful ever since, give or take a few shifting variables." Poe followed with further Auguste Dupin tales: "The Mystery of Marie Rogêt" in 1842 and "The Purloined Letter" in 1844.
Poe referred to his stories as "tales of ratiocination". contributing an irregular series of stories (under the pseudonym 'Waters') to ''Chambers's Edinburgh Journal between 1849 and 1852. Unauthorised collections of his stories were published in New York City in 1852 and 1853, entitled The Recollections of a Policeman. Twelve stories were then collated into a volume entitled Recollections of a Detective Police-Officer'', published in London in 1856.
(1812–1870). Photo from 1858|196x196px]]Literary critic Catherine Ross Nickerson credits Louisa May Alcott with creating the second-oldest work of modern detective fiction, after Poe's Dupin stories, with the 1865 thriller "V.V., or Plots and Counterplots." A short story published anonymously by Alcott, the story concerns a Scottish aristocrat who tries to prove that a mysterious woman has killed his fiancée and cousin. The detective on the case, Antoine Dupres, is a parody of Auguste Dupin who is less concerned with solving the crime than he is in setting up a way to reveal the solution with a dramatic flourish. Ross Nickerson notes that many of the American writers who experimented with Poe's established rules of the genre were women, inventing a subgenre of domestic detective fiction that flourished for several generations. These included Metta Fuller Victor's two detective novels The Dead Letter (1867) and The Figure Eight (1869). The Dead Letter is noteworthy as the first full-length work of American crime fiction.
Émile Gaboriau was a pioneer of the detective fiction genre in France. In Monsieur Lecoq (1868), the title character is adept at disguise, a key characteristic of detectives. Gaboriau's writing is also considered to contain the first example of a detective minutely examining a crime scene for clues.
Another early example of a whodunit is a subplot in the novel Bleak House (1853) by Charles Dickens. The conniving lawyer Tulkinghorn is killed in his office late one night, and the crime is investigated by Inspector Bucket of the Metropolitan police force. Numerous characters appeared on the staircase leading to Tulkinghorn's office that night, some of them in disguise, and Inspector Bucket must penetrate these mysteries to identify the murderer. Dickens also left a novel unfinished at his death, The Mystery of Edwin Drood.
(1824–1889)]]
Dickens's protégé, Wilkie Collins (1824–1889)—sometimes called the "grandfather of English detective fiction"—is credited with the first great mystery novel, The Woman in White. T. S. Eliot called Collins's novel The Moonstone (1868) "the first, the longest, and the best of modern English detective novels... in a genre invented by Collins and not by Poe", and Dorothy L. Sayers called it "probably the very finest detective story ever written". The Moonstone contains a number of ideas that have established in the genre several classic features of the 20th century detective story:
* English country house robbery
* An "inside job"
* red herrings
* A celebrated, skilled, professional investigator
* Bungling local constabulary
* Detective inquiries
* Large number of false suspects
* The "least likely suspect"
* A rudimentary "locked room" murder
* A reconstruction of the crime
* A final twist in the plot
(1859–1930)]]
Although The Moonstone is usually seen as the first detective novel, there are other contenders for the honor. A number of critics suggest that the lesser known Notting Hill Mystery (1862–63), written by the pseudonymous "Charles Felix" (later identified as Charles Warren Adams), preceded it by a number of years and first used techniques that would come to define the genre.
Literary critics Chris Willis and Kate Watson consider Mary Elizabeth Braddon's first book, the even earlier The Trail of the Serpent (1861), to be the first British detective novel. The Trail of the Serpent "features an innovative detective figure, Mr. Peters, who is lower class and mute, and who is initially dismissed both by the text and its characters."), also features a compelling detective in the person of Detective Grimstone of Scotland Yard.
Tom Taylor's melodrama The Ticket-of-Leave Man, an adaptation of Léonard by Édouard Brisbarre and Eugène Nus, appeared in 1863, introducing Hawkshaw the Detective. In short, it is difficult to establish who was the first to write the English-language detective novel, as various authors were exploring the theme simultaneously.
Anna Katharine Green, in her 1878 debut The Leavenworth Case and other works, popularized the genre among middle-class readers and helped to shape the genre into its classic form as well as developed the concept of the series detective.
In 1887, Arthur Conan Doyle created Sherlock Holmes, arguably the most famous of all fictional detectives. Although Sherlock Holmes is not the first fictional detective (he was influenced by Poe's Dupin and Gaboriau's Lecoq), his name has become synonymous for the part. Conan Doyle stated that the character of Holmes was inspired by Dr. Joseph Bell, for whom Doyle had worked as a clerk at the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary. Like Holmes, Bell was noted for drawing large conclusions from the smallest observations. A brilliant London-based "consulting detective" residing at 221B Baker Street, Holmes is famous for his intellectual prowess and is renowned for his skillful use of astute observation, deductive reasoning, and forensic skills to solve difficult cases. Conan Doyle wrote four novels and fifty-six short stories featuring Holmes, and all but four stories are narrated by Holmes's friend, assistant, and biographer, Dr. John H. Watson.
Detective Fiction in Boys Story Papers
Detective fiction aimed at young male readers emerged as a distinct and highly popular subgenre in the late Victorian and Edwardian eras, particularly in British and American boys' weekly magazines. While school stories remained the dominant form of boys' fiction, detective narratives claimed a strong second place in popularity from the 1890s onward. The American market pioneered serial detective characters, with publications like the "Old Sleuth Library" (1872) and stories featuring Nick Carter establishing the format. In Britain, the genre gained prominence through publishers like James Henderson and Sons and the Aldine Publishing Company, which initially reprinted American detective stories before developing their own characters. The Amalgamated Press with its numerous story papers played a prominent part in the spreading and popularizations of the genre.
The most enduring figure in boys' detective fiction was Sexton Blake, who first appeared in 1893 and featured in over 3,000 stories spanning nearly six decades. Blake's longevity was matched by a period of intense creativity in the genre, which saw the creation of numerous competing detective characters. Notable among these was Nelson Lee, created by John William Staniforth (writing as Maxwell Scott), who shared Blake's penchant for globe-trotting adventures and narrow escapes.Golden Age novels
(1890–1976)]]
(1908–1979), better known for his historical novels, also wrote crime novels such as Inspector Palmus.]]
The interwar period (the 1920s and 1930s) is generally referred to as the Golden Age of Detective Fiction. During this period, a number of very popular writers emerged, including mostly British but also a notable subset of American and New Zealand writers. Female writers constituted a major portion of notable Golden Age writers. Agatha Christie, Dorothy L. Sayers, Josephine Tey, Margery Allingham, and Ngaio Marsh were particularly famous female writers of this time. Another common convention in Golden Age detective stories involved an outsider–sometimes a salaried investigator or a police officer, but often a gifted amateur—investigating a murder committed in a closed environment by one of a limited number of suspects.
The most widespread subgenre of the detective novel became the whodunit (or whodunnit, short for "who done it?"). In this subgenre, great ingenuity may be exercised in narrating the crime, usually a homicide, and the subsequent investigation. This objective was to conceal the identity of the criminal from the reader until the end of the book, when the method and culprit are both revealed. According to scholars Carole Kismaric and Marvin Heiferman, "The golden age of detective fiction began with high-class amateur detectives sniffing out murderers lurking in rose gardens, down country lanes, and in picturesque villages. Many conventions of the detective-fiction genre evolved in this era, as numerous writers—from populist entertainers to respected poets—tried their hands at mystery stories." Another author, Cecil Street—who also wrote as John Rhode—wrote of a detective, Dr. Priestley, who specialised in elaborate technical devices. In the United States, the whodunit subgenre was adopted and extended by Rex Stout and Ellery Queen, along with others. The emphasis on formal rules during the Golden Age produced great works, albeit with highly standardized form. The most successful novels of this time included “an original and exciting plot; distinction in the writing, a vivid sense of place, a memorable and compelling hero and the ability to draw the reader into their comforting and highly individual world.”
Following The Naval Treaty, other Sherlock Holmes stories were similarly translated and serialized. The Crooked Man appeared between October and November 1896, A Case of Identity was published from March to April 1897, and The Final Problem was serialized between April and May of the same year. These translations were part of a broader effort to introduce Western literary works to China, often with a focus on themes that resonated with the reformist agenda of the period. The popularity of Sherlock Holmes paved the way for the translation of other seminal works of Western detective fiction. Among these were L’affaire Lerouge by Émile Gaboriau (1832–1873), published in 1903, John Thorndyke's Cases by Richard Austin Freeman (1862–1943), which appeared in 1911, and Arsène Lupin, Gentleman Burglar by Maurice Leblanc (1864–1941), translated in 1914. These works collectively contributed to the growing interest in detective fiction as a genre that could both entertain and provoke critical reflection on societal issues circulated within the country.
Cheng Xiaoqing had first encountered Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's highly popular stories as an adolescent. In the ensuing years, he played a major role in rendering them first into classical and later into vernacular Chinese. Cheng Xiaoqing, who had been self-taught in English from the age of 16, collaborated with a group of friends to translate the complete series of Sherlock Holmes stories into Chinese. Published in 1916 under the title Fuermosi tan’an (The Investigative Cases of Sherlock Holmes) by the Zhonghua shuju publishing house, this translation marked a significant milestone in the introduction of Western detective fiction to Chinese readers. appealing to China that it was the time for opening their eyes to the rest of the world.
This style began China's interest in popular crime fiction, and is what drove Cheng Xiaoqing to write his own crime fiction novel, Sherlock in Shanghai. In the late 1910s, Cheng began writing detective fiction inspired by Conan Doyle's style, with Bao as the Watson-like narrator; a rare instance of such a direct appropriation from foreign fiction. Japan Edogawa Rampo is the first major Japanese modern mystery writer and the founder of the Detective Story Club in Japan. Rampo was an admirer of western mystery writers. He gained his fame in the early 1920s, when he began to bring to the genre many bizarre, erotic and even fantastic elements. This is partly because of the social tension before World War II. In 1957, Seicho Matsumoto received the Mystery Writers of Japan Award for his short story The Face (顔 kao). The Face and Matsumoto's subsequent works began the "social school" (社会派 shakai ha) within the genre, which emphasized social realism, described crimes in an ordinary setting and sets motives within a wider context of social injustice and political corruption.
Feluda (Character)
Feluda, created by renowned filmmaker and author Satyajit Ray, is a celebrated Bengali detective character who first appeared in the 1965 story Feludar Goyendagiri. His full name is Pradosh Chandra Mitra, and he is often referred to affectionately as Feluda. Feluda is characterized by his keen observational skills, sharp intellect, and a flair for deduction, which he employs to solve intricate mysteries. Feluda is often accompanied by his cousin, who is also his assistant, Tapesh Ranjan Mitter (affectionately called Topshe), who serves as the narrator of the stories and his friend Jatayu. , The trio embarks on various adventures that blend mystery with elements of Bengali culture and tradition. The stories often include a touch of humor, engaging dialogues, and philosophical musings, making them appealing to a wide audience. Ray's Feluda series not only captivated readers in literary form but also inspired numerous adaptations in film and television, showcasing Ray's cinematic genius. Feluda's impact on the genre is significant, as he represents a sophisticated blend of intellect and charm, setting a high standard for detective fiction in India. brought to life a vivid array of characters and mysteries. Pushpanath practiced teaching history for several years before becoming a full time writer. Pushpanath authored more than 350 detective novels.
Pakistan
Ibn-e-Safi is the most popular Urdo detective fiction writer. He started writing his famous Jasoosi Dunya Series spy stories in 1952 with Col. Fareedi & Captain. Hameed as main characters.
In 1955 he started writing Imran Series spy novels with Ali Imran as X2 the chief of secret service and his companions.
After his death many other writers accepted Ali Imran character and wrote spy novels.
Another popular spy novel writer was Ishtiaq Ahmad who wrote Inspector Jamsheed, Inspector Kamran Mirza and Shooki brother's series of spy novels.
Russia
Stories about robbers and detectives were very popular in Russia since old times. A famous hero in the eighteenth century was Ivan Osipov (1718–after 1756), nicknamed Ivan Kain. Other examples of early Russian detective stories include: "Bitter Fate" (1789) by M. D. Chulkov (1743–1792), "The Finger Ring" (1831) by Yevgeny Baratynsky, "The White Ghost" (1834) by Mikhail Zagoskin, Crime and Punishment (1866) and The Brothers Karamazov (1880) by Fyodor Dostoevsky. Detective fiction in modern Russian literature with clear detective plots started with The Garin Death Ray (1926–1927) and The Black Gold (1931) by Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy, Mess-Mend by Marietta Shaginyan, ''The Investigator's Notes by Lev Sheinin. Boris Akunin is a famous Russian writer of historical detective fiction in modern-day Russia.
United States
In the United States, detective fiction emerged in the 1920s, and flourished with stories in pulp magazines. The genre gained prominence in later decades, as the detective character was refined, and became familiar through movies. Detective fiction was also a way for authors to bring stories about various subcultures to mainstream audiences. One scholar wrote about the detective novels of Tony Hillerman, set among the Native American population around New Mexico, "many American readers have probably gotten more insight into traditional Navajo culture from his detective stories than from any other recent books." Other notable writers who have explored regional and ethnic communities in their detective novels are Harry Kemelman, whose Rabbi Small series were set in the Conservative Jewish community of Massachusetts; Walter Mosley, whose Easy Rawlins books are set in the African American community of 1950s Los Angeles; and Sara Paretsky, whose V. I. Warshawski books have explored the various subcultures of Chicago.
Subgenres
Hardboiled
Martin Hewitt, created by British author Arthur Morrison in 1894, is one of the first examples of the modern style of fictional private detective. This character is described as an "'Everyman' detective meant to challenge the detective-as-superman that Holmes represented."
By the late 1920s, Al Capone and the American mafia inspired not only fear, but piqued mainstream curiosity about the American criminal underworld. Popular pulp fiction magazines like Black Mask capitalized on this, as authors such as Carrol John Daly published violent stories that focused on the mayhem and injustice surrounding the criminals, not the circumstances behind the crime. Very often, no actual mystery even existed: the books simply revolved around justice being served to those who deserved harsh treatment, which was described in explicit detail." His style of crime fiction came to be known as "hardboiled", a genre that "usually deals with criminal activity in a modern urban environment, a world of disconnected signs and anonymous strangers." Chandler's stories were noted for their evokations of the American criminal underworld, including dark alleys and tough thugs, rich women and powerful men. Several feature and television movies have been made about the Philip Marlowe character. James Hadley Chase wrote a few novels with private eyes as the main heroes, including ''Blonde's Requiem (1945), Lay Her Among the Lilies (1950), and Figure It Out for Yourself'' (1950). The heroes of these novels are typical private eyes, very similar to or plagiarizing Raymond Chandler's work.
Ross Macdonald, pseudonym of Kenneth Millar, updated the form again with his detective Lew Archer. Archer, like Hammett's fictional heroes, was a camera eye, with hardly any known past. "Turn Archer sideways, and he disappears," one reviewer wrote. Critics praised Macdonald's use of psychology and his prose, which was full of imagery. Like other 'hardboiled' writers, Macdonald aimed to give an impression of realism in his work through violence, sex and confrontation. The 1966 movie Harper starring Paul Newman was based on the first Lew Archer story The Moving Target (1949). Newman reprised the role in The Drowning Pool in 1976.
Michael Collins, pseudonym of Dennis Lynds, is generally considered the author who led the form into the Modern Age. Like Hammett, Chandler, and Macdonald, Collins' protagonist was a private investigator, Dan Fortune. However, Collins stories also involved an element of sociological reflection, exploring the meaning of his characters' places in society and the impact society had on people. Full of commentary and clipped prose, his books were more intimate than those of his predecessors, dramatizing that crime can happen in one's own living room.
The "hardboiled" novel was a male-dominated field in which female authors seldom found publication until Marcia Muller, Sara Paretsky, and Sue Grafton were finally published in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Each author's detective, also female, was brainy and physical and could hold her own. Their acceptance, and success, caused publishers to seek out other female authors. Inverted
An inverted detective story, also known as a "howcatchem", is a murder mystery fiction structure in which the commission of the crime is shown or described at the beginning, The story then describes the detective's attempt to solve the mystery. There may also be subsidiary puzzles, such as why the crime was committed, and they are explained or resolved during the story. This format is the inversion of the more typical "whodunit", in which the perpetrator of the crime is not revealed until the story's climax.Police procedural
Many detective stories have police officers as the main characters. These stories may take a variety of forms, but many authors try to realistically depict the routine activities of a group of police officers who are frequently working on more than one case simultaneously. Some of these stories are whodunits; in others, the criminal is well known, and the detective must gather enough evidence to charge them with the crime.
In the 1940s the police procedural evolved as a new style of detective fiction. Unlike the heroes of Christie, Chandler, and Spillane, the police detective was subject to error and was constrained by rules and regulations. As Gary Huasladen writes in Places for Dead Bodies, "not all the clients were insatiable bombshells, and invariably there was life outside the job." The detective in the police procedural does the things police officers do to catch a criminal. Prominent writers in the genre include Ed McBain, P. D. James, and Bartholomew Gill.Historical mystery
is known for his Melchior the Apothecary series, which takes place in medieval Tallinn and has also been adapted into films]]
Historical mystery is set in a time period considered historical from the author's perspective, and the central plot involves the solving of a mystery or crime (usually murder). Though works combining these genres have existed since at least the early 20th century, many credit Ellis Peters's Cadfael Chronicles (1977–1994) for popularizing what would become known as the historical mystery.
A variation on this is Josephine Tey's The Daughter of Time. In it, Scotland Yard Inspector Alan Grant—who considers himself a good judge of faces—is surprised to find that what he considers to be the portrait of a sensitive man is in reality a portrait of Richard III, who murdered his brother's children in order to become king. The story details his attempt to get to the historical truth of whether Richard III is the villain he has been made out to be by history. The novel was awarded the top spot in the Top 100 Crime Novels of All Time by the UK Crime Writers' Association and the number 4 spot in The Top 100 Mystery Novels of All Time Mystery Writers of America
Cozy mystery
Cozy mystery began in the late 20th century as a reinvention of the Golden Age whodunit; these novels generally shy away from violence and suspense and frequently feature female amateur detectives. Modern cozy mysteries are frequently, though not necessarily, humorous and thematic . Variations of the subgenre include culinary mystery, animal mystery, and quilting mystery, among others.
Cozy mysteries feature minimal violence, sex, and social relevance; a solution achieved by intellect or intuition rather than police procedure, with order restored in the end; honorable characters; and a setting in a closed community. Writers include Agatha Christie, Dorothy L. Sayers, and Elizabeth Daly. In this way, the legal system provides the framework for the legal thriller as much as the system of modern police work does for the police procedural. The legal thriller usually begins with the court proceedings following the closure of an investigation, often resulting in a new angle on the investigation, so as to bring about an outcome different from the one originally devised by the investigators. In the legal thriller, court proceedings play a very active, if not to say decisive part in a case reaching its ultimate solution. Erle Stanley Gardner popularized the courtroom novel in the 20th century with his Perry Mason series. Contemporary authors of legal thrillers include Michael Connelly, Linda Fairstein, John Grisham, John Lescroart, Paul Levine, Lisa Scottoline, and Scott Turow.
Locked room mystery
The locked room mystery is a subgenre of detective fiction in which a crime—almost always murder—is committed under circumstances which it was seemingly impossible for the perpetrator to commit the crime and/or evade detection in the course of getting in and out of the crime scene. The genre was established in the 19th century. Edgar Allan Poe's "The Murders in the Rue Morgue" (1841) is considered the first locked-room mystery; since then, other authors have used the scheme. The crime in question typically involves a crime scene with no indication as to how the intruder could have entered or left, i.e., a locked room. Following other conventions of classic detective fiction, the reader is normally presented with the puzzle and all of the clues, and is encouraged to solve the mystery before the solution is revealed in a dramatic climax.
Occult
Occult detective fiction is a subgenre of detective fiction that combines the tropes of detective fiction with those of supernatural horror fiction. Unlike the traditional detective, the occult detective is employed in cases involving ghosts, demons, curses, magic, monsters and other supernatural elements. Some occult detectives are portrayed as knowing magic or being themselves psychic or in possession of other paranormal powers.
'Whodunit'
A whodunit or whodunnit (a colloquial elision of "Who [has] done it?" or "Who did it?") is a complex, plot-driven variety of the detective story in which the audience is given the opportunity to engage in the same process of deduction as the protagonist throughout the investigation of a crime. The reader or viewer is provided with the clues from which the identity of the perpetrator may be deduced before the story provides the revelation itself at its climax. The "whodunit" flourished during the so-called "Golden Age" of detective fiction, between 1920 and 1950, when it was the predominant mode of crime writing.
Modern criticism
Preserving story secrets
Even if they do not mean to, advertisers, reviewers, scholars and aficionados sometimes give away details or parts of the plot, and sometimes—for example in the case of Mickey Spillane's novel I, the Jury—even the solution. After the credits of Billy Wilder's film Witness for the Prosecution, the cinemagoers are asked not to talk to anyone about the plot so that future viewers will also be able to fully enjoy the unravelling of the mystery. At the end of each performance of the play The Mousetrap by Agatha Christie, audiences are asked not to reveal the identity of the murderer to anyone outside the theatre, so that the end of the play is not spoiled for future audiences.Plausibility and coincidenceFor series involving amateur detectives, their frequent encounters with crime often test the limits of plausibility. The character Miss Marple appears in twelve novels and twenty short stories, William L. De Andrea has described Marple's home town, the quiet little village of St. Mary Mead, as having "put on a pageant of human depravity rivaled only by that of Sodom and Gomorrah". Similarly, TV heroine Jessica Fletcher of Murder, She Wrote was confronted with bodies wherever she went, but most notably in her small hometown of Cabot Cove, Maine; The New York Times estimated that, by the end of the series' 12-year run, nearly 2% of the town's residents had been killed. It is arguably more convincing if police, forensic experts or similar professionals are made the protagonist of a series of crime novels.
The television series Monk has often made fun of this implausible frequency. The main character, Adrian Monk, is frequently accused of being a "bad luck charm" and a "murder magnet" as the result of the frequency with which murder happens in his vicinity.
Likewise Kogoro Mori of the manga series Detective Conan earned a similar reputation. Although Mori is actually a private investigator with his own agency, the police never intentionally consult him as he stumbles from one crime scene to another.
The role and legitimacy of coincidence has frequently been the topic of heated arguments ever since Ronald A. Knox categorically stated that "no accident must ever help the detective" (Commandment No. 6 in his "Decalogue").
Effects of technology
Technological progress has also rendered many plots implausible and antiquated. For example, the predominance of mobile phones, pagers, and PDAs has significantly altered the previously dangerous situations in which investigators traditionally might have found themselves.
One tactic that avoids the issue of technology altogether is the historical detective genre. As global interconnectedness makes legitimate suspense more difficult to achieve, several writers—including Elizabeth Peters, P. C. Doherty, Steven Saylor, and Lindsey Davis—have eschewed fabricating convoluted plots in order to manufacture tension, instead opting to set their characters in some former period. Such a strategy forces the protagonist to rely on more inventive means of investigation, lacking as they do the technological tools available to modern detectives.
Conversely, some detective fiction embraces networked computer technology and deals in cybercrime, like the Daemon novel series by Daniel Suarez.
Detective Commandments
Several authors have attempted to set forth a sort of list of “Detective Commandments” for prospective authors of the genre.
According to "Twenty Rules for Writing Detective Stories," by Van Dine in 1928: "The detective story is a kind of intellectual game. It is more—it is a sporting event. And for the writing of detective stories there are very definite laws—unwritten, perhaps, but nonetheless binding; and every respectable and self-respecting concocter of literary mysteries lives up to them. Herewith, then, is a sort of credo, based partly on the practice of all the great writers of detective stories, and partly on the promptings of the honest author's inner conscience." Ronald Knox wrote a set of Ten Commandments or Decalogue in 1929, crime fiction from the past 100 years has generally contained the following key rules to be a detective novel:
* A crime, most often murder, is committed early in the narrative
* There are a variety of suspects with different motives
* A central character formally or informally acts as a detective
* The detective collects evidence about the crimes and its victim
* Usually the detective interviews the suspects, as well as the witnesses
* The detective solves the mystery and indicates the real criminal
* Usually this criminal is now arrested or otherwise punished
Influential fictional detectives
Sherlock Holmes
Sherlock Holmes is an English fictional detective created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. After first appearing in A Study in Scarlet, the Sherlock Holmes stories were not an immediate success. However, after being published in the Strand Magazine in 1891, the detective became unquestionably popular. Following the success of Sherlock Holmes, many mystery writers imitated Conan Doyle's structure in their own detective stories and included aspects of Sherlock Holmes's personalities in their own detectives.
Sherlock Holmes as a series is perhaps the most popular form of detective fiction. Conan Doyle attempted to kill the character off after twenty-three stories, but after popular request, he continued to write stories featuring the character. The popularity of Sherlock Holmes extends beyond the written medium. For example, the BBC-produced TV series Sherlock gained a very large following after first airing in 2010, imbuing a renewed interest in the character in the general public. Because of the popularity of Holmes, Conan Doyle was often regarded as being “as well known as Queen Victoria”. Blake featured in more than 4,000 stories by approximately 200 different authors, making him one of the most prolifically chronicled characters in English literature.C. Auguste Dupin
Le Chevalier C. Auguste Dupin is a fictional character created by Edgar Allan Poe. Dupin made his first appearance in Poe's "The Murders in the Rue Morgue" (1841), widely considered the first detective fiction story. He reappears in "The Mystery of Marie Rogêt" (1842) and "The Purloined Letter" (1844).
C. Auguste Dupin is generally acknowledged as the prototype for many fictional detectives that were created later, including Sherlock Holmes by Arthur Conan Doyle and Hercule Poirot by Agatha Christie. Conan Doyle once wrote, "Each [of Poe's detective stories] is a root from which a whole literature has developed... Where was the detective story until Poe breathed the breath of life into it?"
Ellery Queen
Ellery Queen is a fictional detective created by American writers Manfred Bennington Lee and Frederic Dannay, as well as the joint pseudonym for the cousins Dannay and Lee. He first appeared in The Roman Hat Mystery (1929), and starred in more than 30 novels and several short story collections. During the 1930s and much of the 1940s, Ellery Queen was possibly the best known American fictional detective.
Detective debuts and swan songs
Many detectives appear in more than one novel or story. Here is a list of a few debut stories and final appearances.
<!-- please add alphabetically by detective name -->
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Detective
! Author
! Debut
! Final appearance
|-
| Misir Ali
| Humayun Ahmed
| Devi || Jakhan Namibe Andhar
|-
| Roderick Alleyn
| Ngaio Marsh
| A Man Lay Dead || Light Thickens
|-
| Lew Archer
| Ross Macdonald
| The Moving Target || The Blue Hammer
|-
| Byomkesh Bakshi
| Sharadindu Bandyopadhyay
| Satyanweshi || Bishupal Badh
|-
| Alan Banks
| Peter Robinson
| Gallows View
|-
| Parashor Barma
| Premendra Mitra
| Goenda Kobi Parashar || Ghanada O Dui Doshor Mamababu O Parashar
|-
| Tom Barnaby
| Caroline Graham
| ''The Killings at Badger's Drift
| A Ghost in the Machine
|-
| J. P. Beaumont
| J. A. Jance
| Until Proven Guilty
|-
| Martin Beck
| Maj Sjöwall and Per Wahlöö
| Roseanna || The Terrorists
|-
| Bimal
| Hemendra Kumar Roy
| Jakher Dhan
|-
| Anita Blake
| Laurell K. Hamilton
| Guilty Pleasures
|-
| Sexton Blake
| Harry Blyth, George Hamilton Teed, Edwy Searles Brooks
| The Missing Millionaire
|-
| Harry Bosch
| Michael Connelly
| The Black Echo
|-
| Joanna Brady
| J. A. Jance
| Desert Heat
|-
| Jackson Brodie
| Kate Atkinson
| Case Histories
|-
| Father Brown
| G. K. Chesterton
| "The Blue Cross" || "The Mask of Midas"
|-
| Brother Cadfael
| Ellis Peters
| A Morbid Taste for Bones || Brother Cadfael's Penance
|-
| Jack Caffery
| Mo Hayder
| Birdman || Wolf
|-
| Vincent Calvino
| Christopher G. Moore
| Spirit House
|-
| rowspan="3" | Albert Campion
| rowspan="3" | Margery Allingham
| rowspan="3" | The Crime at Black Dudley
| The Mind Readers (last story completed by Allingham)
|-
| Mr. Campion's Falcon (last story completed by Philip Youngman Carter)
|-
| (Series continues written by Mike Ripley)
|-
| Georgia Cantini
| Grazia Verasani
| [http://www.italicapress.com/index488.html Quo Vadis, Baby?]
|-
| Nick and Nora Charles
| Dashiell Hammett
| colspan="2" | The Thin Man
|-
| Cao Chen
| Xiaolong Qiu
| Death of a Red Heroine
|-
| Elvis Cole
| Robert Crais
| The Monkey's Raincoat
|-
| Quinn Colson
| Ace Atkins
| The Ranger
|-
| The Continental Op
| Dashiell Hammett
| Arson Plus
| The Dain Curse
|-
| Lord Edward Corinth and Verity Browne
| David Roberts
| Sweet Poison || Sweet Sorrow
|-
| Jerry Cornelius
| Michael Moorcock
| The Final Programme''
|-
| Dr. Phil D'Amato
| Paul Levinson
| "The Chronology Protection Case"
|-
| Harry D'Amour
| Clive Barker
| "The Last Illusion"
|-
| Adam Dalgliesh
| PD James
| Cover Her Face || The Private Patient
|-
| Andrew Dalziel and Peter Pascoe
| Reginald Hill
| A Clubbable Woman || Midnight Fugue
|-
| Peter Decker
| Faye Kellerman
| The Ritual Bath
|-
| Alex Delaware
| Jonathan Kellerman
| When the Bough Breaks ||
|-
| Harry Devlin
| Martin Edwards
| All the Lonely People
|-
| Peter Diamond
| Peter Lovesey
| The Last Detective
|-
| Harry Dresden
| Jim Butcher
| Storm Front
|-
| Nancy Drew
| Carolyn Keene
| The Secret of the Old Clock
|-
| Auguste Dupin
| Edgar Allan Poe
| The Murders in the Rue Morgue || The Purloined Letter
|-
| Marcus Didius Falco
| Lindsey Davis
| The Silver Pigs
|-
| Feluda
| Satyajit Ray
| Feludar Goendagiri || Robertson-er Ruby
|-
| Erast Fandorin
| Boris Akunin
| The Winter Queen
|-
| Kate Fansler
| Amanda Cross
| In the Last Analysis
| The Edge of Doom
|-
| Dr. Gideon Fell
| John Dickson Carr
| ''Hag's Nook || Dark of the Moon
|-
| Sir John Fielding and Jeremy Proctor
| Bruce Alexander
| Blind Justice
|-
| Tecumseh Fox
| Rex Stout
| Double for Death || The Broken Vase
|-
| Rei Furuya
| Gosho Aoyama
| Detective Conan
|-
| rowspan="2" | Dirk Gently (Svlad Cjelli)
| rowspan="2" | Douglas Adams
| rowspan="2" | Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency
| The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul (last completed work)
|-
| The Salmon of Doubt (unfinished)
|-
| Ganesh Ghote
| H. R. F. Keating
| The Perfect Murder || A Small Case for Inspector Ghote?
|-
| George Gideon
| John Creasey
| Gideon's Day
| Gideon's Drive
|-
| Gordianus the Finder
| Steven Saylor
| Roman Blood
|-
| Saguru Hakuba
| Gosho Aoyama
| Magic Kaito
|-
| rowspan="2" | Mike Hammer
| rowspan="2" | Mickey Spillane
| rowspan="2" | I, the Jury
| Black Alley (last story completed by Spillane)
|-
| (Series continues from unfinished Spillane manuscripts completed by Max Allan Collins)
|-
| The Hardy Boys
| (ghostwriters)
| The Tower Treasure
|-
| Heiji Hattori
| Gosho Aoyama
| Detective Conan
|-
| Dixon Hawke
| Unknown author for DC Thomson
| The Great Hotel Mystery
|-
| Tony Hill
| Val McDermid
| The Mermaids Singing
|-
| Neil Hockaday
| Thomas Adcock
| Sea of Green
| Grief Street
|-
| Sherlock Holmes
| Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
| A Study in Scarlet || The Adventure of Shoscombe Old Place
|-
| Jayanta
| Hemendra Kumar Roy
| Jayanter Keerti ||
|-
| Art Keller
| Don Winslow
| The Power of the Dog
|-
| Craig Kennedy
| Arthur B. Reeve
| The Silent Bullet || The Stars Scream Murder
|-
| Sammy Keyes
| Wendelin Van Draanen
| Sammy Keyes and the Hotel Thief
|-
| Kikira
| Bimal Kar
| Kapalikera Ekhono Ache || Ekti Photo Churir Rahasya
|-
| Shinichi Kudo / Conan Edogawa
| Gosho Aoyama
| Detective Conan||
|-
| Jake Lassiter
| Paul Levine
| "To Speak For The Dead"
|-
| Charles Latimer
| Eric Ambler
| The Mask of Dimitrios (AKA A Coffin for Dimitrios)
| The Intercom Conspiracy
|-
| Joe Leaphorn
| Tony Hillerman
| The Blessing Way
|-
| Nelson Lee
| Maxwell Scott
| A Dead Man's Secret || Waldo, the Gang Buster
|-
| Inspector Lund
| Willy Corsari
| Het Mysterie van de Mondscheinsonate (The Mystery of the Moonlight Sonata)
| Spelen met de Dood (Playing with Death)
|-
| Thomas Lynley and Barbara Havers
| Elizabeth George
| A Great Deliverance
|-
| John Madden
| Rennie Airth
| River of Darkness
|-
| Jules Maigret
| Georges Simenon
| The Strange Case of Peter the Lett || Maigret and Monsieur Charles
|-
| Philip Marlowe
| Raymond Chandler
| The Big Sleep || Playback
|-
| Miss Marple
| Agatha Christie
| The Murder at the Vicarage || Sleeping Murder
|-
| Darren Matthews
| Attica Locke
| Bluebird, Bluebird
|-
| Travis McGee
| John D. MacDonald
| The Deep Blue Good-by || The Lonely Silver Rain
|-
| Sir Henry Merrivale
| Carter Dickson
| The Plague Court Murders || The Cavalier's Cup
|-
| Kinsey Millhone
| Sue Grafton
| "A" Is for Alibi
| "Y" Is for Yesterday
|-
| Kiyoshi Mitarai
| Soji Shimada
| The Tokyo Zodiac Murders
| Final Pitch
|-
| Kogoro Mori
| Gosho Aoyama
| Detective Conan
|-
| Inspector Morse
| Colin Dexter
| Last Bus to Woodstock || Remorseful Day
|-
| Thursday Next
| Jasper Fforde
| The Eyre Affair
|-
| Gideon Oliver
| Aaron Elkins
| Fellowship of Fear
|-
| Jimmy Perez
| Ann Cleeves
| Raven Black
|-
| Stephanie Plum
| Janet Evanovich
| One for the Money
|-
| Hercule Poirot
| Agatha Christie
| The Mysterious Affair at Styles || Curtain
|-
| Ellery Queen
| Ellery Queen
| The Roman Hat Mystery || A Fine and Private Place
|-
| Jack Reacher
| Lee Child
| Killing Floor
|-
| Precious Ramotswe
| Alexander McCall Smith
| The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency
|-
| John Rebus
| Ian Rankin
| Knots and Crosses
|-
| Dave Robicheaux
| James Lee Burke
| The Neon Rain
|-
| Kiriti Roy
| Nihar Ranjan Gupta
| Kalo Bhramar || Avagunthita
|-
| Lincoln Rhyme
| Jeffery Deaver
| The Bone Collector
|-
|Huo Sang
|Chen Xiaoqing
|The Shadow in the Lamplight
|-
| Matthew Scudder
| Lawrence Block
| The Sins of the Fathers
|-
| Masumi Sera
| Gosho Aoyama
| Detective Conan
|-
| Dan Shepherd
| Stephen Leather
| True Colours
|-
| Miss Silver
| Patricia Wentworth
| Grey Mask
| The Girl in the Cellar
|-
| Arthur Simpson
| Eric Ambler
| The Light of Day || Dirty Story
|-
| Rabbi David Small
| Harry Kemelman
| Friday the Rabbi Slept Late || That Day the Rabbi Left Town
|-
| Sam Spade
| Dashiell Hammett
| The Maltese Falcon
| They Can Only Hang You Once
|-
| rowspan="2" | Spenser
| rowspan="2" | Robert B. Parker
| rowspan="2" | The Godwulf Manuscript
| Sixkill (last novel completed by Parker)
|-
| (Series continues written by Ace Atkins)
|-
| Vera Stanhope
| Ann Cleeves
| The Crow Trap
|-
| Cormoran Strike
| J.K. Rowling (under the pen name Robert Galbraith)
| The Cuckoo's Calling
|-
| rowspan="2" | Tintin
| rowspan="2" | Hergé
| rowspan="2" | Tintin in the Land of the Soviets
| Tintin and the Picaros (last completed work)
|-
| Tintin and Alph-Art (unfinished)
|-
| Tommy and Tuppence (Thomas and Prudence Beresford)
| Agatha Christie
| The Secret Adversary || Postern of Fate
|-
| Philip Trent
| E. C. Bentley
| Trent's Last Case
| Trent Intervenes
|-
| Kurt Wallander
| Henning Mankell
| Faceless Killers
| The Troubled Man
|-
| V.I. Warshawski
| Sara Paretsky
| Indemnity Only
|-
| Willam Warwick
| Jeffrey Archer
| Nothing Ventured
|-
| Reginald Wexford
| Ruth Rendell
| From Doon with Death
| No Man's Nightingale
|-
| rowspan="3" | Lord Peter Wimsey
| rowspan="3" | Dorothy L. Sayers
| rowspan="3" | Whose Body?
| Busman's Honeymoon (last novel completed by Sayers)
|-
| "Talboys" (last story written by Sayers)
|-
|The Late Scholar (last story completed by Jill Paton Walsh)
|-
| rowspan="2" | Nero Wolfe
| rowspan="2" | Rex Stout
| rowspan="2" | Fer-de-Lance
| A Family Affair (last novel completed by Stout)
|-
| (Series continues written by Robert Goldsborough)
|-
| Manabu Yukawa
| Keigo Higashino
| Tantei Galileo (AKA Detective Galileo)
|}
Books
*Bloody Murder: From the Detective Story to the Crime Novel – A History by Julian Symons
*Stacy Gillis and Philippa Gates (Editors), The Devil Himself: Villainy in Detective Fiction and Film, Greenwood, 2001.
*The Manichean Investigators: A Postcolonial and Cultural Rereading of the Sherlock Holmes and Byomkesh Bakshi Stories by Pinaki Roy, New Delhi: Sarup and Sons, 2008,
*Killer Books by Jean Swanson & Dean James, Berkley Prime Crime edition 1998, Penguin Putnam Inc. New York
*Delightful Murder: A Social History of the Crime Story by Ernest Mandel, 1985. Univ. of Minnesota Press.
*Clifford's War: The Bluegrass Battleground'' by J. Denison Reed
See also
*Closed circle of suspects
*List of Ace mystery double titles
*List of Ace mystery letter-series single titles
*List of Ace mystery numeric-series single titles
*List of crime writers
*List of detective fiction authors
*List of female detective characters
*Mafia
*Mystery film
*Metaphysical detective story
References
Further reading
*
*[https://www.monash.edu/library/collections/exhibitions/detective-fiction An exhibition of detective fiction] , Monash University Library
Category:Crime fiction
Category:Literary genres
Detective fiction
Category:Film genres
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detective_fiction
|
2025-04-05T18:28:29.327795
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8193
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Daniel Defoe
|
1660
| birth_place = Fore Street, London
| death_date
| death_place = London, England
| resting_place = Bunhill Fields
| occupation = Writer, merchant, spy
| genre = Adventure
| spouse =
| children = 8
}}
Daniel Defoe (; born Daniel Foe; 1660 – 24 April 1731) was an English writer, merchant and spy. He is most famous for his novel Robinson Crusoe, published in 1719, which is claimed to be second only to the Bible in its number of translations. He has been seen as one of the earliest proponents of the English novel, and helped to popularise the form in Britain with others such as Aphra Behn and Samuel Richardson. Defoe wrote many political tracts, was often in trouble with the authorities, and spent a period in prison. Intellectuals and political leaders paid attention to his fresh ideas and sometimes consulted him.
Defoe was a prolific and versatile writer, producing more than three hundred works—books, pamphlets, and journals—on diverse topics, including politics, crime, religion, marriage, psychology and the supernatural. He was also a pioneer of business journalism and economic journalism.
Early life
Daniel Foe was probably born in Fore Street in the parish of St Giles Cripplegate, London. Defoe later added the aristocratic-sounding "De" to his name, and on occasion made the false claim of descent from a family named De Beau Faux. "De" is also a common prefix in Flemish surnames. His birthdate and birthplace are uncertain, and sources offer dates from 1659 to 1662, with the summer or early autumn of 1660 considered the most likely. His father, James Foe, was a prosperous tallow chandler of probable Flemish descent, and a member of the Worshipful Company of Butchers. In Defoe's early childhood, he lived through several significant historical events: in 1665, seventy thousand were killed by the Great Plague of London, and the next year, the Great Fire of London left only Defoe's and two other houses standing in his neighbourhood. In 1667, when he was probably about seven, a Dutch fleet sailed up the Medway via the River Thames and attacked the town of Chatham in the raid on the Medway. His mother, Alice, had died by the time he was about ten. Education Defoe was educated at the Rev. James Fisher's boarding school in Pixham Lane in Dorking, Surrey. His parents were Presbyterian dissenters, and around the age of 14, he was sent to Charles Morton's dissenting academy at Newington Green, then a village just north of London, where he is believed to have attended the Dissenting church there. He lived on Church Street, Stoke Newington, at what is now nos. 95–103. During this period, the English government persecuted those who chose to worship outside the established Church of England. Business career Defoe entered the world of business as a general merchant, dealing at different times in hosiery, general woollen goods, and wine. His ambitions were great and he was able to buy a country estate and a ship (as well as civets to make perfume), though he was rarely out of debt. On 1 January 1684, Defoe married Mary Tuffley at St Botolph's Aldgate. She was the daughter of a London merchant, and brought with her a dowry of £3,700—a huge amount by the standards of the day. Given his debts and political difficulties, the marriage may have been troubled, but it lasted 47 years and produced eight children. and it may have been at this time that he traded wine to Cadiz, Porto and Lisbon. By 1695, he was back in England, now formally using the name "Defoe" and serving as a "commissioner of the glass duty", responsible for collecting taxes on bottles. In 1696, he ran a tile and brick factory in what is now Tilbury in Essex and lived in the parish of Chadwell St Mary nearby.
Writing
As many as 545 titles have been attributed to Defoe, including satirical poems, political and religious pamphlets, and volumes.
Pamphleteering and prison
, 1862)]]
Defoe's first notable publication was An Essay Upon Projects, a series of proposals for social and economic improvement, published in 1697. From 1697 to 1698, he defended the right of King William III to a standing army during disarmament, after the Treaty of Ryswick (1697) had ended the Nine Years' War (1688–1697). His most successful poem, The True-Born Englishman (1701), defended William against xenophobic attacks from his political enemies in England, and English anti-immigration sentiments more generally. In 1701, Defoe presented the ''Legion's Memorial to Robert Harley, then Speaker of the House of Commons—and his subsequent employer—while flanked by a guard of sixteen gentlemen of quality. It demanded the release of the Kentish petitioners, who had asked Parliament to support the king in an imminent war against France.
The death of William III in 1702 once again created a political upheaval, as the king was replaced by Queen Anne who immediately began her offensive against Nonconformists. In it, he ruthlessly satirised both the high church Tories and those Dissenters who hypocritically practised so-called "occasional conformity", such as his Stoke Newington neighbour Sir Thomas Abney. It was published anonymously, but the true authorship was quickly discovered and Defoe was arrested. Many regard it as one of the world's first examples of modern journalism.
In the same year, he set up his periodical A Review of the Affairs of France, which supported the Harley Ministry, chronicling the events of the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1714). The Review ran three times a week without interruption until 1713. Defoe was amazed that a man as gifted as Harley left vital state papers lying in the open, and warned that he was almost inviting an unscrupulous clerk to commit treason; his warnings were fully justified by the William Gregg affair.
When Harley was ousted from the ministry in 1708, Defoe continued writing the Review to support Godolphin, then again to support Harley and the Tories in the Tory ministry of 1710–1714. The Tories fell from power with the death of Queen Anne, but Defoe continued doing intelligence work for the Whig government, writing "Tory" pamphlets that undermined the Tory point of view.
Defoe began his campaign in The Review and other pamphlets aimed at English opinion, claiming that it would end the threat from the north, gaining for the Treasury an "inexhaustible treasury of men", a valuable new market increasing the power of England. By September 1706, Harley ordered Defoe to Edinburgh as a secret agent, and to secure acquiescence by using "underhand methods to predispose Scots' opinion in favour of" the Treaty of Union. He was conscious of the risk to himself. Thanks to books such as The Letters of Daniel Defoe (edited by G. H. Healey, Oxford 1955), far more is known about his activities than is usual with such agents.
His first reports included vivid descriptions of violent demonstrations against the Union. "A Scots rabble is the worst of its kind", he reported. Defoe reportedly "became fearful of being lynched after a threatening crowd surged up the High Street shouting 'No Union! No English dogs!'"|sign|source=}}
Defoe was a Presbyterian who had suffered in England for his convictions, and as such he was accepted as an adviser to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland and committees of the Parliament of Scotland. He told Harley that he was "privy to all their folly" but "Perfectly unsuspected as with corresponding with anybody in England". He was then able to influence the proposals that were put to Parliament and reported,
For Scotland, he used different arguments, even the opposite of those which he used in England, usually ignoring the English doctrine of the Sovereignty of Parliament, for example, telling the Scots that they could have complete confidence in the guarantees in the Treaty. Some of his pamphlets were purported to be written by Scots, misleading even reputable historians into quoting them as evidence of Scottish opinion of the time. The same is true of a massive history of the Union which Defoe published in 1709 and which some historians still treat as a valuable contemporary source for their own works. Defoe took pains to give his history an air of objectivity by giving some space to arguments against the Union, but always kept the last word for himself.
He disposed of the main Union opponent, Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun, by ignoring him. Nor does he account for the deviousness of the Duke of Hamilton, the official leader of the various factions opposed to the Union, who seemingly betrayed his former colleagues when he switched to the Unionist/Government side in the decisive final stages of the debate.
Aftermath
In 1709, Defoe authored a lengthy book entitled The History of the Union of Great Britain, an Edinburgh publication printed by the Heirs of Anderson. Defoe is cited twice in the book as its author, and gives details of the events leading up to the Acts of Union 1707, dating as far back as 6 December 1604, when King James I was presented with a proposal for unification. This so-called "first draft" for unification took place just a little over 100 years before the signing of the 1707 accord.
Defoe made no attempt to explain why the same Parliament of Scotland which was so vehemently in favour of remaining independent from 1703 to 1705 became so supine in 1706. He received very little reward from his paymasters and no recognition for his services by the government. He made use of his Scottish experience to write his ''Tour thro' the whole Island of Great Britain'', published in 1726, where he admitted that the increase of trade and population in Scotland which he had predicted as a consequence of the Union was "not the case, but rather the contrary".
Defoe's description of Glasgow (Glaschu) as a "Dear Green Place" has often been misquoted as a Gaelic translation for the town's name. The Gaelic Glas could mean grey or green, while chu means dog or hollow. Glaschu probably means "Green Hollow". The "Dear Green Place", like much of Scotland, was a hotbed of unrest against the Union. The local Tron minister urged his congregation "to up and anent for the City of God".
The "Dear Green Place" and "City of God" required government troops to put down the rioters tearing up copies of the Treaty at almost every mercat cross in Scotland. When Defoe visited in the mid-1720s, he claimed that the hostility towards his party was "because they were English and because of the Union, which they were almost universally exclaimed against". Late writing
The extent and particulars are widely contested concerning Defoe's writing in the period from the Tory fall in 1714 to the publication of Robinson Crusoe in 1719. Defoe comments on the tendency to attribute tracts of uncertain authorship to him in his apologia Appeal to Honour and Justice (1715), a defence of his part in Harley's Tory ministry (1710–1714). Other works that anticipate his novelistic career include The Family Instructor (1715), a conduct manual on religious duty; Minutes of the Negotiations of Monsr. Mesnager (1717), in which he impersonates Nicolas Mesnager, the French plenipotentiary who negotiated the Treaty of Utrecht (1713); and A Continuation of the Letters Writ by a Turkish Spy (1718), a satire of European politics and religion, ostensibly written by a Muslim in Paris.
, City Road, Borough of Islington, London]]
From 1719 to 1724, Defoe published the novels for which he is famous (see below). In the final decade of his life, he also wrote conduct manuals, including Religious Courtship (1722), The Complete English Tradesman (1726) and The New Family Instructor (1727). He published a number of books decrying the breakdown of the social order, such as The Great Law of Subordination Considered (1724) and ''Everybody's Business is Nobody's Business (1725) and works on the supernatural, like The Political History of the Devil (1726), A System of Magick (1727) and An Essay on the History and Reality of Apparitions (1727). His works on foreign travel and trade include A General History of Discoveries and Improvements (1727) and Atlas Maritimus and Commercialis (1728). Perhaps his most significant work, apart from the novels, is A Tour thro' the Whole Island of Great Britain (1724–1727), which provided a panoramic survey of British trade on the eve of the Industrial Revolution.
The Complete English Tradesman
Published in 1726, The Complete English Tradesman'' is an example of Defoe's political works. In the work, Defoe discussed the role of the tradesman in England in comparison to tradesmen internationally, arguing that the British system of trade is far superior. In the work, Defoe praised the practicality of trade not only within the economy but the social stratification as well. Defoe argued that most of the British gentry was at one time or another inextricably linked with the institution of trade, either through personal experience, marriage or genealogy. Robinson Crusoe relates the story of a man's shipwreck on a desert island for twenty-eight years and his subsequent adventures. Throughout its episodic narrative, Crusoe's struggles with faith are apparent as he bargains with God in times of life-threatening crises, but time and again he turns his back after his deliverances. He is finally content with his lot in life, separated from society, following a more genuine conversion experience.
In the opening pages of The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, the author describes how Crusoe settled in Bedfordshire, married and produced a family, and that when his wife died, he went off on these further adventures. Bedford is also the place where the brother of "H. F." in A Journal of the Plague Year retired to avoid the danger of the plague, so that by implication, if these works were not fiction, Defoe's family met Crusoe in Bedford, from whence the information in these books was gathered. Defoe went to school in Newington Green with a friend named Caruso.
The novel has been assumed to be based in part on the story of the Scottish castaway Alexander Selkirk, who spent four years stranded in the Juan Fernández Islands, Simon Ockley published an English translation in 1708, entitled The improvement of human reason, exhibited in the life of Hai ebn Yokdhan. Captain Singleton Defoe's next novel was Captain Singleton (1720), an adventure story whose first half covers a traversal of Africa which anticipated subsequent discoveries by David Livingstone and whose second half taps into the contemporary fascination with piracy. The novel has been commended for its sensitive depiction of the close relationship between the hero and his religious mentor, Quaker William Walters. Its description of the geography of Africa and some of its fauna does not use the language or knowledge of a fiction writer and suggests an eyewitness experience. Memoirs of a Cavalier Memoirs of a Cavalier (1720) is set during the Thirty Years' War and the English Civil War. A Journal of the Plague Year A Journal of the Plague Year, published in 1722, can be read both as novel and as nonfiction. It is an account of the Great Plague of London in 1665, which is undersigned by the initials "H. F.", suggesting the author's uncle Henry Foe as its primary source. It is a historical account of the events based on extensive research and written as if by an eyewitness, even though Defoe was only about five years old when it occurred.
Colonel Jack
Colonel Jack (1722) follows an orphaned boy from a life of poverty and crime to prosperity in the colonies, military and marital imbroglios, and religious conversion, driven by a problematic notion of becoming a "gentleman."
Moll Flanders
Also in 1722, Defoe wrote Moll Flanders'', another first-person picaresque novel of the fall and eventual redemption, both material and spiritual, of a lone woman in 17th-century England. The titular heroine appears as a whore, bigamist and thief, lives in The Mint, commits adultery and incest, and yet manages to retain the reader's sympathy. Her savvy manipulation of both men and wealth earns her a life of trials but ultimately an ending in reward. Although Moll struggles with the morality of some of her actions and decisions, religion seems to be far from her concerns throughout most of her story. However, like Robinson Crusoe, she finally repents. Moll Flanders is an important work in the development of the novel, as it challenged the common perception of femininity and gender roles in 18th-century British society.
Roxana
Defoe's final novel, Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress (1724), which narrates the moral and spiritual decline of a high society courtesan, differs from other Defoe works because the main character does not exhibit a conversion experience, even though she claims to be a penitent later in her life, at the time that she is relating her story. Patterns In Defoe's writings, especially in his fiction, are traits that can be seen across his works. Defoe was well known for his didacticism, with most of his works aiming to convey a message of some kind to the readers (typically a moral one, stemming from his religious background). Connected to Defoe's didacticism is his use of the genre of spiritual autobiography, particularly in Robinson Crusoe. Another common feature of Defoe's fictional works is that he claimed they were true stories of their subjects.
Attribution and de-attribution
Defoe is known to have used at least 198 pen names. It was a very common practice in eighteenth-century novel publishing to initially publish works under a pen name, with most other authors at the time publishing their works anonymously. As a result of the anonymous ways in which most of his works were published, it has been a challenge for scholars over the years to properly credit Defoe for all of the works that he wrote in his lifetime. If counting only works that Defoe published under his own name, or his known pen name "the author of the True-Born Englishman," there would be about 75 works that could be attributed to him.
Beyond these 75 works, scholars have used a variety of strategies to determine what other works should be attributed to Defoe. Writer George Chalmers was the first to begin the work of attributing anonymously published works to Defoe. In History of the Union, he created an expanded list with over a hundred titles that he attributed to Defoe, alongside twenty additional works that he designated as "Books which are supposed to be De Foe's." Chalmers included works in his canon of Defoe that were particularly in line with his style and way of thinking, and ultimately attributed 174 works to Defoe.
Biographer P. N. Furbank and W. R. Owens built upon this canon, also relying on what they believed could be Defoe's work, without a means to be absolutely certain. In the Cambridge History of English Literature, the section on Defoe by author William P. Trent attributes 370 works to Defoe. J.R. Moore generated the largest list of Defoe's work, with approximately five hundred and fifty works that he attributed to Defoe. He was often in debtors' prison. The cause of his death was labelled as lethargy, but he probably experienced a stroke. A street in the Bronx, New York, is named in his honour (De Foe Place). Selected works Novels * The Consolidator, or Memoirs of Sundry Transactions from the World in the Moon: Translated from the Lunar Language (1705)
* Robinson Crusoe (1719) – originally published in two volumes:
* ''The life and adventures of Mrs. Christian Davies, commonly call'd Mother Ross (1740) – published anonymously; printed and sold by R. Montagu in London; and attributed to Defoe but more recently not accepted by Moore. See also
* Apprentice complex
* Moubray House
* Robert Drury (sailor) – whose book has been suggested by some was written by Defoe
Notes
References
Further reading
* Backscheider, Paula R. Daniel Defoe: His Life (1989).
* Backscheider, Paula R. Daniel Defoe: Ambition and Innovation (UP of Kentucky, 2015).
* Baines, Paul. Daniel Defoe-Robinson Crusoe/Moll Flanders (Palgrave Macmillan, 2007).
*
*
*
* }}
* Gregg, Stephen H. Defoe's Writings and Manliness: Contrary Men (Routledge, 2016).
* Guilhamet, Leon. Defoe and the Whig Novel: A Reading of the Major Fiction (U of Delaware Press, 2010).
* Hammond, John R. ed. A Defoe companion (Macmillan, 1993).
* |doi10.1215/00982601-1548018 |s2cid=144469998}}
* Novak, Maximillian E. Daniel Defoe: Master of Fictions: His Life and Ideas (2001)
* |doi10.1353/elh.1996.0030 |s2cid=162892432}}
* Novak, Maximillian E. Realism, myth, and history in Defoe's fiction (U of Nebraska Press, 1983).
* Richetti, John. The Life of Daniel Defoe: A Critical Biography (2015).
*
* Sutherland, J.R. Defoe (Taylor & Francis, 1950)
Primary sources
* Curtis, Laura Ann, ed. The Versatile Defoe: An Anthology of Uncollected Writings by Daniel Defoe (Rowman and Littlefield, 1979).
* Defoe, Daniel. The Best of Defoe's Review: An Anthology (Columbia University Press, 1951).
* W. R. Owens, and Philip Nicholas Furbank, eds. The True-Born Englishman and Other Writings (Penguin Books, 1997).
* W. R. Owens, and Philip Nicholas Furbank, eds. Political and Economic Writings of Daniel Defoe (Pickering & Chatto, 2000).
* W. R. Owens, and Philip Nicholas Furbank, eds. Writings on Travel, Discovery, and History'' (Pickering & Chatto, 2001–2002).
External links
* [https://arheve.org/en/defoe-d Works by Daniel Defoe in the online library ARHEVE.org] and in the free [https://library.arheve.org/ ARHEVE app]
*
*
*
*
* [https://www.eighteenthcenturypoetry.org/authors/pers00346.shtml Daniel Defoe] at the [https://www.eighteenthcenturypoetry.org/ Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive]
* [http://ufdc.ufl.edu/defoe Full online versions of various copies of Defoe's Robinson Crusoe and the Robinsonades]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080117203855/http://www.literature.at/elib/index.php5?title=Daniel_Defoe_-_1660-1731#Information Full texts in German and English] – eLibrary Projekt (eLib)
* [http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/text/contents_page.jsp?t_id=Defoe The Journeys of Daniel Defoe around Britain] (from a Vision of Britain)
*
*
* [http://www.geopoesia.ru/ru/main/stat-main/01-crusoe-en.html Russian toponyms in Daniel Defoe's novels]
* [http://www.worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n79-53974 Defoe, Daniel 1661?–1731 WorldCat Identity]
* A System of Magick
* [http://aaronskirboll.com/ The Thief-Taker Hangings: How Daniel Defoe, Jonathan Wild, and Jack Sheppard Captivated London and Created the Celebrity Criminal by Aaron Skirboll]
Category:1660s births
Category:1731 deaths
Category:17th-century English merchants
Category:17th-century English writers
Category:17th-century journalists
Category:17th-century spies
Category:18th-century British journalists
Category:18th-century English businesspeople
Category:18th-century English male writers
Category:18th-century English novelists
Category:18th-century spies
Category:Anti-contraception activists
Category:Burials at Bunhill Fields
Category:English children's writers
Category:English essayists
Category:English male journalists
Category:English male novelists
Category:English pamphleteers
Category:English people of Flemish descent
Category:English people of French descent
Category:English Presbyterians
Category:English satirists
Category:English spies
Category:Haberdashers
Category:English male essayists
Category:Maritime writers
Category:Neoclassical writers
Category:People from Chadwell St Mary
Category:People from the City of London
Category:Mythopoeic writers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Defoe
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2025-04-05T18:28:29.380372
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8194
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December 8
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Events
Pre-1600
* 395 – Later Yan is defeated by its former vassal Northern Wei at the Battle of Canhe Slope.
*757 – The poet Du Fu returns to Chang'an as a member of Emperor Xuanzong's court, after having escaped the city during the An Lushan Rebellion.
* 877 – Louis the Stammerer (son of Charles the Bald) is crowned king of the West Frankish Kingdom at Compiègne.
*1504 – Ahmad ibn Abi Jum'ah writes his Oran fatwa, arguing for the relaxation of Islamic law requirements for the forcibly converted Muslims in Spain.
1601–1900
*1660 – A woman (either Margaret Hughes or Anne Marshall) appears on an English public stage for the first time, in the role of Desdemona in a production of Shakespeare's play Othello.
*1851 – Conservative Santiago-based government troops defeat rebels at the Battle of Loncomilla, signaling the end of the 1851 Chilean Revolution.
*1854 – In his Apostolic constitution Ineffabilis Deus, Pope Pius IX proclaims the dogmatic definition of Immaculate Conception, which holds that the Blessed Virgin Mary was conceived free of Original Sin.
*1863 – Between two and three thousand churchgoers die during the Church of the Company Fire. Deemed as probably the largest single building fire by number of victims in modern history, it began at the start of a Mass held at the Church of the Society of Jesus in Santiago, Chile, during the celebration of the recently proclaimed Feast of the Immaculate Conception.
*1864 – Pope Pius IX promulgates the encyclical Quanta cura and its appendix, the Syllabus of Errors, outlining the authority of the Catholic Church and condemning various liberal ideas.
1901–present
*1907 – King Gustaf V of Sweden accedes to the Swedish throne.
*1912 – Leaders of the German Empire hold an Imperial War Council to discuss the possibility that war might break out.
*1914 – World War I: A squadron of Britain's Royal Navy defeats the Imperial German East Asia Squadron in the Battle of the Falkland Islands in the South Atlantic.
*1922 – Two days after coming into existence, the Irish Free State executes four leaders of the Irish Republican Army: Liam Mellows, Rory O'Connor, Joe McKelvey and Dick Barrett.
*1933 – Anarchist insurrection breaks out in Zaragoza, Spain.
*1941 – World War II: U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt declares December 7 to be "a date which will live in infamy", after which the U.S. declares war on Japan.
* 1941 – World War II: Japanese forces simultaneously invade Shanghai International Settlement, Malaya, Thailand, Hong Kong, the Philippines, and the Dutch East Indies. (See December 7 for the concurrent attack on Pearl Harbor in the Western Hemisphere.)
*1943 – World War II: The German 117th Jäger Division destroys the monastery of Mega Spilaio in Greece and executes 22 monks and visitors as part of reprisals that culminated a few days later with the Massacre of Kalavryta.
*1953 – U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower delivers his "Atoms for Peace" speech, which leads to an American program to supply equipment and information on nuclear power to schools, hospitals, and research institutions around the world.
*1955 – The Flag of Europe is adopted by Council of Europe.
*1962 – Workers at four New York City newspapers (this later increases to nine) go on strike for 114 days.
*1963 – Pan Am Flight 214, a Boeing 707, is struck by lightning and crashes near Elkton, Maryland, killing all 81 people on board.
*1966 – The Greek ship sinks in a storm in the Aegean Sea, killing over 200.
*1969 – Olympic Airways Flight 954 strikes a mountain outside of Keratea, Greece, killing 90 people in the worst crash of a Douglas DC-6 in history.
*1971 – Indo-Pakistani War: The Indian Navy launches an attack on West Pakistan's port city of Karachi.
*1972 – United Airlines Flight 553, a Boeing 737, crashes after aborting its landing attempt at Chicago Midway International Airport, killing 45. This is the first-ever loss of a Boeing 737.
*1974 – A plebiscite results in the abolition of monarchy in Greece.
*1980 – John Lennon is murdered by Mark David Chapman in front of The Dakota in New York City.
*1985 – The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, the regional intergovernmental organization and geopolitical union in South Asia, is established.
*1987 – Cold War: The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty is signed by U.S. President Ronald Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in the White House.
* 1987 – An Israeli army tank transporter kills four Palestinian refugees and injures seven others during a traffic accident at the Erez Crossing on the Israel–Gaza Strip border, which has been cited as one of the events which sparked the First Intifada.
*1988 – A United States Air Force A-10 Thunderbolt II crashes into an apartment complex in Remscheid, Germany, killing five people and injuring 50 others.
*1990 – The Galileo spacecraft flies past Earth for the first time.
*1991 – The leaders of Russia, Belarus and Ukraine sign an agreement dissolving the Soviet Union and establishing the Commonwealth of Independent States.
*1992 – The Galileo spacecraft flies past Earth for the second time.
*1998 – Eighty-one people are killed by armed groups in Algeria.
*2001 – A raid conducted by the Internal Security Department (ISD) of Singapore foils a Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) plot to bomb foreign embassies in Singapore.
*2004 – The Cusco Declaration is signed in Cusco, Peru, establishing the South American Community of Nations.
* 2004 – Columbus nightclub shooting: Nathan Gale opens fire at the Alrosa Villa nightclub in Columbus, Ohio, killing former Pantera guitarist Dimebag Darrell and three others before being shot dead by a police officer.
*2009 – Bombings in Baghdad, Iraq kill 127 people and injure 448 others.
*2010 – With the second launch of the Falcon 9, and the first launch of the Dragon, SpaceX becomes the first private company to successfully launch, orbit and recover a spacecraft.
* 2010 – The Japanese solar-sail spacecraft IKAROS passes the planet Venus at a distance of about .
*2013 – Riots break out in Singapore, after a fatal accident in Little India.
* 2013 – Metallica performs a show in Antarctica, making them the first band to perform on all seven continents.
*2019 – First confirmed case of COVID-19 in China.
*2024 – Damascus falls to rebels after Syrian troops withdraw and president Bashar al-Assad leaves the country as his government collapses. Israel as a result invaded into the buffer zone between Syria and the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights.
Births
Pre-1600
*65 BC – Horace, Roman poet (d. 8 BC)
*1021 – Wang Anshi, Chinese economist and chancellor (d. 1086)
*1412 – Astorre II Manfredi, Italian lord (d. 1468)
*1418 – Queen Jeonghui, Queen consort of Korea (d. 1483)
*1424 – Anselm Adornes, Belgian merchant, politician and diplomat (d. 1483)
*1538 – Miklós Istvánffy, Hungarian politician (d. 1615)
*1542 – Mary, Queen of Scots, daughter of James V of Scotland and Mary of Guise (d. 1587)
*1558 – François de La Rochefoucauld, Catholic cardinal (d. 1645)
1601–1900
*1678 – Antonio de Benavides, colonial governor of Florida (d. 1762)
* 1678 – Horatio Walpole, 1st Baron Walpole, English politician and diplomat, British Ambassador to France (d. 1757)
*1699 – Maria Josepha of Austria (d. 1757)
*1708 – Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1765)
*1724 – Claude Balbastre, French organist and composer (d. 1799)
*1730 – Jan Ingenhousz, Dutch physician, physiologist, and botanist (d. 1799)
*1731 – František Xaver Dušek, Czech pianist and composer (d. 1799)
*1756 – Archduke Maximilian Francis of Austria (d. 1801)
*1765 – Eli Whitney, American engineer, invented the cotton gin (d. 1825)
*1795 – Peter Andreas Hansen, Danish astronomer and mathematician (d. 1874)
*1807 – Friedrich Traugott Kützing, German pharmacist, botanist and phycologist (d. 1893)
*1813 – August Belmont, Prussian-American financier and diplomat, 16th United States Ambassador to the Netherlands (d. 1890)
*1815 – Adolph Menzel, German painter and illustrator (d. 1905)
*1817 – Christian Emil Krag-Juel-Vind-Frijs, Danish lawyer and politician, 10th Prime Minister of Denmark (d. 1896)
*1818 – Charles III, Prince of Monaco (d. 1889)
*1822 – Jakov Ignjatović, Hungarian-Serbian author (d. 1889)
*1832 – Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Norwegian-French author and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1910)
*1860 – Amanda McKittrick Ros, Irish author and poet (d. 1939)
*1861 – William C. Durant, American businessman, founded General Motors and Chevrolet (d. 1947)
* 1861 – Aristide Maillol, French sculptor and painter (d. 1944)
* 1861 – Georges Méliès, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1938)
*1862 – Georges Feydeau, French playwright (d. 1921)
*1863 – Charles Lincoln Edwards, American zoologist (d. 1937)
*1864 – Camille Claudel, French illustrator and sculptor (d. 1943)
*1865 – Rüdiger von der Goltz, German general (d. 1946)
* 1865 – Jacques Hadamard, French mathematician and academic (d. 1963)
* 1865 – Jean Sibelius, Finnish violinist and composer (d. 1957)
*1874 – Ernst Moro, Austrian physician and pediatrician (d. 1951)
*1875 – Frederik Buch, Danish actor and screenwriter (d. 1925)
*1877 – Paul Ladmirault, French pianist, violinist, and composer (d. 1944)
*1880 – Johannes Aavik, Estonian linguist and philologist (d. 1973)
*1881 – Tuomas Bryggari, Finnish politician (d. 1964)
* 1881 – Albert Gleizes, French painter (d. 1953)
*1884 – Francis Balfour, English colonel and politician (d. 1965)
*1886 – Diego Rivera, Mexican painter and educator (d. 1957)
*1887 – Elizabeth Daryush, English poet (d. 1977)
*1890 – Bohuslav Martinů, Czech-American pianist and composer (d. 1959)
*1892 – Marcus Lee Hansen, American historian, author, and academic (d. 1938)
*1894 – E. C. Segar, American cartoonist, created Popeye (d. 1938)
* 1894 – James Thurber, American humorist and cartoonist (d. 1961)
*1899 – Arthur Leslie, English-Welsh actor and playwright (d. 1970)
* 1899 – John Qualen, Canadian-American actor (d. 1987)
*1900 – Sun Li-jen, Chinese general and politician (d. 1990)
* 1900 – Ants Oras, Estonian-American author and academic (d. 1982)
1901–present
*1902 – Wifredo Lam, Cuban-French painter (d. 1982)
*1903 – Zelma Watson George, Black American opera singer (d. 1994)
*1908 – Concha Piquer, Spanish singer and actress (d. 1990)
* 1908 – John A. Volpe, American soldier and politician, 61st Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1994)
*1911 – Lee J. Cobb, American actor (d. 1976)
* 1911 – Nikos Gatsos, Greek poet and songwriter (d. 1992)
*1913 – Delmore Schwartz, American poet and short story writer (d. 1966)
*1914 – Floyd Tillman, American country music singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2003)
* 1914 – Ernie Toshack, Australian cricketer (d. 2003)
*1915 – Ernest Lehman, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2005)
*1916 – Richard Fleischer, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2006)
*1917 – Ian Johnson, Australian cricketer and administrator (d. 1998)
*1919 – Peter Tali Coleman, Samoan-American lawyer and politician, 43rd Governor of American Samoa (d. 1997)
* 1919 – Julia Bowman, American mathematician and theorist (d. 1985)
* 1919 – Kateryna Yushchenko, Ukrainian computer scientist and academic (d. 2001)
*1920 – McDonald Bailey, Trinidadian-English sprinter and rugby player (d. 2013)
*1922 – Lucian Freud, German-English painter and illustrator (d. 2011)
* 1922 – Jean Ritchie, American singer-songwriter (d. 2015)
*1923 – Dewey Martin, American actor (d. 2018)
* 1923 – Rudolph Pariser, Chinese-American soldier and chemist (d. 2021)
*1924 – Lionel Gilbert, Australian historian, author, and academic (d. 2015)
*1925 – Sammy Davis Jr., American actor, singer, and dancer (d. 1990)
* 1925 – Nasir Kazmi, Pakistani Urdu poet (d. 1972)
* 1925 – Carmen Martín Gaite, Spanish author and poet (d. 2000)
* 1925 – Jimmy Smith, American organist (d. 2005)
*1926 – Ralph Puckett, American Army officer (d. 2024)
*1927 – Niklas Luhmann, German thinker and social theorist (d. 1998)
* 1927 – Vladimir Shatalov, Kazakhstani general, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2021)
*1928 – Bill Hewitt, Canadian journalist and sportscaster (d. 1996)
* 1928 – Ulric Neisser, German-American psychologist, neuroscientist, and academic (d. 2012)
*1929 – Victor Nosach, chronicler of the history of workers and trade union of Russia (d. 2011)
*1930 – Julian Critchley, English journalist and politician (d. 2000)
* 1930 – Maximilian Schell, Austrian-Swiss actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2014)
*1931 – Bob Arum, American boxing promoter, founded Top Rank
*1932 – Claus Luthe, German automotive designer (d. 2008)
*1933 – Johnny Green, American basketball player (d. 2023)
* 1933 – Flip Wilson, American actor and comedian (d. 1998)
*1935 – Dharmendra, Indian actor, producer, and politician
* 1935 – Tatiana Zatulovskaya, Russian-Israeli chess player (d. 2017)
*1936 – David Carradine, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2009)
*1937 – James MacArthur, American actor (d. 2010) (d. 2024)
*1943 – Larry Martin, American paleontologist and ornithologist (d. 2013)
* 1943 – Jim Morrison, American singer-songwriter and poet (d. 1971)
*1946 – Chava Alberstein, Polish-Israeli singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1946 – John Rubinstein, American actor, director, and composer
* 1953 – Norman Finkelstein, American author, academic, and activist
* 1953 – Roy Firestone, American sportscaster and journalist
* 1953 – Sam Kinison, American comedian (d. 1992)
* 1953 – Władysław Kozakiewicz, Lithuanian-Polish pole vaulter and coach
* 1953 – Steve Yates, English footballer
*1954 – Harold Hongju Koh, American lawyer, academic, and politician
* 1954 – Frits Pirard, Dutch cyclist
*1955 – Milenko Zablaćanski, Serbian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2008)
*1956 – Warren Cuccurullo, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1958 – Michel Ferté, French race car driver (d. 2023)
* 1958 – Bob Greene, American physiologist and author
* 1958 – Mirosław Okoński, Polish footballer
* 1958 – George Rogers, American football player
*1959 – Stephen Jefferies, South African cricketer and coach
* 1959 – Mark Steyn, Canadian-American author and critic
*1960 – Aaron Allston, American game designer and author (d. 2014)
* 1960 – Lim Guan Eng, Malaysian accountant and politician
*1961 – Mark Bugden, Australian rugby league player
* 1961 – Ann Coulter, American political commentator and author
* 1961 – Mikey Robins, Australian comedian and television host
*1962 – Steve Elkington, Australian-American golfer
* 1962 – Marty Friedman, American-Japanese guitarist, songwriter, and television host
*1966 – Bushwick Bill, Jamaican-American rapper (d. 2019)
* 1966 – Les Ferdinand, English footballer and coach
* 1966 – Matthew Labyorteaux, American actor
* 1968 – Mike Mussina, American baseball player and coach
* 1968 – Doriano Romboni, Italian motorcycle racer (d. 2013)
*1969 – Kristin Lauter, American mathematician and cryptographer
*1971 – Abdullah Ercan, Turkish footballer and manager
*1972 – Indrek Allmann, Estonian architect
* 1972 – Janae Kroc, American powerlifter
* 1972 – Édson Ribeiro, Brazilian sprinter
*1973 – Corey Taylor, American singer-songwriter, musician, and actor
*1981 – Jeremy Accardo, American baseball player
* 1981 – Simon Finnigan, English rugby league player
* 1981 – Philip Rivers, American football player
*1982 – Alfredo Aceves, Mexican baseball player
* 1982 – Halil Altıntop, Turkish footballer
* 1982 – Hamit Altıntop, Turkish footballer
* 1982 – Chrisette Michele, American singer-songwriter
* 1983 – Neel Jani, Swiss race car driver
* 1983 – Valéry Mézague, Cameroonian footballer (d. 2014)
*1984 – Emma Green Tregaro, Swedish high jumper
* 1984 – Greg Halford, English footballer
* 1984 – Sam Hunt, American singer-songwriter
* 1985 – Meagan Duhamel, Canadian figure skater
* 1985 – Dwight Howard, American basketball player
* 1985 – Oleksiy Pecherov, Ukrainian basketball player
*1986 – Enzo Amore, American wrestler and rapper
* 1986 – Amir Khan, English boxer
* 1986 – Sam Tagataese, New Zealand-Samoan rugby league player
* 1986 – Kate Voegele, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress
* 1989 – Jesse Sene-Lefao, New Zealand rugby league player
*1991 – Philip Holm, Swedish ice hockey player
*1991 – Bhavini Purohit, Indian television actress and YouTuber
*1992 – Mattias Janmark, Swedish ice hockey player
* 1992 – Yui Yokoyama, Japanese idol, model, and actress
*1993 – Janari Jõesaar, Estonian basketball player
* 1993 – Cara Mund, American model, Miss America 2018
* 1993 – Jordan Obita, English footballer
* 1993 – AnnaSophia Robb, American actress
*1994 – Cyriel Dessers, Belgian-Nigerian footballer
* 1994 – Conseslus Kipruto, Kenyan runner
* 1994 – Raheem Sterling, English footballer
*1995 – Thatcher Demko, American ice hockey player
*1996 – Scott McTominay, Scottish footballer
*1997 – Hakeem Adeniji, American football player
* 1997 – Sam Hauser, American basketball player
*1998 – Josh Dunne, American ice hockey player
* 1998 – Owen Teague, American actor
* 1999 – Tyrus Wheat, American football player
*2000 – DeMario Douglas, American football player
* 2000 – Bayron Matos, Dominican American football player
* 2000 – Andy Pages, Cuban baseball player
*2001 – Josh Christopher, American basketball player
*2002 – Sunghoon, South Korean singer
*2004 – Billie Starkz, American professional wrestler
<!-- Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please.
Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. -->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 855 – Drogo of Metz, illegitimate son of Charlemagne (b. 801)
* 899 – Arnulf of Carinthia (b. 850)
* 964 – Zhou the Elder, Chinese queen consort
*1186 – Berthold IV, Duke of Zähringen (b.c 1125)
*1292 – John Peckham, Archbishop of Canterbury
*1365 – Nicholas II, Duke of Opava (b. 1288)
*1431 – Hedwig Jagiellon, Polish and Lithuanian princess (b. 1408)
*1550 – Gian Giorgio Trissino, Italian humanist, poet, dramatist and diplomat (b. 1478)
*1596 – Luis de Carvajal the Younger, Marrano writer and martyr (b. 1566/1567)1601–1900
*1626 – John Davies, English poet, lawyer, and politician (b. 1569)
*1632 – Philippe van Lansberge, Dutch astronomer and mathematician (b. 1561)
*1638 – Ivan Gundulić, Croatian poet (b. 1589)
*1643 – John Pym, English politician (b. 1583)
*1649 – Noël Chabanel, French missionary and saint (b. 1613)
*1680 – Henry Pierrepont, 1st Marquess of Dorchester, English lawyer and politician (b. 1606)
*1691 – Richard Baxter, English minister, poet, and hymn-writer (b. 1615)
*1695 – Barthélemy d'Herbelot, French orientalist and academic (b. 1625)
*1709 – Thomas Corneille, French playwright and philologist (b. 1625)
*1722 – Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine (b. 1652)
*1734 – James Figg, English prizefighter
*1744 – Marie Anne de Mailly, French mistress of Louis XV of France (b. 1717)
*1745 – Étienne Fourmont, French orientalist and academic (b. 1683)
*1746 – Charles Radclyffe, English courtier and soldier (b. 1693)
*1756 – William Stanhope, 1st Earl of Harrington, English politician and diplomat, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1690)
*1768 – Jean Denis Attiret, French painter and missionary (b. 1702)
*1779 – Nathan Alcock, English physician (b. 1707)
*1815 – Mary Bosanquet Fletcher, Methodist preacher and philanthropist (b. 1739)
*1830 – Benjamin Constant, Swiss-French philosopher and author (b. 1767)
*1856 – Theobald Mathew, Irish social reformer and temperance movement leader (b. 1790)
*1859 – Thomas De Quincey, English journalist and author (b. 1785)
*1864 – George Boole, English mathematician and philosopher (b. 1815)
*1869 – Narcisa de Jesús, Ecuadorian saint (b. 1832)
*1885 – William Henry Vanderbilt, American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1821)
*1886 – Isaac Lea, American conchologist, geologist, and publisher (b. 1792)
*1894 – Pafnuty Chebyshev, Russian mathematician and theorist (b. 1821)
1901–present
*1903 – Herbert Spencer, English biologist, anthropologist, sociologist, and philosopher (b. 1820)
*1907 – King Oscar II of Sweden (b. 1829)
*1913 – Camille Jenatzy, Belgian race car driver (b. 1868)
*1914 – Melchior Anderegg, Swiss mountain guide (b. 1828)
* 1914 – Maximilian von Spee, Danish-German admiral (b. 1861)
*1917 – Mendele Mocher Sforim, Russian author (b. 1836)
*1918 – Josip Stadler, Bosnian Catholic archbishop (b. 1843)
*1919 – J. Alden Weir, American painter (b. 1852)
*1922 – Joe McKelvey and three other prominent Irish Republican Army officers are executed during the Irish Civil War
*1929 – José Vicente Concha, Colombian politician and 8th President of Colombia (b. 1867)
*1932 – Gertrude Jekyll, British horticulturist and writer (b. 1843)
*1937 – Hans Molisch, Czech-Austrian botanist and academic (b. 1856)
*1938 – Friedrich Glauser, Swiss author (b. 1896)
*1940 – George Lloyd, English-Canadian bishop and theologian (b. 1861)
*1941 – Izidor Kürschner, Hungarian football player and coach (b. 1885)
*1942 – Albert Kahn, American architect, Fisher Building, Packard Automotive Plant, Ford River Rouge Complex (b. 1869)
*1952 – Charles Lightoller, English sailor (b. 1874)
*1954 – Claude Cahun, French artist, photographer, and writer (b. 1894)
* 1954 – Gladys George, American actress (b. 1904)
* 1954 – Joseph B. Keenan, American lawyer and politician (b. 1888)
*1958 – Tris Speaker, American baseball player and manager (b. 1888)
*1963 – Sarit Thanarat, Thai field marshal and politician, 11th Prime Minister of Thailand (b. 1908)
*1966 – Ward Morehouse, American playwright, author, and critic (b. 1899)
*1971 – Ernst Krenkel, Russian geographer and explorer (b. 1903)
* 1971 – Eleni Ourani, Greek poet and critic (b. 1896)
*1975 – Gary Thain, New Zealand bass player (b. 1948)
*1978 – Golda Meir, Ukrainian-Israeli educator and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Israel (b. 1898)
*1980 – John Lennon, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1940)
*2006 – Martha Tilton, American singer (b. 1915)
* 2006 – José Uribe, Dominican baseball player (b. 1959)
*2007 – Gerardo García Pimentel, Mexican journalist (b. 1983)
*2008 – Oliver Postgate, English voice actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1925)
* 2008 – Robert Prosky, American actor (b. 1930)
*2009 – Luis Días, Dominican singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1952)
*2012 – Jerry Brown, American football player (b. 1987)
* 2012 – John Gowans, Scottish-English 16th General of The Salvation Army (b. 1934)
* 2012 – Johnny Lira, American boxer (b. 1951)
*2013 – John Cornforth, Australian-English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1917)
* 2013 – Sándor Szokolay, Hungarian composer and academic (b. 1931)
* 2013 – Richard S. Williamson, American lawyer and diplomat (b. 1949)
*2014 – Tom Gosnell, Canadian lawyer and politician (b. 1951)
* 2014 – Russ Kemmerer, American baseball player and coach (b. 1930)
* 2014 – Knut Nystedt, Norwegian organist and composer (b. 1915)
*2015 – Mattiwilda Dobbs, American soprano and actress (b. 1925)
* 2015 – Alan Hodgkinson, English footballer and coach (b. 1936)
* 2015 – Douglas Tompkins, American businessman, co-founded The North Face and Esprit Holdings (b. 1943)
* 2015 – John Trudell, American author, poet, and actor (b. 1946)
* 2015 – Elsie Tu, English-Hong Kong educator and politician (b. 1913)
*2016 – John Glenn, American astronaut and senator, first American to go into orbit (b. 1921)
*2018 – David Weatherall, English physician, geneticist, and academic (b. 1933)
*2019 – René Auberjonois, American actor (b. 1940)
* 2019 – Juice Wrld, American rapper, singer and songwriter (b. 1998)
* 2019 – Caroll Spinney, American puppeteer and actor (b. 1933)
*2021 – Robbie Shakespeare, Jamaican bass guitarist and record producer (b. 1953)
*2023 – Ryan O'Neal, American actor (b. 1941)
*2024 – Jill Jacobson, American actress (b. 1954)
*2024 – Clarke Reed, American businessman and politician (b. 1928)
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust “this year in history” websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
*Battle Day (Falkland Islands)
*Bodhi Day (Japan)
*CARICOM–Cuba Day (Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and Cuba)
*Christian feast day:
**Budoc (Beuzec) of Dol
**Clement of Ohrid (Julian Calendar), and its related observances:
***Student's Day (Bulgaria)
**Eucharius
**Feast of the Immaculate Conception (public holiday in several countries, a holy day of obligation in others), and its related observances:
***Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary (Anglican Communion), lesser commemoration
***Festa da Conceição da Praia, celebrating Yemanjá, Queen of the Ocean in Umbanda (Salvador, Bahia)
***Festival of Lights (Lyon)
***Mother's Day (Panama)
***Lady of Camarin Day (Guam)
**Patapios of Thebes
**Pope Eutychian
**Richard Baxter (US Episcopal Church)
**Romaric
** December 8 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Constitution Day (Romania)
*Constitution Day (Uzbekistan)
*Day of Finnish Music (Finland)
*Earliest day on which National Tree Planting Day can fall, while December 14 is the latest; celebrated on the second Monday in December. (Malawi)
*Hari-Kuyō (Kansai region, Japan)
*National Youth Day (Albania)
* Nations, Nationalities and Peoples' Day (Ethiopia)ReferencesExternal links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/8 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/december/8 Historical Events on December 8]
Category:Days of December
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_8
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Desmond Morris
|
| birth_place = Purton, England
| death_date | death_place
| alma_mater =
| thesis_title = The reproductive behaviour of the ten-spined stickleback
| thesis_url = http://solo.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/OXVU1:LSCOP_OX:oxfaleph020307817
| thesis_year = 1954
| doctoral_advisor = Niko Tinbergen
| nationality = <!-- use only when necessary per WP:INFONAT -->
| fields = Zoology
| known_for = The Naked Ape (1967)
| spouse
| children = 1
| occupation = Zoologist and ethologist
}}
Desmond John Morris FLS hon. caus. (born 24 January 1928) is an English zoologist, ethologist and surrealist painter, as well as a popular author in human sociobiology. He is known for his 1967 book The Naked Ape, and for his television programmes such as Zoo Time.
Early life and education
Morris was born in Purton, Wiltshire, to Marjorie (née Hunt) and children's fiction author Harry Morris. In 1933, the Morrises moved to Swindon where Desmond developed an interest in natural history and writing. He was educated at Dauntsey's School, a boarding school in Wiltshire.
In 1946, Morris joined the British Army for two years of national service, becoming a lecturer in fine arts at the Chiseldon Army College in Wiltshire. After being demobilised in 1948, he held his first one-man show of his own paintings at the Swindon Arts Centre, and studied zoology at the University of Birmingham. In 1950 he held a surrealist art exhibition with Joan Miró at the London Gallery. He held many other exhibitions in later years.CareerMorris stayed at Oxford, researching the reproductive behaviour of birds. In 1956 he moved to London as Head of the Granada TV and Film Unit for the Zoological Society of London, and studied the picture-making abilities of apes. From 1973 to 1981, Morris was a Research Fellow at Wolfson College, Oxford. In 1979 he undertook a television series for Thames TV, The Human Race, followed in 1982 by Man Watching in Japan, The Animals Road Show in 1986 and then several other series.
Morris is a Fellow honoris causa of the Linnean Society of London.
Parallel to his academic and media career, Morris continued to create paintings in a Surrealist style. His art career spanned 70 years of his long life, though for decades his paintings were not widely known. But gradually they featured in exhibitions and were bought by public galleries, including the Tate in London. In 2017 his paintings were the subject of a BBC Four documentary The Secret Surrealist. Morris continued to paint Surrealist artworks quite prolifically into his nineties.
Personal life
Morris's father suffered lung damage in World War I, and died when Morris was 14. He was not allowed to go to the funeral and said later; "It was the beginning of a lifelong hatred of the establishment. The church, the government and the military were all on my hate list and have remained there ever since." His grandfather William Morris, an enthusiastic Victorian naturalist and founder of the Swindon local newspaper,
Morris lived in the same house in North Oxford as the 19th-century lexicographer James Murray who worked on the Oxford English Dictionary. He has exhibited at the Taurus Gallery in North Parade, Oxford, close to where he lived. He is the patron of the Friends of Swindon Museum and Art Gallery and gave a talk to launch the charity in 1993. Since the death of his wife in 2018 he has lived with his son and family in Ireland.
Bibliography
Books*
* The Big Cats (1965) – part of The Bodley Head Natural Science Picture Books, looking at the habits of the five Big Cats.
* The Mammals: A Guide to the Living Species (1965) – a listing of mammal genera, non-rodent non-bat species, and additional information on select species.
* Men and Pandas (1966) with Ramona Morris – third volume in the Ramona and Desmond Morris animal series.
* – a look at the humanity's animalistic qualities and its similarity with other apes. In 2011, Time magazine placed it on its list of the 100 best or most influential non-fiction books written in English since 1923.
* Men and Snakes (1968) with Ramona Morris – an exploration of the various complex relationships between humans and snakes
* The Human Zoo (1969) – a continuation of The Naked Ape, analysing human behaviour in big modern societies and their resemblance to animal behaviour in captivity.
* Patterns of Reproductive Behavior (1970)
* Intimate Behaviour (1971) – A study of the human side of intimate behaviour, examining how natural selection shaped human physical contact.
* Manwatching: A Field Guide to Human Behaviour (1978) – includes discussion of topic "Tie signs"
* Gestures: Their Origin and Distribution (1979)
* Animal Days (1979)
* The Soccer Tribe (1981)
* Pocket Guide to Manwatching (1982)
* Inrock (1983)
* Bodywatching – A Field Guide to the Human Species (1985)
* The Book of Ages: Who Did What When (1985)
* The Art of Ancient Cyprus (1985)
* Catwatching and Cat Lore (1986)
* Dogwatching (1986)
* Horsewatching (1989)
* Animalwatching (1990)
* Babywatching (1991)
* Christmas Watching (1992)
* Bodytalk (1994)
* The Human Animal (1994) – book and BBC documentary TV series
* The Human Sexes (1997) – Discovery/BBC documentary TV series
* Cat World: A Feline Encyclopedia (1997)
* The Secret Surrealist: The Paintings of Desmond Morris (1999)
* Body Guards: Protective Amulets and Charms (1999)
* The Naked Eye (2001)
* Dogs: The Ultimate Dictionary of over 1,000 Dog Breeds (2001)
* Peoplewatching: The Desmond Morris Guide to Body Language (2002)
* The Naked Woman: A Study of the Female Body (2004)
* Linguaggio muto (Dumb Language) (2004)
* The Nature of Happiness (2004)
* Watching (2006) – autobiography
* Fantastic Cats (2007)
* The Naked Man: A Study of the Male Body (2008)
* Baby: A Portrait of the First Two Years of Life (2008)
* Planet Ape (2009) (co-authored with [Steve Parker])
* Owl (2009) – Part of the Reaktion Books Animal series
* The Artistic Ape (2013)
* Monkey (2013) – Part of the Reaktion Books Animal series
* Leopard (2014) – Part of the Reaktion Books Animal series
* Bison (2015) – Part of the Reaktion Books Animal series
* Cats in Art (2017) – Part of the Reaktion Books Animal series
* The Lives of the Surrealists (2018)
* Postures: Body Language in Art (2019)
* The British Surrealists'' (2022)
* "101 Surrealists" (2024)
Book reviews
{|class'wikitable sortable' width'90%'
|-
!|Year
!class='unsortable'|Review article
!class='unsortable'|Work(s) reviewed
|-
|1994
|
|
|}
Filmography
* Zootime (Weekly, 1956–67)
* Life (1965–67)
* The Human Race (1982)
* The Animals Roadshow (1987–89)
* The Animal Contract (1989)
* Animal Country (1991–96)
* The Human Animal (1994)
* The Human Sexes (1997)
Criticism
Some of Morris's theories have been criticised as untestable. For instance, geneticist Adam Rutherford writes that Morris commits "the scientific sin of the 'just-so' story – speculation that sounds appealing but cannot be tested or is devoid of evidence". However, this is also a criticism of adaptationism in evolutionary biology, not just of Morris.
Morris is also criticised for suggesting that gender roles have an evolutionary rather than a purely cultural background.
References
*
External links
*
*
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150722180324/http://faraxabooks.com/2015/04/30/new-release-dinjet-il-qattus-catlore/ Dinjet il-Qattus/Catlore by Desmond Morris], translated into Maltese by Toni Aquilina, D es Litt.
*
Category:1928 births
Category:Military personnel from Wiltshire
Category:20th-century British Army personnel
Category:Living people
Category:20th-century British artists
Category:20th-century English writers
Category:21st-century English painters
Category:21st-century English writers
Category:English contemporary artists
Category:Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford
Category:Alumni of the University of Birmingham
Category:English curators
Category:English painters
Category:English science writers
Category:English television presenters
Category:English zoologists
Category:Ethologists
Category:Fellows of the Zoological Society of London
Category:Fellows of Wolfson College, Oxford
Category:Founding members of the World Cultural Council
Category:Human evolution theorists
Category:People educated at Dauntsey's School
Category:People from Purton
Category:English surrealist artists
Category:The New York Review of Books people
Category:British Army soldiers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmond_Morris
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December 28
|
Events
Pre-1600
* 418 – A papal election begins, resulting in the election of Pope Boniface I.
* 457 – Majorian is acclaimed as Western Roman emperor.
* 484 – Alaric II succeeds his father Euric and becomes king of the Visigoths. He establishes his capital at Aire-sur-l'Adour (Southern Gaul).
* 893 – An earthquake destroys the city of Dvin, Armenia.
*1065 – Edward the Confessor's Romanesque monastic church at Westminster Abbey is consecrated.
*1308 – The reign of Emperor Hanazono of Japan begins.
1601–1900
*1659 – The Marathas defeat the Adilshahi forces in the Battle of Kolhapur.
*1768 – King Taksin's coronation achieved through conquest as a king of Thailand and established Thonburi as a capital.
*1795 – Construction of Yonge Street, formerly recognized as the longest street in the world, begins in York, Upper Canada (present-day Toronto).
*1832 – John C. Calhoun becomes the first Vice President of the United States to resign. He resigned after being elected Senator from South Carolina.
*1835 – Osceola leads his Seminole warriors in Florida into the Second Seminole War against the United States Army.
*1836 – South Australia and Adelaide are founded.
* 1836 – Spain recognizes the independence of Mexico with the signing of the Santa María–Calatrava Treaty.
*1846 – Iowa is admitted as the 29th U.S. state.
*1879 – Tay Bridge disaster: The central part of the Tay Rail Bridge in Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom collapses as a train passes over it, killing 75.
*1885 – Indian National Congress, a political party of India, is founded in Bombay Presidency, British India.
*1895 – The Lumière brothers perform for their first paying audience at the Grand Cafe in Boulevard des Capucines.
* 1895 – Wilhelm Röntgen publishes a paper detailing his discovery of a new type of radiation, which later will be known as x-rays.
1901–present
*1902 – The Syracuse Athletic Club defeat the New York Philadelphians, 5–0, in the first indoor professional football game, which was held at Madison Square Garden.
*1908 – The 7.1 Messina earthquake shakes Southern Italy with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme), killing between about 80,000.
*1912 – The first municipally owned streetcars take to the streets in San Francisco.
*1918 – Constance Markievicz, while detained in Holloway prison, becomes the first woman to be elected Member of Parliament (MP) to the British House of Commons.
*1941 – World War II: Operation Anthropoid, the plot to assassinate high-ranking Nazi officer Reinhard Heydrich, commences.
*1943 – Soviet authorities launch Operation Ulussy, beginning the deportation of the Kalmyk nation to Siberia and Central Asia.
* 1943 – World War II: After eight days of brutal house-to-house fighting, the Battle of Ortona concludes with the victory of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division over the German 1st Parachute Division and the capture of the Italian town of Ortona.
*1944 – Maurice Richard becomes the first player to score eight points in one game of NHL ice hockey.
*1948 – The DC-3 airliner NC16002 disappears south of Miami.
*1956 – Chin Peng, David Marshall and Tunku Abdul Rahman meet in Baling, Malaya to try and resolve the Malayan Emergency situation.
*1958 – "Greatest Game Ever Played": The Baltimore Colts defeat the New York Giants in the first ever National Football League sudden death overtime game at New York's Yankee Stadium to win the NFL Championship.
*1967 – American businesswoman Muriel Siebert becomes the first woman to own a seat on the New York Stock Exchange.
*1972 – The last scheduled day for induction into the military by the Selective Service System. Due to the fact that President Richard Nixon declared this day a national day of mourning due to former President Harry S Truman's death, approximately 300 men were not able to report due to most Federal offices being closed. Since the draft was not resumed in 1973, they were never drafted.
*1973 – The United States Endangered Species Act is signed into law by President Richard Nixon.
*1978 – United Airlines Flight 173 crashes in a residential neighborhood near Portland International Airport, killing 10 people.
*1989 – A magnitude 5.6 earthquake hits Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia, killing 13 people.
*2006 – War in Somalia: The militaries of Somalia's Transitional Federal Government and Ethiopian troops capture Mogadishu unopposed.
*2009 – Forty-three people die in a suicide bombing in Karachi, Pakistan, where Shia Muslims are observing the Day of Ashura.
*2014 – Indonesia AirAsia Flight 8501 crashes into the Karimata Strait en route from Surabaya to Singapore, killing all 162 people aboard.
* 2014 – Nine people die and another 19 are reported missing, when the MS Norman Atlantic catches fire in the Strait of Otranto, in the Adriatic Sea, in Italian waters.
Births
<!-- Please do not add yourself or anyone else without a biography in Wikipedia to this list.-->
Pre-1600
*1461 – Louise of Savoy, French nun (d. 1503)
*1510 – Nicholas Bacon, English politician (d. 1579)
*1535 – Martin Eisengrein, German theologian (d. 1578)
1601–1900
*1619 – Antoine Furetière, French author and scholar (d. 1688)
*1635 – Elizabeth Stuart, second daughter of King Charles I of England (d. 1650)
*1651 – Johann Krieger, German organist and composer (d. 1735)
*1655 – Charles Cornwallis, 3rd Baron Cornwallis, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Suffolk (d. 1698)
*1665 – George FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Northumberland, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Berkshire (d. 1716)
*1722 – Eliza Lucas, Caribbean-American agriculturalist (d. 1793)
*1724 – Christoph Franz von Buseck, Prince-Bishop of Bamberg (d. 1805)
*1763 – John Molson, English-Canadian brewer, founded the Molson Brewery (d. 1836)
*1775 – Jean-Gabriel Eynard, Swiss banker and photographer (d. 1863)
*1789 – Catharine Maria Sedgwick, American novelist of "domestic fiction" (d. 1867)
*1798 – Thomas Henderson, Scottish astronomer and mathematician (d. 1844)
*1818 – Carl Remigius Fresenius, German chemist and academic (d. 1897)
*1842 – Calixa Lavallée, Canadian-American lieutenant and composer (d. 1891)
*1856 – Woodrow Wilson, American historian and politician, 28th President of the United States, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1924)
*1865 – Félix Vallotton, Swiss/French painter (d. 1925)
*1870 – Charles Bennett, English runner (d. 1949)
*1882 – Arthur Eddington, English astronomer, physicist, and mathematician (d. 1944)
* 1882 – Lili Elbe, Danish model and painter (d. 1931)
*1887 – Werner Kolhörster, German physicist and academic (d. 1946)
*1888 – F. W. Murnau, German-American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1931)
*1890 – Quincy Wright, American political scientist, historian, and academic (d. 1970)
*1895 – Carol Ryrie Brink, American author and playwright (d. 1981)
*1898 – Carl-Gustaf Rossby, Swedish-American meteorologist and academic (d. 1957)
* 1898 – Shigematsu Sakaibara, Japanese admiral (d. 1947)
*1900 – Ted Lyons, American baseball player (d. 1986)
1901–present
*1902 – Mortimer J. Adler, American philosopher and author (d. 2001)
* 1902 – Shen Congwen, Chinese author and educator (d. 1988)
*1903 – Earl Hines, American pianist and bandleader (d. 1983)
* 1903 – John von Neumann, Hungarian-American mathematician and physicist (d. 1957)
*1907 – Ze'ev Ben-Haim, Ukrainian-Israeli linguist and academic (d. 2013)
*1908 – Lew Ayres, American actor (d. 1996)
*1910 – Billy Williams, American singer (d. 1972)
*1911 – Wil van Beveren, Dutch sprinter and journalist (d. 2003)
*1913 – Lou Jacobi, Canadian-American actor (d. 2009)
*1914 – Bidia Dandaron, Russian author and educator (d. 1974)
* 1914 – Pops Staples, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2000)
*1917 – Ellis Clarke, Trinidadian politician, 1st President of Trinidad and Tobago (d. 2010)
*1919 – Emily Cheney Neville, American author (d. 1997)
*1920 – Tufty Mann, South African cricketer (d. 1952)
* 1920 – Bruce McCarty, American architect, designed the Knoxville City-County Building (d. 2013)
* 1920 – Steve Van Buren, Honduran-American football player (d. 2012)
* 1920 – Al Wistert, American football player and coach (d. 2016)
*1921 – Johnny Otis, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2012)
*1922 – Lionel Bowen, Australian politician, 6th Deputy Prime Minister of Australia (d. 2012)
* 1922 – Stan Lee, American publisher, producer, and actor (d. 2018)
*1924 – Girma Wolde-Giorgis, Ethiopian politician; President of Ethiopia (d. 2018)
*1925 – Hildegard Knef, German actress and singer (d. 2002)
* 1925 – Milton Obote, Ugandan engineer and politician, 2nd President of Uganda (d. 2005)
*1926 – Donald Carr, German-English cricketer and referee (d. 2016)
*1928 – Moe Koffman, Canadian flute player, saxophonist, and composer (d. 2001)
* 1928 – John William Thomson, Canadian politician (d. 2025)
*1929 – Brian Redhead, English journalist and author (d. 1994)
* 1929 – Terry Sawchuk, Canadian-American ice hockey player (d. 1970)
* 1929 – Maarten Schmidt, Dutch astronomer (d. 2022)
*1930 – Mariam A. Aleem, Egyptian illustrator and academic (d. 2010)
*1931 – Guy Debord, French theorist and author (d. 1994)
* 1931 – Martin Milner, American actor (d. 2015)
*1932 – Dhirubhai Ambani, Indian businessman, founded Reliance Industries (d. 2002)
* 1932 – Dorsey Burnette, American singer-songwriter (d. 1979)
* 1932 – Roy Hattersley, English journalist and politician, Shadow Home Secretary
* 1932 – Harry Howell, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2019)
* 1932 – Nichelle Nichols, American actress (d. 2022)
* 1932 – Manuel Puig, Argentine author and playwright (d. 1990)
*1933 – John Y. Brown Jr., American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 55th Governor of Kentucky (d. 2022)
*1934 – Rudi Faßnacht, German footballer and manager (d. 2000)
* 1934 – Maggie Smith, English actress (d. 2024)
*1936 – Alan Coleman, English-Australian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2013)
* 1936 – Lawrence Schiller, American journalist, director, and producer
*1937 – Ratan Tata, Indian businessman and philanthropist (d. 2024)
*1938 – Dick Sudhalter, American trumpet player, scholar, and critic (d. 2008)
*1939 – Philip Anschutz, American businessman, founded Anschutz Entertainment Group
* 1939 – Frank McLintock, Scottish footballer and manager
* 1939 – Michelle Urry, American journalist and illustrator (d. 2006)
*1940 – A. K. Antony, Indian lawyer and politician, Indian Minister of Defence
* 1940 – Don Francisco, Chilean-American journalist and talk show host
*1941 – Intikhab Alam, Indian-Pakistani cricketer and coach
*1942 – Roger Swerts, Belgian cyclist
*1943 – Juan Luis Cipriani Thorne, Peruvian cardinal
* 1943 – David Peterson, Canadian lawyer and politician, 20th Premier of Ontario
* 1943 – Joan Ruddock, Welsh politician
*1944 – Sandra Faber, American astronomer and academic
* 1944 – Johnny Isakson, American sergeant and politician (d. 2021)
* 1944 – Kary Mullis, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2019)
* 1944 – Gordon Taylor, English footballer
*1945 – Birendra, King of Nepal (d. 2001)
* 1945 – Max Hastings, English journalist, historian, and author
*1946 – Mike Beebe, American lawyer and politician, 45th Governor of Arkansas
* 1946 – Pierre Falardeau, Canadian director, screenwriter, and activist (d. 2009)
* 1946 – Hubert Green, American golfer (d. 2018)
* 1946 – Tim Johnson, American lawyer and politician (d. 2024)
* 1946 – Barbara, Lady Judge, American-English lawyer and businesswoman (d. 2020)
* 1946 – Bill Lee, American baseball player and author
* 1946 – Laffit Pincay Jr., Panamanian jockey
* 1946 – Edgar Winter, American singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer
*1947 – Dick Diamonde, Dutch-Australian rock bass player (d. 2024)
* 1947 – Aurelio Rodríguez, Mexican baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 2000)
*1948 – Ziggy Modeliste, American drummer
*1950 – Alex Chilton, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2010)
* 1950 – Clifford Cocks, English mathematician and cryptographer
* 1950 – Rainer Maria Latzke, German-American painter and academic
*1952 – Arun Jaitley, Indian lawyer and politician, 9th Indian Minister of Law and Justice (d. 2019)
* 1952 – Bridget Prentice, Scottish educator and politician
*1953 – Richard Clayderman, French pianist
* 1953 – Tatsumi Fujinami, Japanese wrestler and promoter, founded Dradition wrestling promotion
* 1953 – Charlie Pierce, American journalist and author
* 1953 – Martha Wash, American singer-songwriter
*1954 – Tony Ables, American serial killer
* 1954 – Gayle King, American television journalist
* 1954 – Denzel Washington, American actor, director, and producer
*1955 – Stephen Frost, English comedian, actor, and screenwriter
* 1955 – Liu Xiaobo, Chinese author, academic, and activist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2017)
*1956 – Nigel Kennedy, English violinist
*1958 – Terry Butcher, English footballer and manager
* 1958 – Curt Byrum, American golfer
* 1958 – Zoran Gajić, Serbian volleyball trainer
*1959 – Hansjörg Kunze, German runner and sportscaster
* 1959 – Daniel Léo Simpson, American composer
* 1959 – Ana Torroja, Spanish singer-songwriter
*1960 – Ray Bourque, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1960 – John Fitzgerald, Australian tennis player, coach, and sportscaster
* 1960 – Chad McQueen, American actor and race car driver (d. 2024)
* 1960 – Melvin Turpin, American basketball player (d. 2010)
*1961 – Kent Nielsen, Danish footballer and manager
*1962 – Michel Petrucciani, French jazz pianist (d. 1999)
*1964 – Tex Perkins, Australian singer-songwriter
* 1964 – Maite Zúñiga, Spanish runner
*1965 – Allar Levandi, Estonian skier
*1967 – Chris Ware, American illustrator
*1968 – Akihiko Hoshide, Japanese engineer and astronaut
*1969 – Linus Torvalds, Finnish-American computer programmer, developed Linux kernel
*1970 – Elaine Hendrix, American actress
* 1970 – James Jett, American sprinter and football player
* 1970 – Brenda Schultz-McCarthy, Dutch tennis player
*1971 – Benny Agbayani, American baseball player
* 1971 – Sergi Barjuán, Spanish footballer and manager
* 1971 – Anita Doth, Dutch singer-songwriter
* 1971 – William Gates, American basketball player
*1972 – Roberto Palacios, Peruvian footballer
* 1972 – Patrick Rafter, Australian-Bermudian tennis player and model
* 1972 – Adam Vinatieri, American football player
*1973 – Holger Blume, German sprinter
* 1973 – Marc Blume, German sprinter
* 1973 – Seth Meyers, American actor, producer, screenwriter, and talk show host
* 1973 – Ids Postma, Dutch speed skater
*1974 – Jocelyn Enriquez, American singer
* 1974 – Rob Niedermayer, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1974 – Markus Weinzierl, German footballer and manager
*1975 – B. J. Ryan, American baseball player
*1976 – Brendan Hines, American actor and singer
* 1976 – Joe Manganiello, American actor
* 1976 – Trond Nymark, Norwegian race walker
* 1976 – Ben Tune, Australian rugby player
* 1976 – Igor Žiković, Croatian footballer
*1977 – Derrick Brew, American sprinter
* 1977 – Shane Elford, Australian rugby league player
* 1977 – Vanessa Ferlito, American actress
* 1977 – Seun Ogunkoya, Nigerian sprinter
*1978 – Chris Coyne, Australian footballer and manager
* 1978 – John Legend, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and actor
*1979 – James Blake, American tennis player
* 1979 – Senna Gammour, German singer-songwriter
* 1979 – Bill Hall, American baseball player
* 1979 – Zach Hill, American musician and artist
* 1979 – André Holland, American actor
* 1979 – Noomi Rapace, Swedish actress
*1980 – Lomana LuaLua, Congolese footballer
* 1980 – Ryta Turava, Belarusian race walker
*1981 – Khalid Boulahrouz, Dutch footballer
* 1981 – Elizabeth Jordan Carr, American journalist
* 1981 – Sienna Miller, American-British actress and fashion designer
* 1981 – David Moss, American ice hockey player
* 1981 – Narsha, South Korean singer and dancer
* 1981 – Frank Turner, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1981 – Mika Väyrynen, Finnish footballer
*1982 – Cedric Benson, American football player (d. 2019)
* 1982 – Beau Garrett, American actress and model
* 1982 – François Gourmet, Belgian decathlete
* 1982 – Curtis Glencross, Canadian hockey player
*1984 – Martin Kaymer, German golfer
* 1984 – Duane Solomon, American runner
*1986 – Tom Huddlestone, English footballer
*1987 – Thomas Dekker, American actor and musician
*1989 – Austin Barnes, American baseball player
* 1989 – Mackenzie Rosman, American actress
*1990 – Ayele Abshero, Ethiopian runner
* 1990 – Marcos Alonso, Spanish footballer
* 1990 – David Archuleta, American singer
* 1990 – John Henson, American basketball player
* 1990 – Bastiaan Lijesen, Dutch swimmer
*1992 – Tomáš Jurčo, Slovak ice hockey player
*1994 – Adam Peaty, English swimmer
*1995 – Dylan Cease, American baseball player
* 1995 – Mauricio Lemos, Uruguayan footballer
* 1995 – Nahitan Nández, Uruguayan footballer
*1996 – Tanguy Ndombele, French footballer
*2001 – Maitreyi Ramakrishnan, Canadian actress
*2002 – Tom Cannon, British-Irish footballer
<!--Please do not add yourself or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 925 – Wang Zongbi, general of the Chinese state of Former Shu
*1218 – Robert II, Count of Dreux (b. 1154)
*1297 – Hugh Aycelin, French cardinal (b. 1230)
*1326 – Sir David II Strathbogie, Earl of Atholl, Constable of Scotland, and Chief Warden of Northumberland
*1367 – Ashikaga Yoshiakira, Japanese shōgun (b. 1330)
*1394 – Maria Angelina Doukaina Palaiologina, queen of Epirus (b. 1350)
*1446 – Antipope Clement VIII (b. 1369)
*1491 – Bertoldo di Giovanni, Italian sculptor (b. c. 1435)
*1503 – Piero the Unfortunate, Italian ruler (b. 1471)
*1538 – Andrea Gritti, Doge of Venice (b. 1455)
*1547 – Konrad Peutinger, German humanist and antiquarian (b. 1465)
*1558 – Hermann Finck, German organist and composer (b. 1527)
1601–1900
*1622 – Francis de Sales, French bishop and saint (b. 1567)
*1663 – Francesco Maria Grimaldi, Italian mathematician and physicist (b. 1618)
*1671 – Johann Friedrich Gronovius, German scholar and critic (b. 1611)
*1694 – Mary II of England (b. 1662)
*1706 – Pierre Bayle, French philosopher and author (b. 1647)
*1708 – Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, French botanist and mycologist (b. 1656)
*1715 – William Carstares, Scottish minister and academic (b. 1649)
*1734 – Rob Roy MacGregor, Scottish outlaw (b. 1671)
*1736 – Antonio Caldara, Italian composer (b. 1670)
*1785 – Peter Ernst Wilde, Polish-Estonian physician and journalist (b. 1732)
*1795 – Eugenio Espejo, Ecuadorian physician and lawyer (b. 1747)
*1859 – Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay, English historian and politician, Secretary at War (b. 1800)
*1872 – James Van Ness, American lawyer and politician, 7th Mayor of San Francisco (b. 1808)
*1890 – Dennis Miller Bunker, American painter (b. 1861)
*1897 – William Corby, American priest and academic (b. 1833)
*1900 – Alexandre de Serpa Pinto, Portuguese soldier and explorer (b. 1846)
1901–present
*1907 – Louise Granberg, Swedish playwright (b. 1812)
*1913 – Ahmet Mithat Efendi, Turkish journalist and translator (b. 1844)
*1916 – Eduard Strauss, Austrian violinist and composer (b. 1835)
*1917 – Alfred Edwin McKay, Canadian captain and pilot (b. 1892)
*1918 – Olavo Bilac, Brazilian poet and journalist (b. 1865)
*1919 – Johannes Rydberg, Swedish physicist and academic (b. 1854)
*1924 – Léon Bakst, Russian painter and costume designer (b. 1866)
*1932 – Jack Blackham, Australian cricketer (b. 1854)
*1935 – Clarence Day, American author and illustrator (b. 1874)
*1937 – Maurice Ravel, French pianist and composer (b. 1875)
*1938 – Florence Lawrence, Canadian actress (b. 1886)
*1942 – Alfred Flatow, German gymnast (b. 1869)
*1943 – Steve Evans, American baseball player (b. 1885)
*1945 – Theodore Dreiser, American novelist and journalist (b. 1871)
*1946 – Elie Nadelman, Polish-American sculptor (b. 1882)
*1947 – Victor Emmanuel III of Italy (b. 1869)
*1949 – Jack Lovelock, New Zealand runner and soldier (b. 1910)
*1959 – Ante Pavelić, Croatian fascist dictator during World War II (b. 1889)
*1960 – Philippe Panneton, Canadian physician, academic, and diplomat (b. 1895)
*1963 – Paul Hindemith, German violist, composer, and conductor (b. 1895)
*1967 – Katharine McCormick, American biologist and philanthropist (b. 1875)
*1968 – David Ogilvy, 12th Earl of Airlie, Scottish peer, soldier and courtier (b. 1893)
*1971 – Max Steiner, Austrian-American pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1888)
*1976 – Katharine Byron, American politician (b. 1903)
*1981 – Allan Dwan, Canadian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1885)
*1983 – Dennis Wilson, American drummer, songwriter, and producer (b. 1944)
*1984 – Sam Peckinpah, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1925)
* 1984 – Mary Stewart, Baroness Stewart of Alvechurch, British politician and educator (b. 1903)
*1986 – John D. MacDonald, American colonel and author (b. 1916)
* 1986 – Jan Nieuwenhuys, Dutch painter (b. 1922)
*1989 – Hermann Oberth, Romanian-German physicist and engineer (b. 1894)
*1990 – Warren Skaaren, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1946)
*1992 – Sal Maglie, American baseball player and coach (b. 1917)
*1993 – William L. Shirer, American journalist and historian (b. 1904)
*1994 – Jean-Louis Lévesque, Canadian businessman and philanthropist (b. 1911)
*1999 – Clayton Moore, American actor (b. 1914)
*2001 – Samuel Abraham Goldblith, American lieutenant, biologist, and engineer (b. 1919)
* 2001 – William X. Kienzle, American priest and author (b. 1928)
*2003 – Benjamin Thurman Hacker, American admiral (b. 1935)
*2004 – Jerry Orbach, American actor and singer (b. 1935)
* 2004 – Susan Sontag, American novelist, essayist, critic, and playwright (b. 1933)
*2006 – Jamal Karimi-Rad, Iranian politician, Iranian Minister of Justice (b. 1956)
*2008 – Irene Lieblich, Polish-American painter and illustrator (b. 1923)
*2009 – Jimmy Sullivan, American musician, composer and songwriter. Known by his stage name The Rev (b. 1981)
*2010 – Billy Taylor, American pianist and composer (b. 1921)
* 2010 – Terry Peder Rasmussen, American serial killer (b. 1943)
*2012 – Nicholas Ambraseys, Greek-English seismologist and engineer (b. 1929)
* 2012 – Mark Crispin, American computer scientist and academic, designed the IMAP (b. 1956)
* 2012 – Václav Drobný, Czech footballer (b. 1980)
* 2012 – Frankie Walsh, Irish hurler and manager (b. 1936)
*2013 – Halton Arp, American-German astronomer and critic (b. 1927)
* 2013 – Esther Borja, Cuban soprano and actress (b. 1913)
* 2013 – Andrew Jacobs, Jr., American soldier, lawyer, and politician (b. 1932)
* 2013 – Alfred Marshall, American businessman, founded Marshalls (b. 1919)
* 2013 – Joseph Ruskin, American actor and producer (b. 1924)
* 2013 – Ilya Tsymbalar, Ukrainian-Russian footballer and manager (b. 1969)
*2014 – Leelah Alcorn, American transgender teenager (b. 1997)
* 2014 – Vahan Hovhannisyan, Armenian politician (b. 1956)
* 2014 – Frankie Randall, American singer-songwriter (b. 1938)
*2015 – John Bradbury, English drummer and songwriter (b. 1953)
* 2015 – Eloy Inos, Mariana Islander businessman and politician, 8th Governor of the Northern Mariana Islands (b. 1949)
* 2015 – Lemmy, English musician, singer, and songwriter (b. 1945)
*2016 – Debbie Reynolds, American actress, singer and dancer (b. 1932)
* 2016 – Jean-Christophe Victor, French political scientist (b. 1947)
*2017 – Rose Marie, American actress and comedienne (b. 1923)
*2021 – Grichka Bogdanoff, French television presenter and scientific essayist (b. 1949)
* 2021 – John Madden, American football Hall of Fame coach and commentator (b. 1936)
* 2021 – Harry Reid, American lawyer, politician, and former Senate majority leader (b. 1939)
*2022 – Philomena Franz, German Romani author (b. 1922)
*2023 – Vijayakanth, Indian actor and politician (b. 1952)
*2024 – Charles Dolan, American businessman, founded Cablevision and HBO (b. 1926)
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust “this year in history” websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
* Christian feast day:
** Abel (Coptic Church)
** Caterina Volpicelli
** Feast of the Holy Innocents or Childermas; in Spain and Latin American countries the festival is celebrated with pranks (inocentadas), similar to April Fools' Day (Catholic Church, Church of England, Lutheran Church), and its related observances:
***Els Enfarinats (Ibi, Spain)
** Simon the Athonite
** December 28 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
* King Taksin Memorial Day (Thailand)
* Proclamation Day (South Australia), celebration started on the day following Christmas (South Australia)
* Republic Day (South Sudan)
* The fourth of the Twelve Days of Christmas (Western Christianity)
References
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/28 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/december/28 Historical Events on December 28]
Category:Days of December
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_28
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2025-04-05T18:28:29.476043
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Denis Diderot
|
| birth_place = Langres, Champagne, France
| death_date
| death_place = Paris, France
| school_tradition =
| alma_mater = University of Paris
| main_interests Science, literature, philosophy, art ; 5 October 171331 July 1784) was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer, best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor, and contributor to the along with Jean le Rond d'Alembert. He was a prominent figure during the Age of Enlightenment.
Diderot initially studied philosophy at a Jesuit college, then considered working in the church clergy before briefly studying law. When he decided to become a writer in 1734, his father disowned him. He lived a bohemian existence for the next decade. In the 1740s he wrote many of his best-known works in both fiction and non-fiction, including the 1748 novel Les Bijoux indiscrets (The Indiscreet Jewels).
In 1751 Diderot co-created the Encyclopédie with Jean le Rond d'Alembert. It was the first encyclopedia to include contributions from many named contributors and the first to describe the mechanical arts. Its secular tone, which included articles skeptical about Biblical miracles, angered both religious and government authorities; in 1758 it was banned by the Catholic Church and, in 1759, the French government banned it as well, although this ban was not strictly enforced. Many of the initial contributors to the Encyclopédie left the project as a result of its controversies and some were even jailed. D'Alembert left in 1759, making Diderot the sole editor. Diderot also became the main contributor, writing around 7,000 articles. He continued working on the project until 1765. He was increasingly despondent about the Encyclopédie by the end of his involvement in it and felt that the entire project might have been a waste. Nevertheless, the Encyclopédie is considered one of the forerunners of the French Revolution.
Diderot struggled financially throughout most of his career and received very little official recognition of his merit, including being passed over for membership in the Académie Française. His fortunes improved significantly in 1766, when Empress Catherine the Great, who had heard of his financial troubles, generously bought his 3,000-volume personal library, amassed during his work on the Encyclopédie, for 15,000 livres, and offered him in addition a thousand more livres per year to serve as its custodian while he lived. He received 50 years' "salary" up front from her, and stayed five months at her court in Saint Petersburg in 1773 and 1774, sharing discussions and writing essays on various topics for her several times a week.
Diderot's literary reputation during his life rested primarily on his plays and his contributions to the Encyclopédie; many of his most important works, including Jacques the Fatalist, ''Rameau's Nephew, Paradox of the Actor, and D'Alembert's Dream, were published only after his death.
Early life
, his birthplace]]
Denis Diderot was born in Langres, Champagne. His parents were Didier Diderot, a cutler, maître coutelier'', and Angélique Vigneron. Of Denis' five siblings, three survived to adulthood: Denise Diderot, their youngest brother Pierre-Didier Diderot and, their sister Angélique Diderot. Denis Diderot greatly admired his sister Denise, sometimes referring to her as "a female Socrates".
Diderot began his formal education at a Jesuit college in Langres. In 1732 he received the degree of Master of Arts from the University of Paris. He abandoned the idea of entering the clergy in 1735 and, instead, decided to study at the Paris Law Faculty. His study of law was short-lived, however, and in the early 1740s he decided to become a writer and translator.
In 1742 he formed a friendship with Jean-Jacques Rousseau, whom he met while watching games of chess and drinking coffee at the Café de la Régence. named Angélique, after both Diderot's dead mother and his sister. The death in 1749 of his sister Angélique, a nun, in her convent, may have affected Diderot's opinion of religion. She is assumed to have been the inspiration for his novel about a nun, La Religieuse, in which he depicts a woman who is forced to enter a convent, where she suffers at the hands of her fellow nuns.
Diderot was unfaithful to his wife, and had affairs with Anne-Gabrielle Babuty (who would marry and later divorce the artist Jean-Baptiste Greuze), Madeleine de Puisieux, Sophie Volland, and Mme de Maux (Jeanne-Catherine de Maux), to whom he wrote numerous surviving letters and who eventually left him for a younger man.Philosophical Thoughts
In 1746, Diderot wrote his first original work: the Philosophical Thoughts (Pensées philosophiques). In this book, Diderot argued for a reconciliation of reason with feeling so as to establish harmony. According to Diderot, without feeling there is a detrimental effect on virtue, and no possibility of creating sublime work. However, since feeling without discipline can be destructive, reason is necessary to control feeling. in which a deist, an atheist, and a pantheist have a dialogue on the nature of divinity. The deist gives the argument from design. The atheist says that the universe is better explained by physics, chemistry, matter, and motion. The pantheist says that the cosmic unity of mind and matter, which are co-eternal and comprise the universe, is God. This work remained unpublished until 1830. Accounts differ as to why. It was either because the local police, warned by the priests of another attack on Christianity, seized the manuscript, or because the authorities forced Diderot to give an undertaking that he would not publish this work.<!--START OF NOTE--> The subject is a discussion of the relation between reasoning and the knowledge acquired through perception (the five senses). The title of his book also evoked some ironic doubt about who exactly were "the blind" under discussion. In the essay, blind English mathematician Nicholas Saunderson argues that, since knowledge derives from the senses, mathematics is the only form of knowledge that both he and a sighted person can agree on. It is suggested that the blind could be taught to read through their sense of touch. (A later essay, Lettre sur les sourds et muets, considered the case of a similar deprivation in the deaf and mute.) According to Jonathan Israel, what makes the Lettre sur les aveugles so remarkable, however, is its distinct, if undeveloped, presentation of the theory of variation and natural selection.
<blockquote>This powerful essay, for which La Mettrie expressed warm appreciation in 1751, revolves around a remarkable deathbed scene in which a dying blind philosopher, Saunderson, rejects the arguments of a deist clergyman who endeavours to win him around to a belief in a providential God during his last hours. Saunderson's arguments are those of a neo-Spinozist Naturalist and fatalist, using a sophisticated notion of the self-generation and natural evolution of species without creation or supernatural intervention. The notion of "thinking matter" is upheld and the "argument from design" discarded (following La Mettrie) as hollow and unconvincing.
The work appeared anonymously in Paris in June 1749, and was vigorously suppressed by the authorities. Diderot, who had been under police surveillance since 1747, was swiftly identified as the author, had his manuscripts confiscated, and he was imprisoned for some months, under a lettre de cachet, on the outskirts of Paris, in the dungeons at Vincennes where he was visited almost daily by Rousseau, at the time his closest and most assiduous ally.</blockquote>
Voltaire wrote an enthusiastic letter to Diderot commending the Lettre and stating that he had held Diderot in high regard for a long time, to which Diderot sent a warm response. Soon after this, Diderot was arrested.Incarceration and release
Angered by public resentment over the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, the government started incarcerating many of its critics. It was decided at this time to rein in Diderot. On 23 July 1749, the governor of the Vincennes fortress instructed the police to incarcerate Diderot, and the next day he was arrested and placed in solitary confinement at Vincennes. It was at this period that Rousseau visited Diderot in prison and came out a changed man, with newfound ideas about the disadvantages of knowledge, civilization, and Enlightenment – the so-called illumination de Vincennes.
Diderot had been permitted to retain one book that he had in his possession at the time of his arrest, Paradise Lost, which he read during his incarceration. He wrote notes and annotations on the book, using a toothpick as a pen, and ink that he made by scraping slate from the walls and mixing it with wine.}}
On 20 August, Diderot was moved to a comfortable room in the fortess and allowed to meet visitors and walk within the gardens. On 23 August, Diderot signed another letter promising never to leave the prison without permission. The work combined scholarship with information on trades. Diderot emphasized the abundance of knowledge within each subject area. Everyone would benefit from these insights.Controversies
Diderot's work, however, was mired in controversy from the beginning; the project was suspended by the courts in 1752. Just as the second volume was completed, accusations arose regarding seditious content, concerning the editor's entries on religion and natural law. Diderot was detained and his house was searched for manuscripts for subsequent articles: but the search proved fruitless as no manuscripts could be found. They had been hidden in the house of an unlikely confederate—Chretien de Lamoignon Malesherbes, who originally ordered the search. Although Malesherbes was a staunch absolutist, and loyal to the monarchy—he was sympathetic to the literary project. Along with his support, and that of other well-placed influential confederates, the project resumed. Diderot returned to his efforts only to be constantly embroiled in controversy.
These twenty years were to Diderot not merely a time of incessant drudgery, but harassing persecution and desertion of friends. The ecclesiastical party detested the Encyclopédie, in which they saw a rising stronghold for their philosophic enemies. By 1757, they could endure it no longer—the subscribers had grown from 2,000 to 4,000, a measure of the growth of the work in popular influence and power. It asserted the doctrine that the main concern of the nation's government ought to be the nation's common people. It was believed that the Encyclopédie was the work of an organized band of conspirators against society, and that the dangerous ideas they held were made truly formidable by their open publication. In 1759, the Encyclopédie was formally suppressed. some very slight, but many of them laborious, comprehensive, and long. He damaged his eyesight correcting proofs and editing the manuscripts of less scrupulous contributors. He spent his days at workshops, mastering manufacturing processes, and his nights writing what he had learned during the day. He was incessantly harassed by threats of police raids. The last copies of the first volume were issued in 1765.
In 1764, when his immense work was drawing to an end, he encountered a crowning mortification: he discovered that the bookseller, Le Breton, fearing the government's displeasure, had struck out from the proof sheets, after they had left Diderot's hands, all passages that he considered too dangerous. "He and his printing-house overseer", writes Furbank, "had worked in complete secrecy, and had moreover deliberately destroyed the author's original manuscript so that the damage could not be repaired." The monument to which Diderot had given the labor of twenty long and oppressive years was irreparably mutilated and defaced.La Religieuse (The Nun or Memoirs of a Nun)La Religieuse was a novel that claimed to show the corruption of the Catholic Church's institutions.Plot
The novel began not as a work for literary consumption, but as an elaborate practical joke aimed at luring the Marquis de Croismare, a companion of Diderot's, back to Paris. The Nun is set in the 18th century, that is, contemporary France. Suzanne Simonin is an intelligent and sensitive sixteen-year-old French girl who is forced against her will into a Catholic convent by her parents. Suzanne's parents initially inform her that she is being sent to the convent for financial reasons. However, while in the convent, she learns that she is actually there because she is an illegitimate child, as her mother committed adultery. By sending Suzanne to the convent, her mother thought she could make amends for her sins by using her daughter as a sacrificial offering.
At the convent, Suzanne suffers humiliation, harassment and violence because she refuses to make the vows of the religious community. She eventually finds companionship with the Mother Superior, Sister de Moni, who pities Suzanne's anguish. After Sister de Moni's death, the new Mother Superior, Sister Sainte-Christine, does not share the same empathy for Suzanne that her predecessor had, blaming Suzanne for the death of Sister de Moni. Suzanne is physically and mentally harassed by Sister Sainte-Christine, almost to the point of death.
Suzanne contacts her lawyer, Monsieur Manouri, who attempts to legally free her from her vows. Manouri manages to have Suzanne transferred to another convent, Sainte-Eutrope. At the new convent, the Mother Superior is revealed to be a lesbian, and she grows affectionate towards Suzanne. The Mother Superior attempts to seduce Suzanne, but her innocence and chastity eventually drives the Mother Superior to insanity, leading to her death.
Suzanne escapes the Sainte-Eutrope convent using the help of a priest. Following her liberation, she lives in fear of being captured and taken back to the convent as she awaits the help from Diderot's friend the Marquis de Croismare.
Analysis
Diderot's novel was not aimed at condemning Christianity as such but at criticizing cloistered religious life.
. Denis Diderot is the second from the right (seated).]]
Synopsis
The narrator in the book recounts a conversation with nephew of the famous composer Jean-Philippe Rameau. The nephew composes and teaches music with some success but feels disadvantaged by his name and is jealous of his uncle. Eventually he sinks into an indolent and debauched state. After his wife's death, he loses all self-esteem and his brusque manners result in him being ostracized by former friends. A character profile of the nephew is now sketched by Diderot: a man who was once wealthy and comfortable with a pretty wife, who is now living in poverty and decadence, shunned by his friends. And yet this man retains enough of his past to analyze his despondency philosophically and maintains his sense of humor. Essentially he believes in nothing—not in religion, nor in morality; nor in the Roussean view about nature being better than civilization since in his opinion every species in nature consumes one another.Posthumous publicationThe publication history of the Nephew is circuitous. Written between 1761 and 1774, Diderot never saw the work through to publication during his lifetime, and apparently did not even share it with his friends. After Diderot's death, a copy of the text reached Schiller, who gave it to Goethe, who, in 1805, translated the work into German. Goethe's translation entered France, and was retranslated into French in 1821. Another copy of the text was published in 1823, but it had been expurgated by Diderot's daughter prior to publication. The original manuscript was only found in 1891.
In 1759, Grimm asked Diderot to report on the biennial art exhibitions in the Louvre for the Correspondance. Diderot reported on the Salons between 1759 and 1771 and again in 1775 and 1781. Diderot appreciated Greuze's sentimentality, and more particularly Greuze's portrayals of his wife who had once been Diderot's mistress. He also wrote Paradoxe sur le comédien (Paradox of the Actor), written between 1770 and 1778 but first published after his death in 1830, which is a dramatic essay elucidating a theory of acting in which it is argued that great actors do not experience the emotions they are displaying.<!--START OF NOTE--> <!--END OF NOTE-->}}
He would occasionally make his point by slapping her thighs. In a letter to Madame Geoffrin, Catherine wrote:
In his 1754 book On the interpretation of Nature'', Diderot expounded on his views about nature, evolution, materialism, mathematics, and experimental science. It is speculated that Diderot may have contributed to his friend Baron d'Holbach's 1770 book The System of Nature. Diderot had enthusiastically endorsed the book stating that: commented on the great pleasure of having intellectual conversations with Diderot. Diderot's contemporary, and rival, Jean Jacques Rousseau wrote in his Confessions that after a few centuries Diderot would be accorded as much respect by posterity as was given to Plato and Aristotle.
As atheism fell out of favor during the French Revolution, Diderot was vilified and considered responsible for the excessive persecution of the clergy.
In the next century, Diderot was admired by Balzac, Delacroix, Stendhal, Zola, and Schopenhauer. According to Comte, Diderot was the foremost intellectual in an exciting age.Modern tributes
, by Jean Gautherin]]
Otis Fellows and Norman Torrey have described Diderot as "the most interesting and provocative figure of the French eighteenth century."
In 1993, American writer Cathleen Schine published ''Rameau's Niece'', a satire of academic life in New York that took as its premise a woman's research into an (imagined) 18th-century pornographic parody of Diderot's ''Rameau's Nephew. The book was praised by Michiko Kakutani in the New York Times as "a nimble philosophical satire of the academic mind" and "an enchanting comedy of modern manners."
French author Eric-Emmanuel Schmitt wrote a play titled Le Libertin (The Libertine'') which imagines a day in Diderot's life including a fictional sitting for a woman painter which becomes sexually charged but is interrupted by the demands of editing the Encyclopédie. It was first staged at Paris' Théâtre Montparnasse in 1997 starring Bernard Giraudeau as Diderot and Christiane Cohendy as Madame Therbouche and was well received by critics.
In 2013, the 300th anniversary of Diderot's birth, his hometown of Langres held a series of events in his honor and produced an audio tour of the town highlighting places that were part of Diderot's past, including the remains of the convent where his sister Angélique took her vows. On 6 October 2013, a museum of the Enlightenment focusing on Diderot's contributions to the movement, the Maison des Lumières Denis Diderot, was inaugurated in Langres.
The French government considered memorializing the 300th anniversary of his birth, but this did not come to pass.
Bibliography
* Essai sur le mérite et la vertu, written by Shaftesbury French translation and annotation by Diderot (1745)
* Philosophical Thoughts, essay (1746)
* La Promenade du sceptique (1747)
* The Indiscreet Jewels, novel (1748)
* ''Lettre sur les aveugles à l'usage de ceux qui voient (1749)
* (1750–1765)
* Lettre sur les sourds et muets (1751)
* Pensées sur l'interprétation de la nature, essai (1751)
* Systeme de la Nature (1754)
* Le Fils naturel (1757)
* Entretiens sur le Fils naturel (1757)
* Le père de famille (1758)
* Discours sur la poesie dramatique (1758)
* Salons'', critique d'art (1759–1781)
* La Religieuse, Roman (1760; revised in 1770 and in the early 1780s; the novel was first published as a volume posthumously in 1796).
* Le neveu de Rameau, dialogue (written between 1761 and 1774).
* Lettre sur le commerce de la librairie (1763)
* Jacques le fataliste et son maître, novel (written between 1765 and 1780; first published posthumously in 1796)
* Mystification ou l’histoire des portraits (1768)
* ''Entretien entre D'Alembert et Diderot (1769)
* Le rêve de D'Alembert, dialogue (1769)
* Suite de l'entretien entre D'Alembert et Diderot (1769)
* Paradoxe sur le comédien (written between 1770 and 1778; first published posthumously in 1830)
* Apologie de l'abbé Galiani (1770)
* Principes philosophiques sur la matière et le mouvement, essai (1770)
* Entretien d'un père avec ses enfants (1771)
* Ceci n'est pas un conte, story (1772)
* Madame de La Carlière, short story and moral fable, (1772)
* Supplément au voyage de Bougainville (1772)
* Histoire philosophique et politique des deux Indes, in collaboration with Raynal (1772–1781)
* Voyage en Hollande (1773)
* Éléments de physiologie (1773–1774)
* Réfutation d'Helvétius (1774)
* Observations sur le Nakaz (1774)
* Essai sur les règnes de Claude et de Néron (1778)
* Est-il Bon? Est-il méchant? (1781)
* Lettre apologétique de l'abbé Raynal à Monsieur Grimm (1781)
* Aux insurgents d'Amérique (1782)
See also
<!-- keep alphabetical -->
* Contributions to liberal theory
* Diderot effect
* Encyclopedist
* Encyclopédistes
* Euler, Leonhard
* List of liberal theorists
* Society of the Friends of Truth
* Paris Diderot University
* Denis Diderot House of Enlightenment
<!-- keep alphabetical -->
Notes
References
Further reading
* Anderson, Wilda C. Diderot's Dream. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990.
* App, Urs (2010). The Birth of Orientalism''. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, , pp. 133–187 on Diderot's role in the European discovery of Hinduism and Buddhism.
* Azurmendi, Joxe (1984). [http://www.jakingunea.com/show/879263b94d32016cd6f94d3b12adc871bec20e97 Entretien d'un philosophe: Diderot (1713–1784)], Jakin, 32: 111–121.
* Ballstadt, Kurt P.A. Diderot: Natural Philosopher. Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 2008.
* Blom, Philipp (2010). The Wicked Company. New York: Basic Books
* Blum, Carol (1974). Diderot: The Virtue of a Philosopher
* Brewer, Daniel. Using the Encyclopédie: Ways of Knowing, Ways of Reading. Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 2002.
*
* Clark, Andrew Herrick. ''Diderot's Part. Aldershot, Hampshire, England: Ashgate, 2008.
* Caplan, Jay. Framed Narratives: Diderot's Genealogy of the Beholder. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1986.
* Crocker, Lester G. (1974). Diderot's Chaotic Order: Approach to a Synthesis
* Curran, Andrew S. (2019). Diderot and the Art of Thinking Freely''
* D'Antuono, Giuseppina. (2021) "Historiographical heritages: Denis Diderot and the men of the French Revolution." Diciottesimo Secolo 6 (2021): 161–168. [https://oajournals.fupress.net/index.php/ds/article/download/11696/12429 online]
* De la Carrera, Rosalina. ''Success in Circuit Lies: Diderot's Communicational Practice. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1991.
* Dlugach, Tamara. [https://archive.org/details/DiderotDlugach Denis Diderot]. Moscow: Progress Publishers. 1988.
* Fellows, Otis E. (1989). Diderot
* France, Peter (1983). Diderot
* Fontenay, Elisabeth de, and Jacques Proust. Interpréter Diderot Aujourd'hui. Paris: Le Sycomore, 1984.
* Furbank, P.N. (1992). Diderot: A Critical Biography. New York: A.A. Knopf,. .
* Gregory Efrosini, Mary (2006). Diderot and the Metamorphosis of Species (Studies in Philosophy). New York: Routledge. .
* Havens, George R. (1955) The Age of Ideas. New York: Holt .
* Hayes, Julia Candler. The Representation of the Self in the Theater of La Chaussée, Diderot, and Sade. Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms International, 1982.
* Hazard, Paul. European thought in the eighteenth century from Montesquieu to Lessing'' (1954). pp. 378–394
* Kavanagh, Thomas. "The Vacant Mirror: A Study of Mimesis through Diderot's Jacques le Fataliste," in Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 104 (1973).
* Korolev, Serguei V. La Bibliothèque de Diderot: Vers une reconstitution. Ferney-Voltaire: Centre international d'etude du XVIIIe siecle, 2014.
*
* Lentin, A. "Catherine the Great and Denis Diderot" History Today (May 1972), pp. 313–332.
* Mason, John H. (1982). The Irresistible Diderot
* Peretz, Eyal (2013). "Dramatic Experiments: Life according to Diderot" State University of New York Press
* Rex, Walter E. ''Diderot's Counterpoints: The Dynamics of Contrariety in His Major Works. Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 1998.
* Saint-Amand, Pierre. Diderot. Saratoga, CA: Anma Libri, 1984.
* Simon, Julia (1995). Mass Enlightenment. Albany: State University of New York Press,. .
* Tunstall, Kate E. (2011). Blindness and Enlightenment. An Essay. With a new translation of Diderot's Letter on the Blind. Continuum
* Wilson, Arthur McCandless (1972). Diderot, the standard biography
* Vasco, Gerhard M. (1978). "Diderot and Goethe, A Study in Science and Humanism", Librairei Slatkine, Libraire Champion.
* Primary sources
* Diderot, Denis, ed. A Diderot Pictorial Encyclopedia of Trades and Industry, Vol. 1 (1993 reprint) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0486274284 excerpt and text search]
* Diderot, Denis. Diderot: Political Writings ed. by John Hope Mason and Robert Wokler (1992) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521369118 excerpt and text search, with introduction]
* Diderot, Denis. Thoughts on Religion'' (2002 edition) Translated and edited by Nicolas Walter. G.W. Foote & Co. Ltd. Freethinker's Classics No. 4. .
* [https://books.google.com/books?as_q&num10&lr&btnGGoogle+Search&as_epq&as_oq&as_eq&as_brr1&as_ptALLTYPES&lrlang_en&as_vt&as_authdiderot&as_pub&as_sub&as_drrb_isq&as_minm_is0&as_miny_is&as_maxm_is0&as_maxy_is&as_isbn&as_issn= Main works of Diderot in English translation]
* Hoyt, Nellie and Cassirer, Thomas. ''Encyclopedia, Selections: Diderot, D'Alembert, and a Society of Men of Letters. New York: Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1965. . .
* Kemp, Jonathan (ed). [https://archive.org/details/diderotinterpreterofnature Diderot, Interpreter of Nature: Selected Writings]''. New York: International Publishers, 1963.
External links
*
*
*
* [http://www.paysdevoltaire.eu/internet-une-nouvelle-relation-aux-sources-de-linformation/item/664-moteur-de-recherche-diderot-en-sciences-humaines-et-sociales.html Diderot] Search engine in French for human sciences in tribute to Diderot
* [http://records.viu.ca/~johnstoi/diderot/revedalembert_tofc.htm Denis Diderot: Rêve d'Alembert (d'Alembert's Dream) (French and English texts)]
* [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/diderot/1769/conversation.htm Conversation between D'Alembert and Diderot (alternate translation of the first part of the above)]
* [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/diderot/index.htm Denis Diderot Archive]
* [http://www.denis-diderot.com Denis Diderot Website (in French)]
* [http://diderot.alembert.free.fr/ On line version of the Encyclopédie]. The articles are classified in alphabetical order (26 files).
* [http://encyclopedie.uchicago.edu/ The ARTFL Encyclopédie], provided by the ARTFL Project of the University of Chicago (articles in French, scans of 18th century print copies provided)
* [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/d/did/ The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project], product of the Scholarly Publishing Office of the University of Michigan Library (an effort to translate the Encyclopédie into English)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050222075944/http://www.dromo.info/diderotbio.htm Short biography]
* [http://www.c18th.com/author-works.aspx?id219 Denis Diderot Bibliography]
* [http://www.traduire.de/G+D_1.htm Le Neveu de Rameau – Diderot et Goethe]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20061026.shtml The Encyclopédie], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Judith Hawley, Caroline Warman and David Wootton (In Our Time, 26 October 2006)
}}
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Diderot
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2025-04-05T18:28:29.528034
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8200
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Discovery of chemical elements
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The discoveries of the 118 chemical elements known to exist as of 2025 are presented here in chronological order. The elements are listed generally in the order in which each was first defined as the pure element, as the exact date of discovery of most elements cannot be accurately determined. There are plans to synthesize more elements, and it is not known how many elements are possible.
Each element's name, atomic number, year of first report, name of the discoverer, and notes related to the discovery are listed.
Periodic table of elements
{| border"0" cellpadding"0" cellspacing"2" style"table-layout:fixed; width:100%; background:; border:1px solid ; padding:2px; margin:0 auto;"
! colspan20 style"background:" | Periodic table by era of discovery
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! colspan3 style"text-align:left;" | Group →
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! colspan3 style"text-align:left;" | ↓ Period
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Graphical timeline
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textcolor:black fontsize:s
pos:(10,110) text:"Au: c. 40000 BC"
pos:(10,100) text:"C: 26000 BC"
pos:(10,90) text:"Cu: 9000 BC"
pos:(10,80) text:"Pb: 7000 BC"
pos:(10,70) text:"Ag,"
pos:(28,70) text:"Fe: by 5000 BC"
pos:(110,110) text:"Sn: 3500 BC"
pos:(110,100) text:"Sb: 3000 BC"
pos:(110,90) text:"S: by 2000 BC"
pos:(110,80) text:"Hg: 1500 BC"
pos:(110,70) text:"Zn: by 1000 BC"
pos:(200,110) text:"Pt: c. 600 BC–AD 200"
# pos:(200,110) text:"Au: 6000 BC"
pos:(200,100) text:"As: c. AD 300"
pos:(200,90) text:"Bi: c. 1500"
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at:1702 mark:(line,black) text:"Na"
at:1755 mark:(line,black) text:"Mg"
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at:1669 mark:(line,black) text:"P"
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at:1894 mark:(line,black) text:"Ar"
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at:1702 mark:(line,black) text:"K"
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at:1801 mark:(line,black) text:"V"
shift:(0,10)
at:1797 mark:(line,black) text:"Cr"
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at:1751 mark:(line,black) text:"Ni"
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at:1886 mark:(line,black) text:"Ge"
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at:1817 mark:(line,black) text:"Se"
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at:1825 mark:(line,black) text:"Br"
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at:1898 mark:(line,black) text:"Kr"
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at:1861 mark:(line,black) text:"Rb"
shift:(-2,30)
at:1790 mark:(line,black) text:"Sr"
shift:(0,10)
at:1794 mark:(line,black) text:"Y"
shift:(0,10)
at:1789 mark:(line,black) text:"Zr"
shift:(0,20)
at:1801 mark:(line,black) text:"Nb"
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at:1778 mark:(line,black) text:"Mo"
shift:(0,10)
at:1937 mark:(line,black) text:"Tc"
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at:1844 mark:(line,black) text:"Ru"
at:1804 mark:(line,black) text:"Rh"
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at:1802 mark:(line,black) text:"Pd"
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at:1817 mark:(line,black) text:"Cd"
shift:(0,10)
at:1863 mark:(line,black) text:"In"
shift:(0,20)
at:1782 mark:(line,black) text:"Te"
shift:(0,10)
at:1811 mark:(line,black) text:"I"
shift:(0,50)
at:1898 mark:(line,black) text:"Xe"
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at:1860 mark:(line,black) text:"Cs"
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at:1772 mark:(line,black) text:"Ba"
shift:(0,10)
at:1838 mark:(line,black) text:"La"
shift:(0,50)
at:1803 mark:(line,black) text:"Ce"
shift:(0,10)
at:1885 mark:(line,black) text:"Pr"
shift:(0,20)
at:1841 mark:(line,black) text:"Nd"
shift:(0,10)
at:1945 mark:(line,black) text:"Pm"
shift:(0,40)
at:1879 mark:(line,black) text:"Sm"
shift:(0,20)
at:1896 mark:(line,black) text:"Eu"
shift:(0,60)
at:1880 mark:(line,black) text:"Gd"
shift:(0,30)
at:1843 mark:(line,black) text:"Tb"
shift:(0,30)
at:1886 mark:(line,black) text:"Dy"
shift:(0,10)
at:1878 mark:(line,black) text:"Ho"
shift:(0,40)
at:1843 mark:(line,black) text:"Er"
shift:(0,50)
at:1879 mark:(line,black) text:"Tm"
shift:(0,20)
at:1878 mark:(line,black) text:"Yb"
shift:(0,10)
at:1906 mark:(line,black) text:"Lu"
shift:(0,10)
at:1922 mark:(line,black) text:"Hf"
shift:(0,40)
at:1802 mark:(line,black) text:"Ta"
shift:(0,10)
at:1781 mark:(line,black) text:"W"
shift:(0,20)
at:1908 mark:(line,black) text:"Re"
shift:(0,60)
at:1803 mark:(line,black) text:"Os"
shift:(0,70)
at:1803 mark:(line,black) text:"Ir"
shift:(0,30)
at:1861 mark:(line,black) text:"Tl"
shift:(0,60)
at:1898 mark:(line,black) text:"Po"
shift:(0,30)
at:1940 mark:(line,black) text:"At"
shift:(0,10)
at:1899 mark:(line,black) text:"Rn"
shift:(0,20)
at:1939 mark:(line,black) text:"Fr"
shift:(0,70)
at:1898 mark:(line,black) text:"Ra"
shift:(0,10)
at:1902 mark:(line,black) text:"Ac"
shift:(0,10)
at:1829 mark:(line,black) text:"Th"
shift:(0,10)
at:1913 mark:(line,black) text:"Pa"
shift:(0,20)
at:1789 mark:(line,black) text:"U"
shift:(0,40)
at:1940 mark:(line,black) text:"Np"
shift:(0,10)
at:1941 mark:(line,black) text:"Pu"
shift:(0,30)
at:1944 mark:(line,black) text:"Am"
shift:(0,20)
at:1944 mark:(line,black) text:"Cm"
shift:(0,10)
at:1949 mark:(line,black) text:"Bk"
shift:(0,20)
at:1950 mark:(line,black) text:"Cf"
shift:(0,10)
at:1952 mark:(line,black) text:"Es"
shift:(0,20)
at:1953 mark:(line,black) text:"Fm"
shift:(0,10)
at:1955 mark:(line,black) text:"Md"
shift:(0,10)
at:1965 mark:(line,black) text:"No"
shift:(0,10)
at:1961 mark:(line,black) text:"Lr"
shift:(0,10)
at:1969 mark:(line,black) text:"Rf"
shift:(0,20)
at:1970 mark:(line,black) text:"Db"
shift:(0,10)
at:1974 mark:(line,black) text:"Sg"
shift:(0,10)
at:1981 mark:(line,black) text:"Bh"
shift:(0,10)
at:1984 mark:(line,black) text:"Hs"
shift:(0,20)
at:1982 mark:(line,black) text:"Mt"
shift:(0,10)
at:1994 mark:(line,black) text:"Ds"
shift:(0,20)
at:1994 mark:(line,black) text:"Rg"
shift:(0,30)
at:1996 mark:(line,black) text:"Cn"
shift:(0,20)
at:2003 mark:(line,black) text:"Nh"
shift:(0,10)
at:1999 mark:(line,black) text:"Fl"
shift:(0,30)
at:2003 mark:(line,black) text:"Mc"
shift:(0,20)
at:2000 mark:(line,black) text:"Lv"
shift:(0,10)
at:2009 mark:(line,black) text:"Ts"
shift:(0,10)
at:2002 mark:(line,black) text:"Og"
</timeline>
Cumulative diagram
Pre-modern and early modern discoveries
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Z
! Element
! data-sort-type="number"|Earliest use
! data-sort-type="number"|Oldest <br />existing <br />sample
! Discoverer(s)
! Place of <br />oldest <br />sample
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 79
| Gold
| data-sort-value=-40000|
| data-sort-value=-4400|4600 BC – 4200 BC
| Earliest humans
| Varna Necropolis
| Small amounts of natural gold have been found in Spanish caves used during the late Paleolithic period, . The earliest gold artifacts dating to 4600 BC to 4200 BC were discovered at the site of Varna Necropolis, Bulgaria. Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787. The earliest known industrial use of charcoal was for the reduction of copper, zinc, and tin ores in the manufacture of bronze, by the Egyptians and Sumerians. Diamonds were probably known as early as 2500 BC. True chemical analyses were made in the 18th century, and in 1772 Antoine Lavoisier demonstrated that diamond, graphite, and charcoal are all composed of the same substance. and the archaeological site of Belovode on the Rudnik mountain in Serbia contains the world's oldest securely dated evidence of copper smelting from 5000 BC. Recognised as an element by Louis Guyton de Morveau, Antoine Lavoisier, Claude Berthollet, and Antoine-François de Fourcroy in 1787. Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787. Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787. The oldest known iron objects used by humans are some beads of meteoric iron, made in Egypt in about 4000 BC. The discovery of smelting around 3000 BC led to the start of the Iron Age around 1200 BC and the prominent use of iron for tools and weapons. Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787. Kestel, in southern Turkey, is the site of an ancient Cassiterite mine that was used from 3250 to 1800 BC. The oldest artifacts date from around 2000 BC. Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787. Dioscorides and Pliny both describe the accidental production of metallic antimony from stibnite, but only seem to recognize the metal as lead. The intentional isolation of antimony is described in the works attributed to the Muslim alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan (–950). Described again by Georgius Agricola De re metallica in 1556. Probably first recognised as an element by Lavoisier in 1787. According to the Ebers Papyrus, a sulfur ointment was used in ancient Egypt to treat granular eyelids. (The Ebers papyrus was written c. 1550 BC, but is believed to have been copied from earlier texts.) Designated as one of the two elements of which all metals are composed in the sulfur-mercury theory of metals, first described in pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana's Sirr al-khaliqa ('Secret of Creation') and in the works attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan (both 8th or 9th century). Designated as a universal element (one of the tria prima) by Paracelsus in the early 16th century.<!-- Sources as the target page tria prima (redirect to Paracelsus#Chemistry) --> Recognized as an element by Lavoisier in 1777, which was supported by John Dalton in 1808 and confirmed by Joseph Gay-Lussac and Louis Jacques Thénard in 1810. Cinnabar deposits in Turkey, exploited from 8000 years ago, also contain minor amounts of mercury metal. Found in Egyptian tombs dating from 1500 BC. Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787. Zinc smelting was done in China and India around 1300. and by the alchemist Paracelsus in 1526, who gave it its present name and described it as a new metal.
|-
| 78
| Platinum
| data-sort-value=-600|c. 600 BC – AD 200
| data-sort-value=-600|c. 600 BC – AD 200
| Pre-Columbian South Americans
| South America
| Used by pre-Columbian Americans near modern-day Esmeraldas, Ecuador to produce artifacts of a white gold-platinum alloy, although precise dating is difficult. A small box from the burial of the Pharaoh Shepenupet II (died around 650 BC) was found to be decorated with gold-platinum hieroglyphics, but the Egyptians may not have recognised that there was platinum in their gold. First European description of a metal found in South American gold was in 1557 by Julius Caesar Scaliger. Antonio de Ulloa was on an expedition to Peru in 1735, where he observed the metal; he published his findings in 1748. Charles Wood also investigated the metal in 1741. First reference to it as a new metal was made by William Brownrigg in 1750.
|-
| 33
| Arsenic
| data-sort-value=300|c. AD 300
| data-sort-value=300|c. AD 300
| Egyptians
| Middle East
| The use of metallic arsenic was described by the Egyptian alchemist Zosimos. <!--possibly also in the leyden papyrus--> The purification of arsenic was later described in the works attributed to the Muslim alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan (–950). Albertus Magnus (–1280) is typically credited with the description of the metal in the West, though some question his work and instead credit Vannoccio Biringuccio, whose De la pirotechnia (1540) distinguishes orpiment from crystalline arsenic. The first to unquestionably have prepared metallic arsenic was Johann Schröder in 1641. Recognised as an element after Lavoisier's definition in 1787.
| data-sort-value=1500|
| European alchemists and Inca civilisation
| Europe and South America
| Bismuth was known since ancient times, but often confused with tin and lead, which are chemically similar. The Incas used bismuth (along with the usual copper and tin) in a special bronze alloy for knives. Agricola (1530 and 1546) states that bismuth is a distinct metal in a family of metals including tin and lead. This was based on observation of the metals and their physical properties. Miners in the age of alchemy also gave bismuth the name , or "silver being made" in the sense of silver still in the process of being formed within the Earth. Beginning with Johann Heinrich Pott in 1738, Carl Wilhelm Scheele, and Torbern Olof Bergman, the distinctness of lead and bismuth became clear, and Claude François Geoffroy demonstrated in 1753 that this metal is distinct from lead and tin.
|}
Modern discoveries
For 18th-century discoveries, around the time that Antoine Lavoisier first questioned the phlogiston theory, the recognition of a new "earth" has been regarded as being equivalent to the discovery of a new element (as was the general practice then). For some elements (e.g. Be, B, Na, Mg, Al, Si, K, Ca, Mn, Co, Ni, Zr, Mo), this presents further difficulties as their compounds were widely known since medieval or even ancient times, even though the elements themselves were not. Since the true nature of those compounds was sometimes only gradually discovered, it is sometimes very difficult to name one specific discoverer. Its name first appears in print in the work of in 1676. Recognised as an element by Lavoisier. Henry Cavendish in 1766 was the first to distinguish from other gases. Lavoisier named it in 1783. It was the first elemental gas known.
|-
| 11
| Sodium
| 1702
| G. E. Stahl
| 1807
| H. Davy
| rowspan2|Georg Ernst Stahl obtained experimental evidence that led him to suggest the fundamental difference of sodium and potassium salts in 1702, and Henri Louis Duhamel du Monceau was able to prove this difference in 1736. Andreas Sigismund Marggraf again recognised the difference between soda ash and potash in 1758, but not all chemists accepted his conclusion. In 1797, Martin Heinrich Klaproth suggested the names natron and kali for the two alkalis (whence the symbols). Davy isolated sodium metal a few days after potassium, by using electrolysis on sodium hydroxide and potash respectively.
|-
| 19
| Potassium
| 1702
| G. E. Stahl
| 1807
| H. Davy
|-
| 27
| Cobalt
| 1735
| G. Brandt
| 1735
| G. Brandt
| Proved that the blue color of glass is due to a new kind of metal and not bismuth as thought previously.
|-
| 20
| Calcium
| 1739
| J. H. Pott
| 1808
| H. Davy
| Lime was known as a substance for centuries, but only in the 18th century was its chemical nature recognised. Pott recognised terra calcarea (calcareous earth) as an individual "earth" in his treatise of 1739. Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy suggested in 1787 that it was the oxide of an element. Davy isolated the metal electrochemically from quicklime. In 1811 Louis-Joseph Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thénard probably prepared impure silicon, and Berzelius obtained the pure element in 1823. The name was proposed to be changed to silicon by Thomas Thomson in 1817, and this was eventually accepted because of its analogies to boron and carbon.
|-
| 13
| Aluminium
| 1746
| J. H. Pott
| 1825
| H.C.Ørsted
| Paracelsus recognised aluminis as separate from vitriol in 1570, and Andreas Libavius proposed in his 1597 treatise to name the unknown earth of alum alumina. In 1746, Johann Heinrich Pott published a treatise distinguishing alum from lime and chalk, and Marggraf precipitated the new earth in 1756. However, some scientists questioned his isolation. The first undisputed isolation of aluminium was done by Friedrich Wöhler in 1827.
|-
| 12
| Magnesium
| 1755
| J. Black
| 1808
| H. Davy
| Joseph Black observed that magnesia alba (MgO) was not quicklime (CaO) in 1755; until then, both substances had been confused. Davy isolated the metal electrochemically from magnesia.
|-
| 25
| Manganese
| 1770
| Torbern Olof Bergman
| 1774
| J. G. Gahn
| Torbern Olof Bergman distinguished pyrolusite as the calx of a new metal, but failed to reduce it. Ignatius Gottfred Kaim might have isolated it in 1770, but there is uncertainty on that. It was isolated by reduction of manganese dioxide with carbon. Given its present name in 1779 by Guyton de Morveau; prior to that it was called magnesia.
|-
| 9
| Fluorine
| 1771
| W. Scheele
| 1886
| H. Moissan
| Fluorspar was described by Georgius Agricola in 1529. Scheele studied fluorspar and correctly concluded it to be the lime (calcium) salt of an acid. Radical fluorique appears on the list of elements in Lavoisier's Traité Élémentaire de Chimie from 1789, but radical muriatique also appears instead of chlorine.
|-
| 8
| Oxygen
| 1771
| W. Scheele
| 1771
| W. Scheele
| Scheele obtained it by heating mercuric oxide and nitrates in 1771, but did not publish his findings until 1777. Joseph Priestley also prepared this new air by 1774, but only Lavoisier recognized it as a true element; he named it in 1777. Before him, Sendivogius had produced oxygen by heating saltpetre, correctly identifying it as the "food of life".
|-
| 7
| Nitrogen
| 1772
| D. Rutherford
| 1772
| D. Rutherford
| Rutherford discovered nitrogen while studying at the University of Edinburgh. He showed that the air in which animals had breathed, even after removal of the exhaled carbon dioxide, was no longer able to burn a candle. Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Henry Cavendish, and Joseph Priestley also studied the element at about the same time, and Lavoisier named it in 1775–6.
|-
| 56
| Barium
| 1772
| W. Scheele
| 1808
| H. Davy
| Scheele distinguished a new earth (BaO) in baryte in 1772. He did not name his discovery; Guyton de Morveau suggested barote in 1782.
|-
| 17
| Chlorine
| 1774
| W. Scheele
| 1774
| W. Scheele
| Obtained it from hydrochloric acid, but thought it was an oxide. Only in 1810 did Humphry Davy recognize it as an element.
|-
| 42
| Molybdenum
| 1778
| W. Scheele
| 1788
| J. Hjelm
| Scheele recognised the metal as a constituent of molybdena. Before that, Axel Cronstedt had assumed that molybdena contained a new earth in 1758. Since that time both names, tungsten and wolfram, have been used depending on language. Klaproth isolated it in 1798. As the element turned out not to be a metal, he revised his proposal to boron in 1812. Te; some elements were listed in the table as unextracted "radicals" (Cl, F, B) or as oxides (Ca, Mg, Ba, Al, Si). He also redefines the term "element".
|-
| 40
| Zirconium
| 1789
| H. Klaproth
| 1824
| J. Berzelius
| Martin Heinrich Klaproth identified a new oxide in zircon in 1789, and in 1808 Davy showed that this oxide has a metallic base although he could not isolate it.
|-
| 38
| Strontium
| 1790
| Adair Crawford
| 1808
| H. Davy
| Adair Crawford in 1790 found that strontianite (strontium carbonate) and witherite (barium carbonate) have different chemical properties, and suspected strontianite contained a new earth. Before him, strontianite is seen as a type of witherite. Strontium was eventually isolated electrochemically in 1808 by Davy.
|-
| 22
| Titanium
| 1791
| W. Gregor
| 1875
| D. K. Kirillov
| Gregor found an oxide of a new metal in ilmenite; Klaproth independently discovered the element in rutile in 1795 and named it. In 1825, Jöns Jacob Berzelius claimed isolation of metallic titanium, but his substance did not react with hydrofluoric acid, whereas titanium does. In 1910, Matthew A. Hunter obtained metallic titanium of 99% purity.
|-
| 39
| Yttrium
| 1794
| J. Gadolin
| 1843
| H. Rose
| Johan Gadolin discovered the earth in gadolinite in 1794. He did not name his discovery, but Anders Gustaf Ekeberg did so when he confirmed it in 1797. but Rose proved otherwise in 1843 and correctly isolated the element himself that year.
|-
| 24
| Chromium
| 1797
| N. Vauquelin
| 1798
| N. Vauquelin
| Vauquelin analysed the composition of crocoite ore in 1797, and later isolated the metal by heating the oxide in a charcoal oven.
|-
| 4
| Beryllium
| 1798
| N. Vauquelin
| 1828
| F. Wöhler and A. Bussy
| Vauquelin discovered the oxide in beryl and emerald in 1798, and in 1808 Davy showed that this oxide has a metallic base although he could not isolate it. Nils Gabriel Sefström rediscovered the element in 1830 and named it vanadium. Friedrich Wöhler then showed that vanadium was identical to erythronium and thus that del Río had been right in the first place. Roscoe eventually produced the metal in 1867 by reduction of vanadium(II) chloride, VCl<sub>2</sub>, with hydrogen.
|-
| 41
| Niobium
| 1801
| C. Hatchett
| 1864
| W. Blomstrand
| Hatchett found the element in columbite ore and named it columbium. In 1809, W. H. Wollaston claimed that columbium and tantalum are identical, which proved to be false.
|-
| 73
| Tantalum
| 1802
| G. Ekeberg
| 1864
| J.C.G. de Marignac
| Ekeberg found another element in minerals similar to columbite, and named it after Tantalus from Greek mythology because of its inability to be dissolved by acids (just as Tantalus was tantalised by water that receded when he tried to drink it). De Marignac's sample contained impurities; relatively pure tantalum was produced by Werner von Bolton in 1903.
|-
| 46
| Palladium
| 1802
| W. H. Wollaston
| 1802
| W. H. Wollaston
| Wollaston discovered it in samples of platinum from South America, but did not publish his results immediately. He had intended to name it after the newly discovered asteroid, Ceres, but by the time he published his results in 1804, cerium had taken that name. Wollaston named it after the more recently discovered asteroid Pallas.
|-
| 58
| Cerium
| 1803
| H. Klaproth, J. Berzelius, and W. Hisinger
| 1875
| W. F. Hillebrand and T. H. Norton
| Berzelius and Hisinger discovered a new earth in cerite, considered it to be an oxide of a new element and named the element after the newly discovered asteroid (then considered a planet), Ceres. Klaproth discovered it simultaneously and independently in some tantalum samples. Mosander (1825) and Wöhler (1867) claimed to have isolated metallic cerium, but their samples were rather impure.
|-
| 76
| Osmium
| 1803
| S. Tennant
| 1803
| S. Tennant
| Tennant had been working on samples of South American platinum in parallel with Wollaston and discovered two new elements, which he named osmium and iridium.
|-
| 77
| Iridium
| 1803
| S. Tennant and H.-V. Collet-Descotils
| 1803
| S. Tennant
| Tennant had been working on samples of South American platinum in parallel with Wollaston and discovered two new elements, which he named osmium and iridium, and published the iridium results in 1804. Collet-Descotils also found iridium the same year, but not osmium.
|-
| 53
| Iodine
| 1811
| B. Courtois
| 1811
| B. Courtois
| Courtois discovered it in the ashes of seaweed. The name iode was given in French by Gay-Lussac and published in 1813. Davy gave it the English name iodine in 1814. Brande isolated it electrolytically from lithium oxide.
|-
| 34
| Selenium
| 1817
| J. Berzelius and G. Gahn
| 1817
| J. Berzelius and G. Gahn
| While working with lead they discovered a substance that they thought was tellurium, but realized after more investigation that it was different.
|-
| 35
| Bromine
| 1825
| J. Balard and C. Löwig
| 1825
| J. Balard and C. Löwig
| They both discovered the element in the autumn of 1825. Balard published his results the next year, but Löwig did not publish until 1827.
|-
| 90
| Thorium
| 1829
| J. Berzelius
| 1914
| D. Lely, Jr. and L. Hamburger
| Berzelius obtained a new earth (the oxide of a new element) in thorite.
|-
| 57
| Lanthanum
| 1838
| G. Mosander
| 1904
| W. Muthmann, L. Weiss
| Mosander found a new earth in samples of ceria in 1838.
|-
| 60
| Neodymium
| 1841
| G. Mosander
| 1901
| W. Muthmann, H. Hofer, L. Weiss
| Discovered by Mosander and called didymium. Carl Auer von Welsbach later split it into two elements, praseodymium and neodymium. Neodymium had formed the greater part of the old didymium and received the prefix "neo-".
|-
| 68
| Erbium
| 1843
| G. Mosander
| 1934
| W. Klemm and H. Bommer
|rowspan2| Mosander managed to split the old yttria into yttria proper, erbia, and terbia. The names underwent some confusion: Mosander's erbia was yellow and his terbia was red. But in 1860, Nils Johan Berlin could only find the rose-coloured earth, confusingly renamed as erbia, and questioned the existence of the yellow earth. Marc Delafontaine adopted Berlin's nomenclature where erbia was the rose-coloured earth, but proved in 1878 that the yellow earth also existed. At the prompting of Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac, he named the yellow earth terbia; thus Mosander's names were swapped from his original choices. However, in 1844 Karl Karlovich Klaus confirmed that there was one new metal, and reused Osann's name "ruthenium".
|-
| 55
| Caesium
| 1860
| R. Bunsen and R. Kirchhoff
| 1882
| C. Setterberg
| Bunsen and Kirchhoff were the first to suggest finding new elements by spectrum analysis. They discovered caesium by its two blue emission lines in a sample of Dürkheim mineral water. The pure metal was eventually isolated in 1882 by Setterberg.
|-
| 37
| Rubidium
| 1861
| R. Bunsen and G. R. Kirchhoff
| 1863
| R. Bunsen
| Bunsen and Kirchhoff discovered it just a few months after caesium, by observing new spectral lines in the mineral lepidolite. The metal was isolated by Bunsen around 1863.
|-
| 49
| Indium
| 1863
| F. Reich and T. Richter
| 1864
| T. Richter
| Reich and Richter first identified it in sphalerite by its bright indigo-blue spectroscopic emission line. Richter isolated the metal the next year.
|-
|
|
| 1869
| D. I. Mendeleev
|
|
| Mendeleev arranges the 63 elements known at that time (omitting terbium, as chemists were unsure of its existence, and helium, as it was not found on Earth) into the first modern periodic table and correctly predicts several others.
|-
| 31
| Gallium
| 1875
| P. E. L. de Boisbaudran
| 1878
| P. E. L. de Boisbaudran and E. Jungfleisch
| Boisbaudran observed on a pyrenea blende sample some emission lines corresponding to the eka-aluminium that was predicted by Mendeleev in 1871. He and Jungfleisch isolated the metal three years later by electrolysis.
|-
| 67
| Holmium
| 1878
| J.-L. Soret and M. Delafontaine
| 1939
| H. Bommer
| Soret found it in samarskite and later, Per Teodor Cleve split Marignac's erbia into erbia proper and two new elements, thulium and holmium. Delafontaine's philippium turned out to be identical to what Soret found.
|-
| 21
| Scandium
| 1879
| F. Nilson
| 1937
| W. Fischer, K. Brünger, H. Grieneisen
| Nilson split Marignac's ytterbia into pure ytterbia and a new element that matched Mendeleev's 1871 predicted eka-boron.
|-
| 69
| Thulium
| 1879
| T. Cleve
| 1936
| W. Klemm and H. Bommer
| Cleve split Marignac's erbia into erbia proper and two new elements, thulium and holmium.
|-
| 62
| Samarium
| 1879
| P.E.L. de Boisbaudran
| 1903
| W. Muthmann
| Boisbaudran noted a new earth in samarskite and named it samaria after the mineral.
|-
| 64
| Gadolinium
| 1880
| J. C. G. de Marignac
| 1935
| Félix Trombe
| Marignac initially observed the new earth in terbia, and later Boisbaudran obtained a pure sample from samarskite.
|-
| 59
| Praseodymium
| 1885
| C. A. von Welsbach
| 1904
| W. Muthmann, L. Weiss
| Carl Auer von Welsbach discovered it in Mosander's didymia.
|-
| 32
| Germanium
| 1886
| C. A. Winkler
| 1886
| C. A. Winkler
| In February 1886 Winkler found in argyrodite the eka-silicon that Mendeleev had predicted in 1871.
|-
| 66
| Dysprosium
| 1886
| P.E.L. de Boisbaudran
| 1937<!--G. Urbain in 1906 wrote an article titled "Sur l'isolement... du dysprosium", but he obtained only the oxide in larger quantities than in Lecoq de Boisbaudran's sample, not the metal -->
| W. Klemm and H. Bommer
| De Boisbaudran found a new earth in erbia.
|-
| 18
| Argon
| 1894
| Lord Rayleigh and W. Ramsay
| 1894
| Lord Rayleigh and W. Ramsay
| They discovered the gas by comparing the molecular weights of nitrogen prepared by liquefaction from air and nitrogen prepared by chemical means. It is the first noble gas to be isolated.
|-
| 63
| Europium
| 1896
| E.-A. Demarçay
| 1937
| W. Klemm and H. Bommer
| Demarçay found spectral lines of a new element in Lecoq's samarium, provisionally designated the element as Σ, and gave it its present name in 1901. Metallic europium was isolated in 1937.
|-
| 36
| Krypton
| 1898
| W. Ramsay and W. Travers
| 1898
| W. Ramsay and W. Travers
| On May 30, 1898, Ramsay separated a noble gas from liquid argon by difference in boiling point.
|-
| 10
| Neon
| 1898
| W. Ramsay and W. Travers
| 1898
| W. Ramsay and W. Travers
| In June 1898 Ramsay separated a new noble gas from liquid argon by difference in boiling point.
|-
| 84
| Polonium
| 1898
| P. and M. Curie
| 1946
| W. H. Beamer and C. R. Maxwell
| In an experiment done on 13 July 1898, the Curies noted an increased radioactivity in the uranium obtained from pitchblende, which they ascribed to an unknown element. Independently rediscovered and isolated in 1902 by Marckwald, who named it radiotellurium. Pure polonium was obtained in 1946.
|-
| 88
| Radium
| 1898
| P. and M. Curie
| 1910
| Marie Curie and André-Louis Debierne
| The Curies reported on 26 December 1898, a new element different from polonium, which Marie later isolated from uraninite. In September 1910, Marie Curie and André-Louis Debierne announced that they had isolated radium as a pure metal.
|-
| 86
| Radon
| 1899
| E. Rutherford and R. B. Owens
| 1910
| W. Ramsay and R. Whytlaw-Gray
| Rutherford and Owens discovered a radioactive gas resulting from the radioactive decay of thorium, isolated later by Ramsay and Gray. In 1900, Friedrich Ernst Dorn discovered a longer-lived isotope of the same gas from the radioactive decay of radium. Since "radon" was first used to specifically designate Dorn's isotope before it became the name for the element, he is often mistakenly given credit for the latter instead of the former.
|-
| 89<!--Debierne's substance, which he reported to be similar to Ti and Th, cannot have been Ac; see Kirby and Ross and the Ac article-->
| Actinium
| 1902
| F. O. Giesel
| 1955
| Joseph G. Stites, Murrell L. Salutsky, Bob D. Stone
| Giesel obtained from pitchblende a substance that had properties similar to those of lanthanum and named it emanium. André-Louis Debierne had previously (in 1899 and 1900) reported the discovery of a new element actinium that was supposedly similar to titanium and thorium, which cannot have included much actual element 89. But by 1904, when Giesel and Debierne met, both had samples containing element 89, and so Debierne has generally been given credit for the discovery.
|-
| 71
| Lutetium
| 1906
| C. A. von Welsbach and G. Urbain
| 1937
| W. Klemm and H. Bommer
| von Welsbach proved that the old ytterbium also contained a new element, which he named cassiopeium (he renamed the larger part of the old ytterbium to aldebaranium). Urbain also proved this at about the same time (von Welsbach's paper was published first, but Urbain sent his to the editor first), naming the new element lutetium and the old one neoytterbium (which later reverted to ytterbium). However, Urbain's samples were very impure and only contained trace quantities of the new element. Despite this, his chosen name lutetium was adopted by the International Committee of Atomic Weights, whose membership included Urbain. The German Atomic Weights Commission adopted cassiopeium for the next forty years. Finally in 1949 IUPAC decided in favour of the name lutetium as it was more often used.
|-
| 75
| Rhenium
| 1908
| M. Ogawa
| 1908
| M. Ogawa
| Masataka Ogawa found it in thorianite in 1908, but assigned it as element 43 and named it nipponium. (Elements 43 and 75 are in the same group of the periodic table.) Because of the erroneous assignment, and because some of his key results were published only in Japanese, his claim was not widely recognised. However, the optical emission spectrum described by Ogawa and the X-ray photographic plate for one of his samples match element 75, and his claim has thus been rehabilitated in much of the modern literature. In 1925 Walter Noddack, Ida Eva Tacke and Otto Berg announced its separation from gadolinite, identified it correctly as element 75, and gave it the present name.
|-
| 91
| Protactinium
| 1913
| O. H. Göhring and K. Fajans
| 1934
| A. von Grosse
| The two obtained the first isotope of this element, <sup>234m</sup>Pa, that had been predicted by Mendeleev in 1871 as a member of the natural decay of <sup>238</sup>U: they named it brevium. A longer-lived isotope <sup>231</sup>Pa was found in 1918 by Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner, and was named by them protactinium: since it is longer-lived, it gave the element its name. William Crookes in 1900 reported his discovery of the radioelement "uranium X", that later was proven to be mixture of uranium X<sub>1</sub> (<sup>234</sup>Th) and uranium X<sub>2</sub> (<sup>234m</sup>Pa).
|-
| 72
| Hafnium
| 1922
| D. Coster and G. von Hevesy
| 1924
| Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer
| Georges Urbain claimed to have found the element in rare-earth residues, while Vladimir Vernadsky independently found it in orthite. Neither claim was confirmed due to World War I, and neither could be confirmed later, as the chemistry they reported does not match that now known for hafnium. After the war, Coster and Hevesy found it by X-ray spectroscopic analysis in Norwegian zircon. Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer were the first to prepare metallic hafnium by passing hafnium tetraiodide vapor over a heated tungsten filament in 1924. Hafnium was the last stable element to be discovered (noting however the difficulties regarding the discovery of rhenium).
|-
| 43
| Technetium
| 1937
| C. Perrier and E. Segrè
| 1947
| S. Fried
| The two discovered a new element in a molybdenum sample that was used in a cyclotron, the first element to be discovered by synthesis. It had been predicted by Mendeleev in 1871 as eka-manganese. In 1952, Paul W. Merrill found its spectral lines in S-type red giants. Minuscule trace quantities were finally found on Earth in 1962 by B. T. Kenna and Paul K. Kuroda: they isolated it from Belgian Congo pitchblende, where it occurs as a spontaneous fission product of uranium. The Noddacks (rediscoverers of rhenium) claimed to have discovered element 43 in 1925 as well and named it masurium (after Masuria), but their claims were disproven by Kuroda, who calculated that there cannot have been enough technetium in their samples to have enabled a true detection.
|-
| 87
| Francium
| 1939
| M. Perey
|
|
| Perey discovered it as a decay product of <sup>227</sup>Ac. Francium was the last element to be discovered in nature, rather than synthesized in the lab, although four of the "synthetic" elements that were discovered later (plutonium, neptunium, astatine, and promethium) were eventually found in trace amounts in nature as well. Before Perey, it is likely that Stefan Meyer, Viktor F. Hess, and Friedrich Paneth had observed the decay of <sup>227</sup>Ac to <sup>223</sup>Fr in Vienna in 1914, but they could not follow up and secure their work because of the outbreak of World War I. Shortly before that, Yoshio Nishina and Kenjiro Kimura discovered the uranium isotope <sup>237</sup>U and found that it beta decays into <sup>237</sup>93, but were unable to measure the activity of the element 93 product because its half-life was too long. McMillan and Abelson succeeded because they used <sup>239</sup>U, as <sup>239</sup>93 has a much shorter half-life. McMillan and Abelson found that <sup>239</sup>93 itself undergoes beta decay and must produce an isotope of element 94, but the quantities they used were not enough to isolate and identify element 94 along with 93. Natural traces were found in Belgian Congo pitchblende by D. F. Peppard et al. in 1952.
|-
| 85
| Astatine
| 1940
| D. R. Corson, K. R. MacKenzie and E. Segrè
|
|
| Obtained by bombarding bismuth with alpha particles. In 1943, Berta Karlik and Traude Bernert found it in nature; due to World War II, they were initially unaware of Corson et al.'s results.
|-
| 94
| Plutonium
| 1941
| Glenn T. Seaborg, Arthur C. Wahl, W. Kennedy and E.M. McMillan
| 1943
| H. L. Baumbach, S. Fried, P. L. Kirk and, R. S. Rosenfels
| Prepared by bombardment of uranium with deuterons. Seaborg and Morris L. Perlman then found it as traces in natural Canadian pitchblende in 1941–1942, though this work was kept secret until 1948. The first sample of plutonium metal was created from the reduction of plutonium trifluoride in November 1943.
|-
| 96
| Curium
| 1944
| Glenn T. Seaborg, Ralph A. James and Albert Ghiorso
| 1950
| J. C. Wallmann, W. W. T. Crane and B. B. Cunningham
| Prepared by bombarding plutonium with alpha particles during the Manhattan Project. Curium metal was produced in 1950 by reduction of CmF<sub>3</sub> with barium.
|-
| 95
| Americium
| 1944
| G. T. Seaborg, R. A. James, O. Morgan and A. Ghiorso
| 1951
| Edgar F. Westrum Jr. and LeRoy Eyring
| Prepared by irradiating plutonium with neutrons during the Manhattan Project. Americium metal was produced in 1951 by reduction of AmF<sub>3</sub> with barium.
|-
| 61
| Promethium
| 1945
| Charles D. Coryell, Jacob A. Marinsky, and Lawrence E. Glendenin
| 1963
| F. Weigel
| It was probably first prepared at the Ohio State University in 1942 by bombarding neodymium and praseodymium with neutrons, but separation of the element could not be carried out. Isolation was performed under the Manhattan Project in 1945. The metal was later isolated by F. Weigel in 1963, by reducing promethium fluoride with lithium. Found on Earth in trace quantities by Olavi Erämetsä in 1965; so far, promethium is the most recent element to have been found on Earth.
|-
| 97
| Berkelium
| 1949
| G. Thompson, A. Ghiorso and G. T. Seaborg <small>(University of California, Berkeley)</small>
|
|
| Created by bombardment of americium with alpha particles.
|-
| 98
| Californium
| 1950
| S. G. Thompson, K. Street, Jr., A. Ghiorso and G. T. Seaborg <small>(University of California, Berkeley)</small>
|
|
| Bombardment of curium with alpha particles.
|-
| 99
| Einsteinium
| 1952
| A. Ghiorso et al. <small>(Argonne Laboratory, Los Alamos Laboratory and University of California, Berkeley)</small>
|
|
| Formed in the first thermonuclear explosion in November 1952, by irradiation of uranium with neutrons; kept secret for several years.
|-
| 100
| Fermium
| 1953
| A. Ghiorso et al. <small>(Argonne Laboratory, Los Alamos Laboratory and University of California, Berkeley)</small>
|
|
| Formed in the first thermonuclear explosion in November 1952, by irradiation of uranium with neutrons; first identified in early 1953; kept secret for several years.
|-
| 101
| Mendelevium
| 1955
| A. Ghiorso, G. Harvey, G. R. Choppin, S. G. Thompson and G. T. Seaborg <small>(Berkeley Radiation Laboratory)</small>
|
|
| Prepared by bombardment of einsteinium with alpha particles.
|-
| 103
| Lawrencium
| 1961
| A. Ghiorso, T. Sikkeland, E. Larsh and M. Latimer <small>(Berkeley Radiation Laboratory)</small>
|
|
| First prepared by bombardment of californium with boron atoms.
|-
| 102
| Nobelium
| 1965–1966<!--submitted in 1965, published in 1966-->
| E. D. Donets, V. A. Shchegolev and V. A. Ermakov <small>(JINR in Dubna)</small>
|
|
| First prepared by bombardment of uranium with neon atoms. Although earlier claims exist, the first complete and incontrovertible report of its detection only came in 1966 from JINR in Dubna.
|-
| 104
| Rutherfordium
| 1969
| A. Ghiorso et al. <small>(Berkeley Radiation Laboratory)</small> and I. Zvara et al. <small>(JINR in Dubna)</small>
|
|
| Prepared by bombardment of californium with carbon atoms by Albert Ghiorso's team and by bombardment of plutonium with neon atoms by Zvara's team.
|-
| 105
| Dubnium
| 1970
| A. Ghiorso et al. <small>(Berkeley Radiation Laboratory)</small> and V. A. Druin et al. <small>(JINR in Dubna)</small>
|
|
| Prepared by bombardment of californium with nitrogen atoms by Ghiorso's team and by bombardment of americium with neon atoms by Druin's team.
|-
| 106
| Seaborgium
| 1974
| A. Ghiorso et al. <small>(Berkeley Radiation Laboratory)</small>
|
|
| Prepared by bombardment of californium with oxygen atoms.
|-
| 107
| Bohrium
| 1981
| G.Münzenberg et al. <small>(GSI in Darmstadt)</small>
|
|
| Obtained by bombarding bismuth with chromium.
|-
| 109
| Meitnerium
| 1982
| G. Münzenberg, P. Armbruster et al. <small>(GSI in Darmstadt)</small>
|
|
| Prepared by bombardment of bismuth with iron atoms.
|-
| 108
| Hassium
| 1984
| G. Münzenberg, P. Armbruster et al. <small>(GSI in Darmstadt)</small>
|
|
| Prepared by bombardment of lead with iron atoms
|-
| 110
| Darmstadtium
| 1994
| S. Hofmann et al. <small>(GSI in Darmstadt)</small>
|
|
| Prepared by bombardment of lead with nickel
|-
| 111
| Roentgenium
| 1994
| S. Hofmann et al. <small>(GSI in Darmstadt)</small>
|
|
| Prepared by bombardment of bismuth with nickel
|-
| 112
| Copernicium
| 1996
| S. Hofmann et al. <small>(GSI in Darmstadt)</small>
|
|
| Prepared by bombardment of lead with zinc.
|-
| 114
| Flerovium
| 1999
| Y. Oganessian et al. <small>(JINR in Dubna)</small>
|
|
| Prepared by bombardment of plutonium with calcium. It may have already been found at Dubna in 1998, but that result has not been confirmed.
|-
| 116
| Livermorium
| 2000
| Y. Oganessian et al. <small>(JINR in Dubna)</small>
|
|
| Prepared by bombardment of curium with calcium
|-
| 118
|Oganesson
| 2002
| Y. Oganessian et al. <small>(JINR in Dubna)</small>
|
|
|Prepared by bombardment of californium with calcium
|-
| 115
|Moscovium
| 2003
| Y. Oganessian et al. <small>(JINR in Dubna)</small>
|
|
|Prepared by bombardment of americium with calcium
|-
| 113
|Nihonium
| 2003–2004
| Y. Oganessian et al. <small>(JINR in Dubna)</small> and K. Morita et al. <small>(RIKEN in Wako, Japan)</small>
|
|
| Prepared by decay of moscovium by Oganessian's team Both teams began their experiments in 2003; Oganessian's team detected its first atom in 2003, but Morita's only in 2004. However, both teams published in 2004.
|-
| 117
|Tennessine
| 2009
| Y. Oganessian et al. <small>(JINR in Dubna)</small>
|
|
|Prepared by bombardment of berkelium with calcium
|}
See also
* History of the periodic table
* Periodic table
* Extended periodic table
* The Mystery of Matter: Search for the Elements (2014/2015 PBS film)
* Transfermium Wars
References
External links
*[http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/content/elements.html History of the Origin of the Chemical Elements and Their Discoverers] Last updated by Boris Pritychenko on 30 March 2004
*[http://www.ausetute.com.au/elemhist.html History of Elements of the Periodic Table]
*[http://chemistry.about.com/library/weekly/aa030303a.htm Timeline of Element Discoveries]
*[http://historyscoper.com/chemicalelementscope.html The Historyscoper]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U9n8AyOsGRM Discovery of the Elements – The Movie – YouTube] (1:18)
*[http://www.makin-metals.com/about/history-of-metals-infographic/ The History Of Metals Timeline] . A timeline showing the discovery of metals and the development of metallurgy.
*—Eric Scerri, 2007, The periodic table: Its story and its significance, Oxford University Press, New York,
Elements, discoveries
Timeline
Category:History of chemistry
Category:History of physics
Discovery
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Diatonic scale
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In music theory a diatonic scale is a heptatonic (seven-note) scale that includes five whole steps (whole tones) and two half steps (semitones) in each octave, in which the two half steps are separated from each other by either two or three whole steps. In other words, the half steps are maximally separated from each other.
The seven pitches of any diatonic scale can also be obtained by using a chain of six perfect fifths. For instance, the seven natural pitch classes that form the C-major scale can be obtained from a stack of perfect fifths starting from F:
F–C–G–D–A–E–B.
Any sequence of seven successive natural notes, such as C–D–E–F–G–A–B, and any transposition thereof, is a diatonic scale. Modern musical keyboards are designed so that the white-key notes form a diatonic scale, though transpositions of this diatonic scale require one or more black keys. A diatonic scale can be also described as two tetrachords separated by a whole tone. In musical set theory, Allen Forte classifies diatonic scales as set form 7–35.
The term diatonic originally referred to the diatonic genus, one of the three genera of the ancient Greeks, and comes from , of uncertain etymology. Most likely, it refers to the intervals being "stretched out" in that tuning, in contrast to the other two genera (chromatic and enharmonic).
This article does not concern alternative seven-note scales such as the harmonic minor or the melodic minor which, although sometimes called "diatonic", do not fulfill the condition of maximal separation of the semitones indicated above.
History
Western music from the Middle Ages until the late 19th century (see common practice period) is based on the diatonic scale and the unique hierarchical relationships created by this system of organizing seven notes.
Antiquity
Evidence that the Sumerians and Babylonians used a version of the diatonic scale is found in cuneiform inscriptions that contain both musical compositions and a tuning system. Despite the conjectural nature of reconstructions of the Hurrian songs, the diatonic nature of the tuning system is demonstrated by the fact that it involves a series of six perfect fifths, which is a recipe for the construction of a diatonic scale.
The 9,000-year-old flutes found in Jiahu, China, indicate the evolution over 1,200 years of flutes having 4, 5 and 6 holes to having 7 and 8 holes, the latter exhibiting striking similarity to diatonic hole spacings and sounds.
Middle Ages
The scales corresponding to the medieval church modes were diatonic. Depending on which of the seven notes of the diatonic scale you use as the beginning, the positions of the intervals fall at different distances from the starting tone (the "reference note"), producing seven different scales. One of these, the one starting on B, has no pure fifth above its reference note (B–F is a diminished fifth): it is probably for this reason that it was not used. Of the six remaining scales, two were described as corresponding to two others with a B instead of a B:
A–B–C–D–E–F–G–A was described as D–E–F–G–A–B–C–D (the modern Aeolian modes whose reference notes are A and D, respectively, corresponding to the Aeolian modes of C major and F major, respectively)
C–D–E–F–G–A–B–C was described as F–G–A–B–C–D–E–F (the modern Ionian modes whose reference notes are C and F, respectively, corresponding to the Ionian modes of C major and F major, respectively).
As a result, medieval theory described the church modes as corresponding to four diatonic scales only (two of which had the variable B/). They were the modern Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, and Mixolydian modes of C major, plus the Aeolian and Ionian modes of F major when B was substituted into the Dorian and Lydian modes of C major, respectively.
Renaissance
Heinrich Glarean considered that the modal scales including a B had to be the result of a transposition. In his Dodecachordon, he not only described six "natural" diatonic scales (still neglecting the seventh one with a diminished fifth above the reference note), but also six "transposed" ones, each including a B, resulting in the total of twelve scales that justified the title of his treatise. These were the 6 non-Locrian modes of C major and F major.
Modern
By the beginning of the Baroque period, the notion of the musical key was established, describing additional possible transpositions of the diatonic scale. Major and minor scales came to dominate until at least the start of the 20th century, partly because their intervallic patterns are suited to the reinforcement of a central triad. Some church modes survived into the early 18th century, as well as appearing in classical and 20th-century music, and jazz (see chord-scale system).
Theory
thumb|right|300px|The modern piano keyboard is based on the interval patterns of the diatonic scale. Any sequence of seven successive white keys plays a diatonic scale.
Of Glarean's six natural scales, three have a major third/first triad: (Ionian, Lydian, and Mixolydian), and three have a minor one: Dorian, Phrygian, and Aeolian). To these may be added the seventh diatonic scale, with a diminished fifth above the reference note, the Locrian scale. These could be transposed not only to include one flat in the signature (as described by Glarean), but to all twelve notes of the chromatic scale, resulting in a total of eighty-four diatonic scales.
The modern musical keyboard originated as a diatonic keyboard with only white keys. The black keys were progressively added for several purposes:
improving the consonances, mainly the thirds, by providing a major third on each degree;
allowing all twelve transpositions described above;
and helping musicians to find their bearings on the keyboard.
The pattern of elementary intervals forming the diatonic scale can be represented either by the letters T (tone) and S (semitone) respectively. With this abbreviation, a major scale, for instance, can be represented as
T–T–S–T–T–T–S
Major scale
The major scale or Ionian mode is one of the diatonic scales. It is made up of seven distinct notes, plus an eighth that duplicates the first an octave higher. The pattern of seven intervals separating the eight notes is T–T–S–T–T–T–S. In solfège, the syllables used to name each degree of the scale are Do–Re–Mi–Fa–Sol–La–Ti–Do. A sequence of successive natural notes starting from C is an example of major scale, called C-major scale.
Notes in C major: C D E F G A B C Degrees in solfège: Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Ti Do Interval sequence: T T S T T T S
The eight degrees of the scale are also known by traditional names, especially when used in a tonal context:
1st – Tonic (key note)
2nd – Supertonic
3rd – Mediant
4th – Subdominant
5th – Dominant
6th – Submediant
7th – Leading tone
8th – Tonic (Octave)
Natural minor scale
For each major scale, there is a corresponding natural minor scale, sometimes called its relative minor. It uses the same sequence of notes as the corresponding major scale but starts from a different note. That is, it begins on the sixth degree of the major scale and proceeds step-by-step to the first octave of the sixth degree. A sequence of successive natural notes starting from A is an example of a natural minor scale, called the A natural minor scale.
Notes in A minor: A B C D E F G A Interval sequence: T S T T S T T
The degrees of the natural minor scale, especially in a tonal context, have the same names as those of the major scale, except the seventh degree, which is known as the subtonic because it is a whole step below the tonic. The term leading tone is generally reserved for seventh degrees that are a half step (semitone) below the tonic, as is the case in the major scale.
Besides the natural minor scale, five other kinds of scales can be obtained from the notes of a major scale, by simply choosing a different note as the starting note. All these scales meet the definition of diatonic scale.
Modes
The whole collection of diatonic scales as defined above can be divided into seven different scales.
As explained above, all major scales use the same interval sequence T–T–S–T–T–T–S. This interval sequence was called the Ionian mode by Glarean. It is one of the seven modern modes. From any major scale, a new scale is obtained by taking a different degree as the tonic. With this method it is possible to generate six other scales or modes from each major scale. Another way to describe the same result would be to consider that, behind the diatonic scales, there exists an underlying diatonic system which is the series of diatonic notes without a reference note; assigning the reference note in turn to each of the seven notes in each octave of the system produces seven diatonic scales, each characterized by a different interval sequence:
Mode Also known as Starting note relativeto major scale Interval sequence Example with white keys Example with tonic C Ionian Major scale I T–T–S–T–T–T–S C–D–E–F–G–A–B–C Dorian II T–S–T–T–T–S–T D–E–F–G–A–B–C–D C–D–E♭–F–G–A–B♭–C Phrygian III S–T–T–T–S–T–T E–F–G–A–B–C–D–E C–D♭–E♭–F–G–A♭–B♭–C Lydian IV T–T–T–S–T–T–S F–G–A–B–C–D–E–F C–D–E–F♯–G–A–B–C Mixolydian V T–T–S–T–T–S–T G–A–B–C–D–E–F–G C–D–E–F–G–A–B♭–C Aeolian Natural minor scale VI T–S–T–T–S–T–T A–B–C–D–E–F–G–A C–D–E♭–F–G–A♭–B♭–C Locrian VII S–T–T–S–T–T–T B–C–D–E–F–G–A–B C–D♭–E♭–F–G♭–A♭–B♭–C
The first column examples shown above are formed by natural notes (i.e. neither sharps nor flats, also called "white-notes", as they can be played using the white keys of a piano keyboard). However, any transposition of each of these scales (or of the system underlying them) is a valid example of the corresponding mode. In other words, transposition preserves mode. This is shown in the second column, with each mode transposed to start on C.
The whole set of diatonic scales is commonly defined as the set composed of these seven natural-note scales, together with all of their possible transpositions. As discussed elsewhere, different definitions of this set are sometimes adopted in the literature.
thumb|center|700px|Pitch constellations of the modern musical modes
Diatonic scales and tetrachords
A diatonic scale can be also described as two tetrachords separated by a whole tone. For example, under this view the two tetrachord structures of C major would be:
[C–D–E–F] – [G–A–B–C]
each tetrachord being formed of two tones and a semitone, T–T–S,
and the natural minor of A would be:
[A–B–C–D] – [E–F–G–A]
formed two different tetrachords, the first consisting in a semitone between two tones, T–S–T, and the second of a semitone and two tones, S–T–T.
The medieval conception of the tetrachordal structure, however, was based on one single tetrachord, that of the D scale,
[D–E–F–G] – [A–B–C–D]
each formed of a semitone between tones, T–S–T. It viewed other diatonic scales as differently overlapping disjunct and conjunct tetrachords:
E scale: E–F–G | A–B–C–D = D–E
F scale: F–G | A–B–C–D = D–E–F
G scale: G | A–B–C–D = D–E–F–G
A scale: A–B–C–D = D–E–F–G | A
B scale: B–C–D = D–E–F–G | A–B
C scale: C–D = D–E–F–G | A–B–C
(where G | A indicates the disjunction of tetrachords, always between G and A, and D = D indicates their conjunction, always on the common note D).
Tuning
Diatonic scales can be tuned variously, either by iteration of a perfect or tempered fifth, or by a combination of perfect fifths and perfect thirds (Just intonation), or possibly by a combination of fifths and thirds of various sizes, as in well temperament.
Iteration of the fifth
If the scale is produced by the iteration of six perfect fifths, for instance F–C–G–D–A–E–B, the result is Pythagorean tuning:
note F C G D A E B pitch bring into main octave sort into note orderCDEFGABC' interval above C interval between notes
This tuning dates to Ancient Mesopotamia (see ), and was done by alternating ascending fifths with descending fourths (equal to an ascending fifth followed by a descending octave), resulting in the notes of a pentatonic or heptatonic scale falling within an octave.
Six of the "fifth" intervals (C–G, D–A, E–B, F–C', G–D', A–E') are all 1.5 (701.955 cents), but B–F' is the discordant tritone, here 1.423828125 (611.73 cents). Tones are each = 1.125 (203.91 cents) and diatonic semitones are ≈ 1.0535 (90.225 cents).
Extending the series of fifths to eleven fifths would result into the Pythagorean chromatic scale.
Equal temperament
Equal temperament is the division of the octave in twelve equal semitones. The frequency ratio of the semitone then becomes the twelfth root of two ( ≈ 1.059463, 100 cents). The tone is the sum of two semitones. Its ratio is the sixth root of two ( ≈ 1.122462, 200 cents). Equal temperament can be produced by a succession of tempered fifths, each of them with the ratio of 2 ≈ 1.498307, 700 cents.
Meantone temperament
The fifths could be tempered more than in equal temperament, in order to produce better thirds. See quarter-comma meantone for a meantone temperament commonly used in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and sometimes after, which produces perfect major thirds.
Just intonation
Just intonation often is represented using Leonhard Euler's Tonnetz, with the horizontal axis showing the perfect fifths and the vertical axis the perfect major thirds. In the Tonnetz, the diatonic scale in just intonation appears as follows:
A E B F C G D
F–A, C–E and G–B, aligned vertically, are perfect major thirds; A–E–B and F–C–G–D are two series of perfect fifths. The notes of the top line, A, E and B, are lowered by the syntonic comma, , and the "wolf" fifth D–A is too narrow by the same amount. The tritone F–B is ≈ 1.40625.
This tuning has been first described by Ptolemy and is known as Ptolemy's intense diatonic scale. It was also mentioned by Zarlino in the 16th century and has been described by theorists in the 17th and 18th centuries as the "natural" scale.
notes C D E F G A B C' pitch interval between notes
Since the frequency ratios are based on simple powers of the prime numbers 2, 3, and 5, this is also known as five-limit tuning.
See also
Circle of fifths text table
Diatonic and chromatic
History of music
Musical acoustics
Piano key frequencies
Prehistoric music
References
Further reading
Clough, John (1979). "Aspects of Diatonic Sets", Journal of Music Theory 23:45–61.
Franklin, John C. (2002). "Diatonic Music in Greece: a Reassessment of its Antiquity", Mnemosyne 56.1:669–702
Gould, Mark (2000). "Balzano and Zweifel: Another Look at Generalised Diatonic Scales", Perspectives of New Music 38/2:88–105
Ellen Hickmann, Anne D. Kilmer and Ricardo Eichmann, (ed.) Studies in Music Archaeology III, 2001, VML Verlag Marie Leidorf, Germany .
Johnson, Timothy (2003). Foundations of Diatonic Theory: A Mathematically Based Approach to Music Fundamentals. Key College Publishing. .
Kilmer, A. D. (1971) "The Discovery of an Ancient Mesopotamian Theory of Music'". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 115:131–149.
Kilmer, Anne Draffkorn; Crocker, Richard L.; Brown, Robert R.: Sounds from Silence: Recent Discoveries in Ancient Near Eastern Music, Volume 1. 1976, Bit Enki Publications, Berkeley, California.
David Rothenberg (1978). "A Model for Pattern Perception with Musical Applications Part I: Pitch Structures as order-preserving maps", Mathematical Systems Theory 11:199–234
External links
Diatonic Scale , Eric Weisstein's Treasure Trove of Music
The diatonic scale on the guitar
Category:Heptatonic scales
Category:Diatonic set theory
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatonic_scale
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Deutschlandlied
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| english_title = 'Germany Song'
| image = Deutschlandlied.jpg
| image_size | alt
| caption Facsimile of Hoffmann von Fallersleben's manuscript of ""
| prefix = National
| country = Germany
| alt_title <br><br>
| en_alt_title = 'The Song of the Germans'<br>'Unity and Justice and Freedom'
| author = August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben
| lyrics_date = 1841
| composer = Joseph Haydn
| music_date = 1797
| adopted = 11 August 1922
| until = 1945
| readopted = 2 May 1952<br>> 29 November 1991 (third stanza)
| predecessor =
| sound = Deutschlandlied played by USAREUR Band.ogg
| sound_title = Instrumental rendition by the United States Army Europe Band and Chorus in E-flat major}}
The "",; )}} officially titled "",; }} is the national anthem of Germany. It was first adopted in 1922 during the period of the Weimar Republic, replacing "Heil dir im Siegerkranz". The first stanza of "Deutschlandlied" was used alongside the "Horst-Wessel-Lied" during the Nazi regime from 1933 until the end of World War II. Since then, only the third stanza has been used officially as the national anthem.
Its phrase "" ('Unity and Justice and Freedom') is considered the unofficial national motto of Germany, and is inscribed on modern German Army belt buckles and the rims of some German coins.
The music is derived from that of "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser", composed in 1797 by the Austrian composer Joseph Haydn as an anthem for the birthday of Francis II, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and later of Austria. In 1841, the German linguist and poet August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben wrote the lyrics of "" as a new text for that music, counterposing the national unification of Germany to the eulogy of a monarch: lyrics that were considered revolutionary at the time.
The "" was adopted as the national anthem of Germany in 1922, during the Weimar Republic, to which all three stanzas were used. West Germany retained it as its official national anthem in 1952, with only the third stanza sung on official occasions. After German reunification in 1990, in 1991 only the third stanza was reconfirmed as the national anthem. It is discouraged, although not illegal, to perform the first stanza (or to some degree, the second), due to association with the Nazi regime.TitleThe "" is also well known by the incipit and refrain of the first stanza, "" ('Germany, Germany above all'), but this has never been its title. This line originally meant that the most important aim of 19th-century German liberal revolutionaries should be a unified Germany which would overcome loyalties to the local kingdoms, principalities, duchies and palatines (Kleinstaaterei) of then-fragmented Germany, essentially that the idea of a unified Germany should be above all else. Later, and especially in Nazi Germany, these words came to more strongly express not only German superiority over and domination of other countries in particular, but that the idea of Germany is to root of all possible idealism among Germans. Melody
The melody of the "Deutschlandlied" was written by Joseph Haydn in 1797 to provide music to the poem "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser" ("God save Francis the Emperor") by Lorenz Leopold Haschka. In its original form, the song was an anthem honouring Francis II, emperor of the Austrian Empire. It was intended as an impetus to Austrian patriotism, modeled on Great Britain's "God Save the King".
The melody later became the music of the national anthem of Austria-Hungary, prior to the abolition of the Habsburg monarchy in 1918.
The re-use of Haydn's melody in the "Deutschlandslied" is one of a great number of later such adaptations and reuses.
In the score below, Haydn's tune is shown along with the lyrics of the "Deutschlandlied".
<score>
\relative c'
{ \key es \major \time 4/4
\partial 2 \repeat volta 2 { es4. f8 | g4 f as g | f8 (d) es4 c' bes | as g f g8 (es) | bes'2 }
f4 g | f8 (d) bes4 as' g | f8 (d) bes4 bes' as | g4. g8 a4 a8 (bes) | bes2
\repeat volta 2 { es4. d8 | d (c) bes4 c4. bes8 | bes (as) g4 f4. g16 (as) | bes8 [(c)] as [(f)] es4 g8 (f) | es2 } }
\addlyrics {
<<
{ Ei -- nig -- keit und Recht und Frei -- heit
für das deut -- sche Va -- ter -- land!
}
\new Lyrics
{ Da -- nach lasst uns al -- le stre -- ben
brü -- der -- lich mit Herz und Hand! }
>>
Ei -- nig -- keit und Recht und Frei -- heit
sind des Glü -- ckes Un -- ter -- pfand.
Blüh im Glan -- ze die -- ses Glü -- ckes,
blü -- he, deut -- sches Va -- ter -- land!
}</score>
Historical background
The Holy Roman Empire, stemming from the Middle Ages, was already disintegrating when the French Revolution and the ensuing Napoleonic Wars altered the political map of Central Europe. However, hopes for human rights and republican government after Napoleon's defeat in 1815 were dashed when the Congress of Vienna reinstated many small German principalities. In addition, with the Carlsbad Decrees of 1819, Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich and his secret police enforced censorship, mainly in universities, to keep a watch on the activities of teachers and students, whom he held responsible for the spread of radical liberalist ideas. Since reactionaries among the monarchs were the main adversaries, demands for freedom of the press and other liberal rights were most often uttered in connection with the demand for a united Germany, even though many revolutionaries-to-be held differing opinions over whether a republic or a constitutional monarchy would be the best solution for Germany.
The German Confederation (Deutscher Bund, 1815–1866) was a federation of 35 monarchical states and four republican free cities, with a Federal Assembly in Frankfurt. The federation was essentially a military alliance, but it was also abused by the larger powers to oppress liberal and national movements. Another federation, the German Customs Union (Zollverein) was formed among the majority of the states in 1834. In 1840, Hoffmann wrote a song about the Zollverein, also to Haydn's melody, in which he ironically praised the free trade of German goods which brought Germans and Germany closer.
After the 1848 March Revolution, the German Confederation handed over its authority to the Frankfurt Parliament. For a short period in the late 1840s, Germany was united with the borders described in the anthem, and a democratic constitution was being drafted, and with the black-red-gold flag representing it. However, after 1849, the two largest German monarchies, Prussia and Austria, put an end to this liberal movement towards national unification.
Lyrics
August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben wrote the text in 1841 while on holiday on the North Sea island Heligoland, then a possession of the United Kingdom (now part of Germany).
Hoffmann von Fallersleben intended "" to be sung to Haydn's tune; the first publication of the poem included the music. The first line, "" ('Germany, Germany above all, above all in the world'), was an appeal to the various German monarchs to give the creation of a united Germany a higher priority than the independence of their small states. In the third stanza, with a call for "" (unity and justice and freedom), Hoffmann expressed his desire for a united and free Germany where the rule of law, not arbitrary monarchy, would prevail.
In the era after the Congress of Vienna, influenced by Metternich and his secret police, Hoffmann's text had a distinctly revolutionary and at the same time liberal connotation, since the appeal for a united Germany was most often made in connection with demands for freedom of the press and other civil rights. Its implication that loyalty to a larger Germany should replace loyalty to one's local sovereign was then a revolutionary idea.
The year after he wrote "Das Deutschlandlied", Hoffmann lost his job as a librarian and professor in Breslau, Prussia (now Wrocław, Poland) because of this and other revolutionary works, and was forced into hiding until he was pardoned following the revolutions of 1848 in the German states.
Only the third stanza, in bold, is used as the modern German national anthem.
<div style="overflow-x:auto;">
{|cellpadding="6"
!German original
!IPA transcription
!English translation
|- style="vertical-align:top; white-space:nowrap;"
|<poem lang="de">Deutschland, Deutschland über alles,
Über alles in der Welt,
Wenn es stets zu Schutz und Trutze
Brüderlich zusammenhält.
Von der Maas bis an die Memel,
Von der Etsch bis an den Belt,
Deutsche Frauen, deutsche Treue,
Deutscher Wein und deutscher Sang
Sollen in der Welt behalten
Ihren alten schönen Klang,
Uns zu edler Tat begeistern
Unser ganzes Leben lang –
Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit
Für das deutsche Vaterland!
Danach laßt uns alle streben
Brüderlich mit Herz und Hand!
Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit
Sind des Glückes Unterpfand –
</poem>
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[ˈfyːɐ das ˈdɔʏ.t͡ʃə ˈfaː.tɐˌlant ‖]
[da.ˈnaːx last ˀʊns ˈˀa.lə ˈʃtʁeː.bən ]
[ˈbʁyː.dɐ̯.lɪç mɪt ˈhɛɐt͡s ˀʊnt ˈhant ‖]
[ˈˀaɪ.nɪç.kaɪt ˀʊnt ˈʁɛçt ˀʊnt ˈfʁaɪ.haɪt ]
[zɪnt dɛs ˈglʏ.kəs ˈˀʊn.tɐ.p͡fant ‖]
𝄆 [ˈblyː ˀɪm ˈglan.t͡sə ˈdiː.zəs ˈglʏ.kəs ]
[ˈblyː.ə ˈdɔʏ.t͡ʃəs ˈfaː.tɐˌ.lant ‖] 𝄇</poem>
|<poem>Germany, Germany above all,
Above all in the world,
When it always stands united
Brotherly in protection and defense.
From the Meuse to the Neman,
From the Adige to the Little Belt,
𝄆 Germany, Germany above all,
Above all in the world! 𝄇
German women, German loyalty,
German wine and German song
Shall retain in the world
Their old, beautiful sound,
Inspiring us to noble deeds
Throughout our entire lives –
𝄆 German women, German loyalty,
German wine and German song! 𝄇
Unity and justice and freedom
For the German fatherland!
Let us strive for this together,
Brotherly with heart and hand!
Unity and justice and freedom
Are the foundation of happiness –
𝄆 Bloom in the radiance of this happiness,
Bloom, German fatherland! 𝄇</poem>
|}
</div>
Use before 1922
The melody of the "Deutschlandlied" was originally written by Joseph Haydn in 1797 to provide music to the poem "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser" ('God save Franz the Emperor') by Lorenz Leopold Haschka. The song was a birthday anthem to Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor of the House of Habsburg, and was intended to rival in merit the British "God Save the King".
After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, "" became the official anthem of the emperor of the Austrian Empire. After the death of Francis II new lyrics were composed in 1854, Gott erhalte, Gott beschütze, that mentioned the Emperor, but not by name. With those new lyrics, the song continued to be the anthem of Imperial Austria and later of Austria-Hungary. Austrian monarchists continued to use this anthem after 1918 in the hope of restoring the monarchy. The adoption of the Austrian anthem's melody by Germany in 1922 was not opposed by Austria.
By December 1914, according to George Haven Putnam, the song had "come to express the […] war spirit of the Fatherland" and "the supremacy of Germans over all other peoples", despite being, in past years, "an expression simply of patriotic devotion". Morris Jastrow Jr., then an American apologist for Germany, maintained that it meant only "that Germany is dearer to Germans than anything else". J. William White wrote into the Public Ledger to confirm Putnam's view.
Official adoption
The melody used by the "Deutschlandlied" was still in use as the anthem of the Austro-Hungarian Empire until its demise in 1918. On 11 August 1922, German President Friedrich Ebert, a Social Democrat, made the "Deutschlandlied" the official German national anthem. In 1919 the black, red and gold tricolour, the colours of the 19th century liberal revolutionaries advocated by the political left and centre, was adopted (rather than the previous black, white and red of Imperial Germany). Thus, in a political trade-off, the conservative right was granted a nationalistic composition, although Ebert continued to advocate the use of the third stanza only (as after World War II).
During the Nazi era, only the first stanza was used, followed by the SA song "Horst-Wessel-Lied". It was played at occasions of great national significance, such as the opening of the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, when Hitler and his entourage, along with Olympic officials, walked into the stadium amid a chorus of three thousand Germans singing "". In this way, the first stanza became closely identified with the Nazi regime.
Use after World War II
After its founding in 1949, West Germany did not have a national anthem for official events for some years, despite a growing need for one for the purpose of diplomatic procedures. In lieu of an official national anthem, popular German songs such as the "Trizonesien-Song", a self-deprecating carnival song, were used at some sporting events. A variety of musical compositions was used or discussed, such as the finale of Ludwig van Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, which is a musical setting of Friedrich Schiller's poem "An die Freude" ("Ode to Joy"). Though the black, red and gold colours of the national flag had been incorporated into Article 22 of the (West) German constitution, no national anthem had been specified. On 29 April 1952, Chancellor Konrad Adenauer asked President Theodor Heuss in a letter to accept "" as the national anthem, with only the third stanza to be sung on official occasions. However, the first and second stanzas were not outlawed, contrary to popular belief. President Heuss agreed to this on 2 May 1952. This exchange of letters was published in the Bulletin of the Federal Government. Since it was viewed as the traditional right of the President as head of state to set the symbols of the state, the "" thus became the national anthem.
Meanwhile, East Germany had adopted its own national anthem, "Auferstanden aus Ruinen" ("Risen from Ruins"). As the lyrics of this anthem called for "Germany, united Fatherland", they were no longer officially used from approximately 1972 onwards, when East Germany abandoned its goal of uniting Germany under communism. By design, with slight adaptations, the lyrics of "" can be sung to the melody of the "" and vice versa.
In the 1970s and 1980s, efforts were made by conservatives in Germany to reclaim all three stanzas for the national anthem. The Christian Democratic Union of Baden-Württemberg, for instance, attempted twice (in 1985 and 1986) to require German high school students to study all three stanzas, and in 1989, CDU politician Christean Wagner decreed that all high school students in Hesse were to memorise the three stanzas.
]]
On 7 March 1990, months before reunification, the Federal Constitutional Court declared only the third stanza of Hoffmann's poem to be legally protected as a national anthem under German criminal law; Section 90a of the Criminal Code (Strafgesetzbuch) makes defamation of the national anthem a crime, but does not specify what the national anthem is. This did not mean that stanzas one and two were no longer part of the national anthem, but that their peculiar status as "part of the [national] anthem but unsung" disqualified them for penal law protection, since the penal law must be interpreted in the narrowest manner possible.
In November 1991, President Richard von Weizsäcker and Chancellor Helmut Kohl agreed in an exchange of letters to declare the third stanza alone to be the national anthem of the reunified republic. Hence, as of then, the national anthem of Germany is unmistakably the third stanza of the "Deutschlandlied", and only this stanza, set to Haydn's music.
The incipit of the third stanza, "" ('Unity and Justice and Freedom'), is widely considered to be the national motto of Germany, although it has never been officially proclaimed as such. It appears on Bundeswehr soldiers' belt buckles (replacing the earlier "Gott mit uns" ('God with us') of the Imperial German Army and the Nazi-era Wehrmacht) and on 2 euro coins minted in Germany, and on the edges of the obsolete 2 and 5 Deutsche Mark coins. Criticisms Geographical
thumb|320px|Contemporary German conceptions of the "German language", political frameworks and the text's geographic references (bold blue):
]]
The first stanza, which is no longer part of the national anthem and is not sung on official occasions, names three rivers and one strait – the Meuse (Maas in German), Adige (Etsch) and Neman (Memel) Rivers and the Little Belt strait. The song was written before German unification, and there was no intention to delineate borders of Germany as a nation-state. Nevertheless, these geographical references have been variously criticised as irredentist or misleading. Today, no part of any of these four natural boundaries lies in Germany. The Meuse and the Adige were parts of the German Confederation when the song was composed, and were no longer part of the German Reich as of 1871; the Little Belt strait and the Neman became German boundaries later (the Belt until 1920, and the Neman between 1920 and 1939).
None of these natural boundaries formed a distinct ethnic border. The Duchy of Schleswig (to which the Belt refers) was inhabited by both Germans and Danes, with the Danes forming a clear majority near the strait. Around the Adige there was a mix of German, Venetian and Gallo-Italian speakers, and the area around the Neman was not homogeneously German, but also accommodated Prussian Lithuanians. If taken as referencing the Duchy of Limburg, nominally part of the German Confederation for 28 years due to the political consequences of the Belgian Revolution then the Meuse was ethnically Dutch, with few Germans.
Nevertheless, such nationalistic rhetoric was relatively common in 19th-century public discourse. For example, Georg Herwegh in his poem "The German Fleet" (1841) gives the Germans as the people "between the Po and the Sound," and in 1832 Philipp Jakob Siebenpfeiffer, a noted journalist, declared at the Hambach Festival that he considered all "between the Alps and the North Sea" to be Deutschtum, or the ethnic and spiritual German community.
Textual
The anthem has frequently been criticised for its generally nationalistic tone, the immodest geographic definition of Germany given in the first stanza, and an alleged male-chauvinistic attitude in the second stanza. A relatively early critic was Friedrich Nietzsche, who called the grandiose claim in the first stanza "" (the most idiotic slogan in the world), and in Thus Spoke Zarathustra said, "—I fear that was the end of German philosophy". Modern use of the first stanza As the first stanza of the "Deutschlandlied" is historically associated with the Nazi regime and its crimes, the singing of the first stanza is considered taboo within modern German society. Although the first stanza is not forbidden within Germany based on the German legal system, any mention of the first stanza is considered to be incorrect, inaccurate, and improper during official settings and functions, within Germany or abroad.
In 1974, the singer Nico released a recording of all three verses as the last track on her album The End.... In 1977, the German pop singer Heino produced a record of the song which included all three stanzas for use in primary schools in Baden-Württemberg. The inclusion of the first two stanzas was met with criticism at the time.
In 2009, the English rock musician Pete Doherty sang "Deutschlandlied" live on radio at Bayerischer Rundfunk in Munich with all three stanzas. As he sang the first stanza, he was booed by the audience. Three days later, Doherty's spokesperson declared that the singer was "not aware of the historical background and regrets the misunderstanding". A spokesperson for Bayerischer Rundfunk welcomed the apology, noting that further cooperation with Doherty would not have been possible otherwise.
When the first stanza was played as the German national anthem at the canoe sprint world championships in Hungary in August 2011, German athletes were reportedly "appalled". Eurosport, under the headline of "Nazi anthem", erroneously reported that "the first stanza of the piece [had been] banned in 1952 ".
Similarly, in 2017, the first stanza was mistakenly sung by Will Kimble, an American soloist, during the welcome ceremony of the Fed Cup tennis match between Andrea Petkovic (Germany) and Alison Riske (U.S.) at the Center Court in Lahaina, Hawaii. In an attempt to drown out the soloist, German tennis players and fans began to sing the third stanza instead.
Also, in 2018, during the 2018 World Masters Athletics Championships in Málaga, Spain, the first stanza was mistakenly played when Thomas Stewens, a German athlete, won a gold medal in a decathlon. He instead sang the third stanza.
Variants and additions
Additional or alternative stanzas
Hoffmann von Fallersleben also intended the text to be used as a drinking song; the second stanza's toast to German wine, women and song is typical of this genre. The original Heligoland manuscript included a variant ending of the third stanza for such occasions:
{|
|<poem lang="de">...
Sind des Glückes Unterpfand;
</poem>
|style="padding-left:2em;"|<poem>...
Are the pledge of fortune.
</poem>
|}
An alternative version called "" (Children's Hymn) was written by Bertolt Brecht shortly after his return from exile in the U.S. to a war-ravaged, bankrupt and geographically shrunken Germany at the end of World War II, and set to music by Hanns Eisler in the same year. It gained some currency after the 1990 unification of Germany, with a number of prominent Germans calling for his "antihymn" to be made official:
<!-- Please do not change the lyrics here, as they are Geisler's—see the source cited above -->
{|
|<poem></poem>
|style="padding-left:2em;"|<poem>Grace spare not and spare no labour
Passion nor intelligence
That a decent German nation
Flourish as do other lands.
That the people give up flinching
At the crimes which we evoke
And hold out their hand in friendship
As they do to other folk.
Neither over nor yet under
Other peoples will we be
From the sea to the Alps
From the Oder to the Rhine.
And because we'll make it better
Let us guard and love our home
Love it as our dearest country
As the others love their own.</poem>
|}
In the English version of this "antihymn", the second stanza refers ambiguously to "people" and "other folk", but the German version is more specific: the author encourages Germans to find ways to relieve the people of other nations from needing to flinch at the memory of things Germans have done in the past, so that people of other nations can feel ready to shake hands with a German again as they would with anyone else.
Notable performances and recordings
The German musician Nico sometimes performed the national anthem at concerts and dedicated it to militant Andreas Baader, leader of the Red Army Faction. She included a version of "" on her 1974 album The End.... In 2006, the Slovenian industrial band Laibach incorporated Hoffmann's lyrics in a song titled "Germania", on the album Volk, which contains fourteen songs with adaptations of national anthems.
Influences
The German composer Max Reger quotes the "Deutschlandlied" in the final section of his collection of organ pieces Sieben Stücke, Op. 145, composed in 1915–16 when it was a patriotic song but not yet the national anthem.
An Afrikaans patriotic song, "Afrikaners Landgenote", has been written with an identical melody and similarly structured lyrics to the "Deutschlandlied". The lyrics of this song consist of three stanzas, the first of which sets the boundaries of the Afrikaans homeland with the means of geographical areas, the second of which states the importance of "Afrikaans mothers, daughters, sun, and field", recalling the "German women, loyalty, wine, and song", and the third of which describes the importance of unity, justice, and freedom, along with love.
See also
Auferstanden aus Ruinen, the national anthem of East Germany until the German reunification in 1990
The Kaiserquartett, is the third of the six String Quartets, Op. 76, which Haydn composed in 1797, containing four variations on the musical theme used for the Deutchslandlied.
Notes
References
Sources
*
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090901203143/http://www.bundesregierung.de/nn_774/Content/DE/StatischeSeiten/Breg/die-nationalhymne-der-bundesrepublik-deutschland.html Die Nationalhymne der Bundesrepublik Deutschland], German Federal Government
* [http://ingeb.org/Lieder/deutschl.html "Das Lied der Deutschen"], ingeb.org
* [http://www.brandenburghistorica.com/page5.html "Das Lied der Deutschen"] at Brandenburg Historica
*
* , during the official German Unity Day ceremony on 3 October 1990
*
Category:Songs in German
Category:1922 establishments in Germany
Category:German anthems
Category:Weimar Republic
Category:West Germany
Category:National anthems
Category:Songs about Germany
Category:Songs based on poems
Category:1841 songs
Category:Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser
Category:Compositions in E-flat major
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutschlandlied
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December 31
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It is known by a collection of names including: Saint Sylvester's Day, New Year's Eve or Old Year's Day/Night, as the following day is New Year's Day. It is the last day of the year; the following day is January 1, the first day of the following year.
Events
Pre-1600
* 406 – Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine, beginning an invasion of Gaul.
* 535 – Byzantine general Belisarius completes the conquest of Sicily, defeating the Gothic garrison of Palermo (Panormos), and ending his consulship for the year.
* 870 – Battle of Englefield: The Vikings clash with ealdorman Æthelwulf of Berkshire. The invaders are driven back to Reading (East Anglia); many Danes are killed.
*1105 – Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV is forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Henry V, in Ingelheim.
*1225 – The Lý dynasty of Vietnam ends after 216 years by the enthronement of the boy emperor Trần Thái Tông, husband of the last Lý monarch, Lý Chiêu Hoàng, starting the Trần dynasty.
*1229 – James I the Conqueror, King of Aragon, enters Medina Mayurqa (now known as Palma, Spain), thus consummating the Christian reconquest of the island of Majorca.
*1501 – The First Battle of Cannanore commences, seeing the first use of the naval line of battle.
*1600 – The British East India Company is chartered.
1601–1900
*1660 – James, Duke of York is named Duke of Normandy by Louis XIV of France.
*1670 – The expedition of John Narborough leaves Corral Bay, having surveyed the coast and lost four hostages to the Spanish.
*1687 – The first Huguenots set sail from France to the Cape of Good Hope.
*1757 – Empress Elizabeth I of Russia issues her ukase incorporating Königsberg into Russia.
*1759 – Arthur Guinness signs a 9,000-year lease at £45 per annum and starts brewing Guinness.
*1775 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Quebec: British forces under General Guy Carleton repulse an attack by Continental Army General Richard Montgomery in a snowstorm.
*1790 – Efimeris, the oldest Greek newspaper of which issues have survived till today, is published for the first time.
*1796 – The incorporation of Baltimore as a city.
*1831 – Gramercy Park is deeded to New York City.
*1844 – The Philippines skipped this date in order to align the country with the rest of Asia, as the trading interest switched to China, Dutch East Indies and neighboring territories after Mexico gained independence from Spain on 27 September 1821. In the islands, Monday, 30 December 1844 was immediately followed by Wednesday, 1 January 1845.
*1853 – A dinner party is held inside a life-size model of an iguanodon created by Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins and Sir Richard Owen in south London, England.
*1857 – Queen Victoria chooses Ottawa, then a small logging town, as the capital of the Province of Canada.
*1862 – American Civil War: The three-day Battle of Stones River begins near Murfreesboro, Tennessee between the Confederate Army of Tennessee under General Braxton Bragg and the Union Army of the Cumberland under General William S. Rosecrans.
* 1862 – American Civil War: Abraham Lincoln signs an enabling act that would admit West Virginia to the Union, thus dividing Virginia in two.
*1878 – Karl Benz, working in Mannheim, Germany, files for a patent on his first reliable two-stroke gas engine. He was granted the patent in 1879.
*1879 – Thomas Edison demonstrates incandescent lighting to the public for the first time, in Menlo Park, New Jersey.
1901–present
*1906 – Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar signs the Persian Constitution of 1906.
*1907 – The first ever ball drop in Times Square.
*1942 – USS Essex, first aircraft carrier of a 24-ship class, is commissioned.
* 1942 – World War II: The Royal Navy defeats the Kriegsmarine at the Battle of the Barents Sea. This leads to the resignation of Grand Admiral Erich Raeder a month later.
*1944 – World War II: Operation Nordwind, the last major Wehrmacht offensive on the Western Front, begins.
*1946 – President Harry S. Truman officially proclaims the end of hostilities in World War II.
*1951 – Cold War: The Marshall Plan expires after distributing more than US$13.3 billion in foreign aid to rebuild Western Europe.
*1955 – General Motors becomes the first U.S. corporation to make over US$1 billion in a year.
*1956 – The Romanian Television network begins its first broadcast in Bucharest.
*1961 – RTÉ, Ireland's state broadcaster, launches its first national television service.
*1963 – The Central African Federation officially collapses, subsequently becoming Zambia, Malawi and Rhodesia.
*1965 – Jean-Bédel Bokassa, leader of the Central African Republic army, and his military officers begin a coup d'état against the government of President David Dacko.
*1968 – The first flight of the Tupolev Tu-144, the first civilian supersonic transport in the world.
* 1968 – MacRobertson Miller Airlines Flight 1750 crashes near Port Hedland, Western Australia, killing all 26 people on board.
*1981 – A coup d'état in Ghana removes President Hilla Limann's PNP government and replaces it with the Provisional National Defence Council led by Flight lieutenant Jerry Rawlings.
*1983 – The AT&T Bell System is broken up by the United States Government.
* 1983 – Benjamin Ward is appointed New York City Police Department's first ever African American police commissioner.
* 1983 – In Nigeria, a coup d'état led by Major General Muhammadu Buhari ends the Second Nigerian Republic.
*1991 – All official Soviet Union institutions have ceased operations by this date, five days after the Soviet Union is officially dissolved.
*1992 – Czechoslovakia is peacefully dissolved in what is dubbed by media as the Velvet Divorce, resulting in the creation of the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic.
*1994 – This date is skipped altogether in Kiribati as the Phoenix Islands and Line Islands change time zones from UTC−11:00 to UTC+13:00 and UTC−10:00 to UTC+14:00, respectively.
* 1994 – The First Chechen War: The Russian Ground Forces begin a New Year's storming of Grozny.
* 1995 – The final comic of Calvin and Hobbes is published.
*1998 – The European Exchange Rate Mechanism freezes the values of the legacy currencies in the Eurozone, and establishes the value of the euro currency.
*1999 – The first President of Russia, Boris Yeltsin, resigns from office, leaving Prime Minister Vladimir Putin as the acting President and successor.
* 1999 – The U.S. government hands control of the Panama Canal (as well all the adjacent land to the canal known as the Panama Canal Zone) to Panama. This act complied with the signing of the 1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties.
* 1999 – Indian Airlines Flight 814 hijacking ends after seven days with the release of 190 survivors at Kandahar Airport, Afghanistan.
*2001 – Rwanda adopts a new national flag and anthem.
*2004 – The official opening of Taipei 101, the tallest skyscraper at that time in the world, standing at a height of .
*2009 – Both a blue moon and a lunar eclipse occur.
*2010 – Tornadoes touch down in midwestern and southern United States, including Washington County, Arkansas; Greater St. Louis, Sunset Hills, Missouri, Illinois, and Oklahoma, with a few tornadoes in the early hours. A total of 36 tornadoes touched down, resulting in the deaths of nine people and $113 million in damages.
*2011 – NASA succeeds in putting the first of two Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory satellites in orbit around the Moon.
*2014 – A New Year's Eve celebration stampede in Shanghai kills at least 36 people and injures 49 others.
*2015 – A fire breaks out at the Downtown Address Hotel in Downtown Dubai, United Arab Emirates, located near the Burj Khalifa, two hours before the fireworks display is due to commence. Sixteen injuries were reported; one had a heart attack, another suffered a major injury, and fourteen others with minor injuries.
*2018 – Thirty-nine people are killed after a ten-story building collapses in the industrial city of Magnitogorsk, Russia.
*2019 – The World Health Organization is informed of cases of pneumonia with an unknown cause, detected in Wuhan. This later turned out to be COVID-19, the cause of the COVID-19 pandemic.
*2020 – The World Health Organization issues its first emergency use validation for a COVID-19 vaccine.Births<!-- Please do not add yourself or anyone else without a biography in Wikipedia to this list.-->Pre-1600
* 695 – Muhammad ibn al-Qasim, Umayyad general (d. 715)
*1378 – Pope Callixtus III (d. 1458)
*1491 – Jacques Cartier, French navigator and explorer (d. 1557)
*1493 – Eleonora Gonzaga, Duchess of Urbino (d. 1570)
*1504 – Beatrice of Portugal, Duchess of Savoy (d. 1538)
*1514 – Andreas Vesalius, Belgian anatomist, physician, and author (d. 1564)
*1539 – John Radcliffe, English politician (d. 1568)
*1550 – Henry I, Duke of Guise (d. 1588)
*1552 – Simon Forman, English occultist and astrologer (d. 1611)
*1572 – Emperor Go-Yōzei of Japan, (d. 1617)
*1585 – Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, Spanish general and politician, 24th Governor of the Duchy of Milan (d. 1645)
1601–1900
*1668 – Herman Boerhaave, Dutch botanist and physician (d. 1738)
*1714 – Arima Yoriyuki, Japanese mathematician and educator (d. 1783)
*1720 – Charles Edward Stuart, Scottish claimant to the throne of England (d. 1788)
*1738 – Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis, English general and politician, 3rd Governor-General of India (d. 1805)
*1741 – Gottfried August Bürger, German poet and academic (d. 1794)
*1763 – Pierre-Charles Villeneuve, French admiral (d. 1806)
*1776 – Johann Spurzheim, German-American physician and phrenologist (d. 1832)
*1798 – Friedrich Robert Faehlmann, Estonian physician, philologist, and academic (d. 1850)
*1805 – Marie d'Agoult, German-French historian and author (d. 1876)
*1815 – George Meade, American general and engineer (d. 1872)
*1830 – Isma'il Pasha, Egyptian ruler (d. 1895)
* 1830 – Alexander Smith, Scottish poet and critic (d. 1867)
*1833 – Hugh Nelson Scottish-Australian politician, 11th Premier of Queensland (d. 1906)
*1834 – Queen Kapiolani of Hawaii (d. 1899)
*1838 – Émile Loubet, French lawyer and politician, 7th President of France (d. 1929)
*1842 – Giovanni Boldini, Italian painter (d. 1931)
*1851 – Henry Carter Adams, American economist and academic (d. 1921)
*1855 – Giovanni Pascoli, Italian poet and scholar (d. 1912)
*1857 – King Kelly, American baseball player and manager (d. 1894)
*1860 – Joseph S. Cullinan, American businessman, co-founded Texaco (d. 1937)
*1864 – Robert Grant Aitken, American astronomer and academic (d. 1951)
*1869 – Henri Matisse, French painter and sculptor (d. 1954)
*1872 – Fred Marriott, American race car driver (d. 1956)
*1873 – Konstantin Konik, Estonian surgeon and politician, 19th Estonian Minister of Education (d. 1936)
*1874 – Julius Meier, American businessman and politician, 20th Governor of Oregon (d. 1937)
*1877 – Lawrence Beesley, English journalist and author (d. 1967)
*1878 – Elizabeth Arden, Canadian businesswoman, founded Elizabeth Arden, Inc. (d. 1966)
* 1878 – Horacio Quiroga, Uruguayan-Argentinian author, poet, and playwright (d. 1937)
*1880 – Fred Beebe, American baseball player and coach (d. 1957)
* 1880 – George Marshall, American general and politician, 50th United States Secretary of State, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1959)
*1881 – Max Pechstein, German painter and academic (d. 1955)
*1884 – Bobby Byrne, American baseball and soccer player (d. 1964)
* 1884 – Mihály Fekete, Hungarian actor, screenwriter, and film director (d. 1960)
*1885 – Princess Victoria Adelaide of Schleswig-Holstein (d. 1970)
*1899 – Silvestre Revueltas, Mexican violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 1940)
1901–present
*1901 – Karl-August Fagerholm, Finnish politician, valtioneuvos, the Speaker of the Parliament and the Prime Minister of Finland (d. 1984)
* 1901 – Nikos Ploumpidis, Greek educator and politician (d. 1954)
*1902 – Lionel Daunais, Canadian singer-songwriter (d. 1982)
* 1902 – Roy Goodall, English footballer (d. 1982)
*1903 – William Heynes, English engineer (d. 1989)
*1905 – Helen Dodson Prince, American astronomer and academic (d. 2002)
*1908 – Simon Wiesenthal, Ukrainian-Austrian Nazi hunter and author (d. 2005)
*1909 – Jonah Jones, American trumpet player and saxophonist (d. 2000)
*1910 – Carl Dudley, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1973)
* 1910 – Enrique Maier, Spanish tennis player (d. 1981)
*1911 – Dal Stivens, Australian soldier and author (d. 1997)
*1912 – John Frost, Indian-English general (d. 1993)
*1914 – Mary Logan Reddick, American neuroembryologist (d. 1966)
*1915 – Sam Ragan, American journalist, author, and poet (d. 1996)
*1917 – Evelyn Knight, American singer (d. 2007)
* 1917 – Wilfrid Noyce, English mountaineer and author (d. 1962)
*1918 – Ray Graves, American football player and coach (d. 2015)
*1919 – Tommy Byrne, American baseball player, coach, and politician (d. 2007)
* 1919 – Carmen Contreras-Bozak, Puerto Rican-American soldier (d. 2017)
*1920 – Rex Allen, American actor and singer-songwriter (d. 1999)
*1922 – Tomás Balduino, Brazilian bishop (d. 2014)
* 1922 – Halina Czerny-Stefańska, Polish pianist and educator (d. 2001)
* 1922 – Luis Zuloaga, Venezuelan baseball player (d. 2013)
*1923 – Giannis Dalianidis, Greek actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2010)
*1924 – Taylor Mead, American actor and poet (d. 2013)
*1925 – Irina Korschunow, German author and screenwriter (d. 2013)
* 1925 – Sri Lal Sukla, Indian author (d. 2011)
* 1925 – Daphne Oram, British composer and electronic musician (d. 2003)
*1926 – Valerie Pearl, English historian and academic (d. 2016)
* 1926 – Billy Snedden, Australian lawyer and politician, 17th Attorney-General for Australia (d. 1987)
*1928 – Ross Barbour, American pop singer (d. 2011)
* 1928 – Hugh McElhenny, American football player (d. 2022)
* 1928 – Veijo Meri, Finnish author and translator (d. 2015)
* 1928 – Tatyana Shmyga, Russian actress and singer (d. 2011)
* 1928 – Siné, French cartoonist (d. 2016)
*1929 – Mies Bouwman, Dutch television host (d. 2018)
* 1929 – Peter May, English cricketer (d. 1994)
*1930 – Jaime Escalante, Bolivian-American educator (d. 2010)
* 1930 – Odetta, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress (d. 2008)
*1931 – Bob Shaw, Northern Irish journalist and author (d. 1996)
*1932 – Don James, American football player and coach (d. 2013)
* 1932 – Felix Rexhausen, German journalist and author (d. 1992)
*1933 – Edward Bunker, American author, screenwriter, and actor (d. 2005)
*1934 – Ameer Muhammad Akram Awan, Indian author, poet, and scholar (d. 2017)
*1937 – Avram Hershko, Hungarian-Israeli biochemist and physician, Nobel Prize laureate
* 1937 – Barry Hughes, Welsh footballer and manager (d. 2019)
* 1937 – Tess Jaray, Austrian-English painter and educator
*1938 – Rosalind Cash, American singer and actress (d. 1995)
* 1938 – Atje Keulen-Deelstra, Dutch speed skater (d. 2013)
*1939 – Willye White, American sprinter and long jumper (d. 2007)
*1940 – Mani Neumeier, German drummer
* 1941 – Sir Alex Ferguson, Scottish footballer and manager
*1944 – Taylor Hackford, American director, producer, and screenwriter
*1945 – Connie Willis, American author
*1946 – Roy Greenslade, English journalist and academic
* 1946 – Bryan Hamilton, Northern Irish footballer and coach
* 1946 – Raphael Kaplinsky, South African international development academic
* 1946 – Pius Ncube, Zimbabwean archbishop
* 1946 – Lyudmila Pakhomova, Russian ice dancer (d. 1986)
* 1946 – Cliff Richey, American tennis player
* 1946 – Eric Robson, Scottish journalist and author
* 1946 – Nigel Rudd, English businessman, founded Williams Holdings
* 1946 – Tim Stevens, English bishop
*1948 – Sandy Jardine, Scottish footballer and manager (d. 2014)
*1949 – Ellen Datlow, American anthologist and author
* 1949 – Flora Gomes, Bissau-Guinean filmmaker
* 1949 – Susan Shwartz, American author
*1950 – Bob Gilder, American golfer
* 1950 – Inge Helten, German sprinter
* 1950 – Cheryl Womack, American businesswoman
*1951 – Kenny Roberts, American motorcycle racer
*1952 – Vaughan Jones, New Zealand mathematician and academic (d. 2020)
* 1952 – Jean-Pierre Rives, French rugby player, painter, and sculptor
*1953 – Jane Badler, American actress
*1954 – Alex Salmond, Scottish economist and politician, First Minister of Scotland (d. 2024)
* 1954 – Hermann Tilke, German racing driver, architect and engineer
* 1955 – Pula Nikolao Pula, 9th governor of American Samoa
*1956 – Robert Goodwill, English farmer and politician
* 1956 – Helma Knorscheidt, German shot putter
* 1956 – Steve Rude, American author and illustrator
*1958 – Geoff Marsh, Australian cricketer and coach
*1959 – Liveris Andritsos, Greek basketball player
* 1959 – Phill Kline, American lawyer and politician, Kansas Attorney General
* 1959 – Baron Waqa, Nauruan composer and politician, 14th President of Nauru
*1960 – Steve Bruce, English footballer and manager
*1961 – Rick Aguilera, American baseball player and coach
* 1961 – Jeremy Heywood, English economist and civil servant (d. 2018)
* 1961 – Nina Li Chi, Hong Kong actress
*1962 – Tyrone Corbin, American basketball player and coach
* 1962 – Chris Hallam, English-Welsh swimmer and wheelchair racer (d. 2013)
* 1962 – Jennifer Higdon, American composer
*1964 – Winston Benjamin, Antiguan cricketer
* 1964 – Michael McDonald, American comedian, actor, and director
*1965 – Tony Dorigo, Australian-English footballer and sportscaster
* 1965 – Julie Doucet, Canadian cartoonist and author
* 1965 – Laxman Sivaramakrishnan, Indian cricketer
*1967 – Paul McGregor, Australian rugby league player and coach
*1968 – Gerry Dee, Canadian comedian, actor, and screenwriter
* 1968 – Junot Diaz, Dominican-born American novelist, short story writer, and essayist
*1970 – Jorjão, Brazilian footballer
* 1970 – Danny McNamara, English singer-songwriter
* 1970 – Carlos Morales Quintana, Spanish-Danish architect and sailor
* 1970 – Bryon Russell, American basketball player
*1971 – Brent Barry, American basketball player and sportscaster
* 1971 – Esteban Loaiza, Mexican baseball player
* 1971 – Heath Shuler, American football player and politician
*1972 – Grégory Coupet, French footballer
* 1972 – Scott Manley, Scottish YouTube personality
*1973 – Shandon Anderson, American basketball player
* 1973 – Malcolm Middleton, Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1973 – Curtis Myden, Canadian swimmer
*1974 – Mario Aerts, Belgian cyclist
* 1974 – Tony Kanaan, Brazilian race car driver
* 1974 – Ryan Sakoda, Japanese-American wrestler and trainer
*1975 – Rami Alanko, Finnish ice hockey player
* 1975 – Toni Kuivasto, Finnish footballer and coach
* 1975 – Rob Penders, Dutch footballer
* 1975 – Sander Schutgens, Dutch runner
*1976 – Luís Carreira, Portuguese motorcycle racer (d. 2012)
* 1976 – Matthew Hoggard, English cricketer
*1977 – Wardy Alfaro, Costa Rican footballer and coach
*1979 – Paul O'Neill, English racing driver
* 1979 – Jeff Waldstreicher, American lawyer and politician
*1979 – Ricky Whittle, British actor
*1980 – Jesse Carlson, American baseball player
* 1980 – Matt Cross, American wrestler
* 1980 – Richie McCaw, New Zealand rugby player
* 1980 – Carsten Schlangen, German runner
*1981 – Jason Campbell, American football player
* 1981 – Francisco García, Dominican basketball player
* 1981 – Matthew Pavlich, Australian footballer
* 1981 – Margaret Simpson, Ghanaian heptathlete
*1982 – Julio DePaula, Dominican baseball player
* 1982 – Craig Gordon, Scottish footballer
* 1982 – Luke Schenscher, Australian basketball player
* 1982 – The Rocket Summer, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
*1983 – Jana Veselá, Czech basketball player
*1984 – Corey Crawford, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1984 – Ben Hannant, Australian rugby league player
* 1984 – Édgar Lugo, Mexican footballer
* 1984 – Calvin Zola, Congolese footballer
*1985 – Jonathan Horton, American gymnast
* 1985 – Jan Smit, Dutch singer and television host
*1986 – Nate Freiman, American baseball player
* 1986 – Kade Snowden, Australian rugby league player
*1987 – Javaris Crittenton, American basketball player
* 1987 – Seydou Doumbia, Ivorian footballer
* 1987 – Danny Holla, Dutch footballer
* 1987 – Nemanja Nikolić, Hungarian footballer
*1988 – Michal Řepík, Czech ice hockey player
*1989 – Ryo Aitaka, Japanese kickboxer and professional wrestler
* 1989 – Kelvin Herrera, Dominican baseball player
*1991 – Dennis Everberg, Swedish ice hockey player
* 1991 – Djené, Togolese footballer
* 1991 – ND Stevenson, American cartoonist
*1992 – Amy Cure, Australian track cyclist
* 1992 – Karl Kruuda, Estonian racing driver
*1995 – Gabby Douglas, American gymnast
* 1995 – Edmond Sumner, American basketball player
*1996 – J. J. Arcega-Whiteside, Spanish-American football player
*1997 – Ludovic Blas, French footballer
* 1997 – Cameron Carter-Vickers, English-American soccer player
* 1997 – Bright Osayi-Samuel, Nigerian footballer
*1999 – Calvin Bassey, Italian-Nigerian footballer
* 1999 – Leif Davis, English footballer
*2000 – Alycia Parks, American tennis player
*2001 – Katie Volynets, American tennis player
*2002 – Ryan Flamingo, Dutch footballer
* 2002 – Joe Scally, American soccer player
<!-- Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. -->
Deaths
Pre-1600
*45 BC – Quintus Fabius Maximus, consul suffectus
* 192 – Commodus, Roman emperor (b. 161)
* 335 – Pope Sylvester I
* 669 – Li Shiji, Chinese general (b. 594)
* 914 – Ibn Hawshab, founder of the Isma'ili community in Yemen
*1032 – Ahmad Maymandi, Persian statesman, vizier of the Ghaznavid Empire
*1164 – Ottokar III of Styria (b. 1124)
*1194 – Leopold V, Duke of Austria (b. 1157)
*1298 – Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford, English politician, Lord High Constable of England (b. 1249)
*1299 – Margaret, Countess of Anjou (b. 1273)
*1302 – Frederick III, Duke of Lorraine (b. 1238)
*1384 – John Wycliffe, English philosopher, theologian, and translator (b. 1331)
*1386 – Johanna of Bavaria, Queen of Bohemia (b. c. 1362)
*1426 – Thomas Beaufort, Duke of Exeter (b. 1377)
*1439 – Margaret Holland, English noblewoman (b. 1385)
*1460 – Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury, English politician, Lord Chancellor of the United Kingdom (b. 1400)
*1510 – Bianca Maria Sforza, Holy Roman Empress (b. 1472)
*1535 – William Skeffington, English-Irish politician, Lord Deputy of Ireland (b. 1465)
*1568 – Shimazu Tadayoshi, Japanese daimyō (b. 1493)
*1575 – Pierino Belli, Italian commander and jurist (b. 1502)
*1583 – Thomas Erastus, Swiss physician and theologian (b. 1524)
1601–1900
*1610 – Ludolph van Ceulen, German-Dutch mathematician and academic (b. 1540)
*1637 – Christian, Count of Waldeck-Wildungen, German count (b. 1585)
*1650 – Dorgon, Chinese emperor (b. 1612)
*1655 – Janusz Radziwiłł, Polish–Lithuanian politician (b. 1612)
* 1655 – Sir John Wray, 2nd Baronet, English politicians and Roundheads supporter (b. 1586)
*1673 – Oliver St John, English judge and politician, Chief Justice of the Common Pleas (b. 1598)
*1679 – Giovanni Alfonso Borelli, Italian physiologist and physicist (b. 1608)
*1691 – Robert Boyle, Anglo-Irish chemist and physicist (b. 1627)
* 1691 – Dudley North, English merchant and economist (b. 1641)
*1705 – Catherine of Braganza (b. 1638)
*1719 – John Flamsteed, English astronomer and academic (b. 1646)
*1730 – Carlo Gimach, Maltese architect, engineer and poet (b. 1651)
*1742 – Charles III Philip, Elector Palatine (b. 1661)
*1775 – Richard Montgomery, American general (b. 1738)
*1799 – Jean-François Marmontel, French historian and author (b. 1723)
*1818 – Jean-Pierre Duport, French cellist (b. 1741)
*1872 – Aleksis Kivi, Finnish author and playwright (b. 1834)
*1876 – Catherine Labouré, French nun and saint (b. 1806)
*1877 – Gustave Courbet, French-Swiss painter and sculptor (b. 1819)
*1888 – Samson Raphael Hirsch, German rabbi and scholar (b. 1808)
*1889 – Ion Creangă, Romanian author and educator (b. 1837)
* 1889 – George Kerferd, English-Australian politician, 10th Premier of Victoria (b. 1831)
*1890 – Pancha Carrasco, Costa Rican soldier (b. 1826)
*1891 – Samuel Ajayi Crowther, Nigerian bishop and linguist (b. 1809)
*1894 – Thomas Joannes Stieltjes, Dutch mathematician and academic (b. 1856)
1901–present
*1909 – Spencer Trask, American financier and philanthropist (b. 1844)
*1910 – Archibald Hoxsey, American pilot (b. 1884)
* 1910 – John Moisant, American pilot and engineer (b. 1868)
*1921 – Boies Penrose, American lawyer and politician (b. 1860)
*1934 – Cornelia Clapp, American marine biologist (b. 1849)
*1936 – Miguel de Unamuno, Spanish philosopher, author, and poet (b. 1864)
*1948 – Malcolm Campbell, English racing driver and journalist (b. 1885)
*1949 – Rıza Tevfik Bölükbaşı, Turkish philosopher, poet, and politician (b. 1869)
* 1949 – Raimond Valgre, Estonian pianist and composer (b. 1913)
*1950 – Charles Koechlin, French composer and educator (b. 1867)
*1951 – Murtaza Hasan Chandpuri, Indian Muslim scholar (b. 1868)
*1953 – Albert Plesman, Dutch businessman, founded KLM (b. 1889)
*1964 – Bobby Byrne, American baseball and soccer player (b. 1884)
* 1964 – Ólafur Thors, Icelandic lawyer and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Iceland (b. 1892)
* 1964 – Henry Maitland Wilson, English field marshal (b. 1881)
*1968 – George Lewis, American clarinet player and composer (b. 1900)
*1970 – Cyril Scott, English composer, writer, and poet (b. 1879)
*1972 – Roberto Clemente, Puerto Rican-American baseball player and Marine (b. 1934)
* 1972 – Henry Gerber, German-American activist, founded the Society for Human Rights (b. 1892)
*1978 – Basil Wolverton, American illustrator (b. 1909)
*1980 – Marshall McLuhan, Canadian philosopher and theorist (b. 1911)
* 1980 – Raoul Walsh, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1887)
*1983 – Sevim Burak, Turkish author and playwright (b. 1931)
*1985 – Ricky Nelson, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (b. 1940)
*1987 – Jerry Turner, American journalist (b. 1929)
*1988 – Nicolas Calas, Greek-American poet and critic (b. 1907)
*1990 – George Allen, American football player and coach (b. 1918)
* 1990 – Vasily Lazarev, Russian physician, colonel, and astronaut (b. 1928)
* 1990 – Giovanni Michelucci, Italian architect and urban planner, designed the Firenze Santa Maria Novella railway station (b. 1891)
*1993 – Zviad Gamsakhurdia, Georgian anthropologist and politician, 1st President of Georgia (b. 1939)
* 1993 – Brandon Teena, American murder victim (b. 1972)
* 1993 – Big Bertha, Irish cattle and twice Guinness World Record holder (oldest cow, cow with most offspring) (b. 1945)
*1994 – Woody Strode, American football player, wrestler, and actor (b. 1914)
*1996 – Wesley Addy, American actor (b. 1913)
*1997 – Floyd Cramer, American singer-songwriter and pianist (b. 1933)
* 1997 – Billie Dove, American actress (b. 1903)
*1998 – Ted Glossop, Australian rugby league player and coach (b. 1934)
*1999 – Elliot Richardson, American lawyer and politician, 69th United States Attorney General (b. 1920)
* 1999 – Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi, Indian Muslim scholar and author (b. 1914)
*2000 – Alan Cranston, American journalist and politician (b. 1914)
* 2000 – José Greco, Italian-American dancer and choreographer (b. 1918)
* 2000 – Binyamin Ze'ev Kahane, American-Israeli rabbi and scholar (b. 1966)
*2001 – Eileen Heckart, American actress (b. 1919)
*2002 – Kevin MacMichael, Canadian guitarist, songwriter, and producer (b. 1951)
*2003 – Arthur R. von Hippel German-American physicist and author (b. 1898)
*2004 – Gérard Debreu, French economist and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1921)
*2005 – Enrico Di Giuseppe, American tenor and educator (b. 1932)
* 2005 – Phillip Whitehead, English screenwriter, producer, and politician (b. 1937)
*2006 – Ya'akov Hodorov, Israeli footballer (b. 1927)
* 2006 – Seymour Martin Lipset, American sociologist, author, and academic (b. 1922)
* 2006 – George Sisler, Jr., American businessman (b. 1917)
*2007 – Roy Amara, American scientific researcher (b. 1925)
* 2007 – Michael Goldberg, American painter and educator (b. 1924)
* 2007 – Bill Idelson, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1919)
* 2007 – Milton L. Klein, Canadian lawyer and politician (b. 1910)
* 2007 – Ettore Sottsass, Austrian-Italian architect and designer (b. 1917)
*2008 – Donald E. Westlake, American author and screenwriter (b. 1933)
*2009 – Cahal Daly, Irish cardinal and philosopher, Archbishop of Armagh (b. 1917)
* 2009 – Justin Keating, Irish surgeon, journalist, and politician, Minister for Industry and Commerce (b. 1930)
*2010 – Raymond Impanis, Belgian cyclist (b. 1925)
* 2010 – Per Oscarsson, Swedish actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1927)
*2012 – Tarak Mekki, Tunisian businessman and politician (b. 1958)
* 2012 – Jovette Marchessault, Canadian author and playwright (b. 1938)
* 2012 – Günter Rössler, German photographer and journalist (b. 1926)
*2013 – James Avery, American actor (b. 1945)
* 2013 – Roberto Ciotti, Italian guitarist and composer (b. 1953)
* 2013 – Bob Grant, American radio host (b. 1929)
* 2013 – Irina Korschunow, German author and screenwriter (b. 1925)
*2014 – Edward Herrmann, American actor (b. 1943)
* 2014 – Abdullah Hussain, Malaysian author (b. 1920)
* 2014 – Norm Phelps, American author and activist (b. 1939)
* 2014 – S. Arthur Spiegel, American captain, lawyer, and judge (b. 1920)
* 2014 – Valerian Wellesley, 8th Duke of Wellington, British soldier and politician (b. 1915)
*2015 – Natalie Cole, American singer-songwriter and actress (b. 1950)
* 2015 – Wayne Rogers, American actor and investor (b. 1933)
*2016 – William Christopher, American actor (b. 1932)
*2018 – Kader Khan, Indian actor (b. 1937)
*2021 – Betty White, American actress, comedian and producer (b. 1922)
*2022 – Pope Benedict XVI, German Roman Catholic cardinal and theologian, pope (2005–2013) and archbishop of Munich and Freising (1977–1982) (b. 1927)
* 2022 – Barry Lane, English golfer (b. 1960)
* 2023 – Cale Yarborough, American Hall of Fame racing driver and founder of Cale Yarborough Motorsports, NASCAR Cup Series champion (1976, 1977, 1978) (b. 1939)
* 2024 – Arnold Rüütel, Estonian politician, 3rd President of Estonia (b. 1928)
* 2024 – Johnnie Walker, British radio DJ (b. 1945)
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
*Christian feast day:
**Pope Sylvester I (Catholic Church)
**December 31 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*International Solidarity Day of Azerbaijanis (Azerbaijan)
*New Year's Eve (International observance), and its related observances:
**First Night (United States)
**Last Day of the Year or Bisperás ng Bagong Taón, special holiday between Rizal Day and New Year's Day (Philippines)
**Novy God Eve (Russia)
**Ōmisoka (Japan)
**The first day of Hogmanay or "Auld Year's Night" (Scotland)
*The seventh of the Twelve Days of Christmas (Western Christianity)
*The sixth and penultimate day of Kwanzaa (United States)
See also
*January 0
References
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/31 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/december/31 Historical Events on December 31]
Category:Days of December
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_31
|
2025-04-05T18:28:30.166887
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Deng Xiaoping
|
| native_name_lang = zh
| image = Deng Xiaoping at the arrival ceremony for the Vice Premier of China (cropped).jpg
| caption = Deng in 1979
| office = Chairman of the Central Advisory Commission
| 1blankname1 =
| 1namedata1 =
| deputy1 =
| term1 = – }}}}
| predecessor1 = Hua Guofeng
| successor1 = Jiang Zemin
| term2 = }}}}
| predecessor2 = Office established
| successor2 = Jiang Zemin
| office1 = Chairman of the Central Military Commission
| 1blankname =
| 1namedata =
| president = Li Xiannian
| premier = Zhao Ziyang
| deputy =
| term_start = 13 September 1982
| term_end = 2 November 1987
| predecessor = Office established
| successor = Chen Yun
| order3 = 3rd
| office3 = Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference
| term_start3 = 8 March 1978
| term_end3 = 17 June 1983
| predecessor3 = Zhou Enlai (until 1976)
| successor3 = Deng Yingchao
| birth_name = Deng Xiansheng
| birth_date
| birth_place = Guang'an, Sichuan, Qing dynasty
| death_date
| death_place = Beijing, China
| resting_place = Ashes scattered at sea
| party = Chinese Communist Party (from 1924)
| spouse = )|1928|1929|end=d}}
* ()|1931|1939}}
* }}
| children = 6, including:
| relatives = Deng Zhuodi (grandson)
| branch = * Chinese Red Army
* Eighth Route Army
* People's Liberation Army
| serviceyears = 1929–1952, 1975–1980
| rank =
* Chief of the General Staff
* Chairman, Central Military Commission of China}}
| unit =
| battles =
| signature = Signature of Deng Xiaoping 19840126.svg
| footnotes
| t =
| p = Dèng Xiǎopíng
| order = st
}} <div style="text-align: center">Paramount leader of China
Hua Guofeng
* Jiang Zemin
}}
</div>
| website =
| education = Moscow Sun Yat-sen University
}}
Deng Xiaoping, ; also romanised as '''Teng Hsiao-p'ing'''; born Xiansheng (). }} (22 August 190419 February 1997) was a Chinese statesman, revolutionary, and political theorist who served as the paramount leader of the People's Republic of China from 1978 to 1989. In the aftermath of Mao Zedong's death in 1976, Deng succeeded in consolidating power to lead China through a period of reform and opening up that transformed its economy into a socialist market economy. He is widely regarded as the "Architect of Modern China" for his contributions to socialism with Chinese characteristics and Deng Xiaoping Theory.
Born in Sichuan, the son of landowning peasants, Deng first learned of Marxism–Leninism while studying and working abroad in France in the early 1920s through the Work-Study Movement. In France, he met future collaborators like Zhou Enlai. In 1924, he joined the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and continued his studies in Moscow. Following the outbreak of the Chinese Civil War between the Kuomintang (KMT) and CCP, Deng worked in the Jiangxi Soviet, where he developed good relations with Mao. He served as a political commissar in the Chinese Red Army during the Long March and Second Sino-Japanese War, and later helped to lead the People's Liberation Army (PLA) to victory in the civil war, participating in the PLA's capture of Nanjing. After the proclamation of the PRC in 1949, Deng held several key regional roles, eventually rising to vice premier and CCP secretary-general in the 1950s. He presided over economic reconstruction efforts and played a significant role in the Anti-Rightist Campaign. During the Cultural Revolution from 1966, Deng was condemned as the party's "number two capitalist roader" after Liu Shaoqi, and was purged twice by Mao, exiled to work in a tractor factory for 4 years. After Mao's death in 1976, Deng outmaneuvered his rivals to become the country's leader in 1978.
Upon coming to power, Deng began a massive overhaul of China's infrastructure and political system. Due to the institutional disorder and political turmoil from the Mao era, he and his allies launched the Boluan Fanzheng program which sought to restore order by rehabilitating those who were persecuted during the Cultural Revolution. He also initiated a reform and opening up program that introduced elements of market capitalism to the Chinese economy by designating special economic zones within the country. In 1980, Deng embarked on a series of political reforms including the setting of constitutional term limits for state officials and other systematic revisions which were incorporated in the country's fourth constitution. He later championed a one-child policy to deal with China's perceived overpopulation crisis, helped establish China's nine-year compulsory education, and oversaw the launch of the 863 Program to promote science and technology. The reforms carried out by Deng and his allies gradually led China away from a command economy and Maoist dogma, opened it up to foreign investments and technology, and introduced its vast labor force to the global market—thereby transforming China into one of the world's fastest-growing economies. Deng helped negotiate the eventual return of Hong Kong and Macau to China (which took place after his death) and developed the principle of "one country, two systems" for their governance.
During the course of his leadership, Deng was named the Time Person of the Year for 1978 and 1985. Despite his contributions to China's modernization, Deng's legacy is also marked by controversy. He ordered the military crackdown on the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, which ended his political reforms and remains a subject of global criticism. The one-child policy introduced in Deng's era also drew criticism. Nonetheless, his policies laid the foundation for China's emergence as a major global power. Deng was succeeded as paramount leader by Jiang Zemin, who continued his policies. Early life and family Deng's ancestors can be traced back to Jiaying County (now renamed as Meixian), Guangdong, a prominent ancestral area for the Hakka people, and had settled in Sichuan for several generations. Deng's daughter Deng Rong wrote in the book My Father Deng Xiaoping () that his ancestry was probably, but not definitely, Hakka. Sichuan was originally the origin of the Deng lineage until one of them was hired as an official in Guangdong during the Ming dynasty, but when the Qing dynasty planned to increase the population in 1671, they moved back to Sichuan. Deng was born in Guang'an District, Guang'an on 22 August 1904 in Sichuan province.
Deng's father, Deng Wenming, was a mid-level landowner who had studied at the University of Law and Political Science in Chengdu, Sichuan. He was locally prominent. His mother, surnamed Dan, died early in Deng's life, leaving Deng, his three brothers, and three sisters. At the age of five, Deng was sent to a traditional Chinese-style private primary school, followed by a more modern primary school at the age of seven.
Deng's first wife, one of his schoolmates from Moscow, died aged 24 a few days after giving birth to their first child, a baby girl who also died. His second wife, Jin Weiying, left him after Deng came under political attack in 1933. His third wife, Zhuo Lin, was the daughter of an industrialist in Yunnan. She became a member of the Communist Party in 1938, and married Deng a year later in front of Mao's cave dwelling in Yan'an. They had five children: three daughters (Deng Lin, Deng Nan and Deng Rong) and two sons (Deng Pufang and Deng Zhifang). Deng quit smoking when he was 86.
Education and early career
shoe factory in Châlette-sur-Loing, France, where he worked for eight months in 1922, and for another stint in 1923 where he was fired after one month, with the bottom note reading 'refused to work, do not take him back']]
Deng's given name was Xiansheng (). When Deng first attended school, his tutor objected to him having the given name Xiansheng, instead calling him "Xixian" (), which includes the characters "to aspire to" and "goodness", with overtones of wisdom.
In the summer of 1919, Deng graduated from the Chongqing School. He and 80 schoolmates travelled by ship to France (travelling steerage) to participate in the Diligent Work-Frugal Study Movement, a work-study program in which 4,001 Chinese would participate by 1927. Deng, the youngest of all the Chinese students in the group, had just turned 15. Wu Yuzhang, the local leader of the Movement in Chongqing, enrolled Deng and his paternal uncle, Deng Shaosheng, in the program. Deng's father strongly supported his son's participation in the work-study abroad program. The night before his departure, Deng's father took his son aside and asked him what he hoped to learn in France. He repeated the words he had learned from his teachers: "To learn knowledge and truth from the West in order to save China." Deng was aware that China was suffering greatly, and that the Chinese people must have a modern education to save their country.
On 19 October 1920, a French packet ship, the André Lebon, sailed into Marseille with 210 Chinese students aboard including Deng. The sixteen-year-old Deng briefly attended middle schools in Bayeux and Châtillon, but he spent most of his time in France working, including at a Renault factory and as a fitter at the Le Creusot Iron and Steel Plant in La Garenne-Colombes, a north-western suburb of Paris where he moved in April 1921. Coincidentally, when Deng's later political fortunes were down and he was sent to work in a tractor factory in 1969 during the Cultural Revolution, he found himself a fitter again and proved to still be a master of the skill.
In La Garenne-Colombes Deng met future CCP leaders Zhou Enlai, Chen Yi, Nie Rongzhen, Li Fuchun, Li Lisan and Li Weihan. In June 1923 he joined the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe. In the second half of 1924, he joined the Chinese Communist Party and became one of the leading members of the General Branch of the Youth League in Europe. In 1926 Deng traveled to the Soviet Union and studied at Moscow Sun Yat-sen University, where one of his classmates was Chiang Ching-kuo, the son of Chiang Kai-shek.
Return to China
In late 1927, Deng left Moscow to return to the Republic of China, where he joined the army of Feng Yuxiang, a military leader in northwest China, who had requested assistance from the Soviet Union in his struggle with other local leaders in the region. At that time, the Soviet Union, through the Comintern, an international organization supporting the Communist movements, supported the Communists' alliance with the Nationalists of the Kuomintang (KMT) party founded by Sun Yat-sen.
He arrived in Xi'an, the stronghold of Feng Yuxiang, in March 1927. He was part of the Fengtian clique's attempt to prevent the break of the alliance between the KMT and the Communists. This split resulted in part from Chiang Kai-shek's forcing them to flee areas controlled by the KMT. After the breakup of the alliance between Communists and Nationalists, Feng Yuxiang stood on the side of Chiang Kai-shek, and the Communists who participated in their army, such as Deng Xiaoping, were forced to flee.
Political rise
Although Deng got involved in the Marxist revolutionary movement in China, the historian Mobo Gao has argued that "Deng Xiaoping and many like him [in the Chinese Communist Party] were not really Marxists, but basically revolutionary nationalists who wanted to see China standing on equal terms with the great global powers. They were primarily nationalists and they participated in the Communist revolution because that was the only viable route they could find to Chinese nationalism."
Activism in Shanghai and Wuhan
After leaving the army of Feng Yuxiang in the northwest, Deng ended up in the city of Wuhan, where the Communists at that time had their headquarters. At that time, he began using the nickname "Xiaoping" and occupied prominent positions in the party apparatus. He participated in the historic emergency session on 7 August 1927 in which, by Soviet instruction, the Party dismissed its founder Chen Duxiu, and Qu Qiubai became the general secretary. In Wuhan, Deng first established contact with Mao Zedong, who was then little valued by militant pro-Soviet leaders of the party.
Between 1927 and 1929, Deng lived in Shanghai, where he helped organize protests that would be harshly persecuted by the Kuomintang authorities. The death of many Communist militants in those years led to a decrease in the number of members of the Communist Party, which enabled Deng to quickly move up the ranks.
Deng married Zhang Xiyuan, who died in 1930 during childbirth. The CSR had a central government as well as local and regional governments. In one of his trips to Yan'an in 1939, he married, for the third and last time in his life, Zhuo Lin, a young native of Kunming, who, like other young idealists of the time, had traveled to Yan'an to join the Communists.
Deng was considered a "revolutionary veteran" because of his participation in the Long March. He took a leading role in the Hundred Regiments Offensive which boosted his standing among his comrades.
Resumed war against the Nationalists
(right)]]
After Japan's defeat in World War II, Deng traveled to Chongqing, the city in which Chiang Kai-shek established his government during the Japanese invasion, to participate in peace talks between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party. The results of those negotiations were not positive and military confrontation between the two antagonistic parties resumed shortly after the meeting in Chongqing.
While Chiang Kai-shek re-established the government in Nanjing, the capital of the Republic of China, the Communists were fighting for control in the field. Following up with guerrilla tactics from their positions in rural areas against cities under the control of the government of Chiang and their supply lines, the Communists were increasing the territory under their control, and incorporating more and more soldiers who had deserted the Nationalist army.
Deng played a major part in the Huaihai Campaign against the nationalists. Expressing his view as a rhetorical question, Deng stated that while ideally no landlords would die in the process, "If some tightfisted landlords hang themselves, does that mean our policies are wrong? Are we responsible?"
Deng Xiaoping would spend three years in Chongqing, the city where he had studied in his teenage years before going to France. In 1952 he moved to Beijing, where he occupied different positions in the central government.
Political rise in Beijing
(right) in 1954]]
In July 1952, Deng came to Beijing to assume the posts of Vice Premier and Deputy Chair of the Committee on Finance. Soon after, he took the posts of Minister of Finance and Director of the Office of Communications. In 1954, he was removed from all these positions, holding only the post of Vice Premier. In 1956, he became Head of the Communist Party's Organization Department and member of the Central Military Commission.
After officially supporting Mao Zedong in his Anti-Rightist Movement of 1957, Deng acted as Secretary-General of the Secretariat and ran the country's daily affairs with President Liu Shaoqi and Premier Zhou Enlai. Deng and Liu's policies emphasized economics over ideological dogma, an implicit departure from the mass fervor of the Great Leap Forward. Both Liu and Deng supported Mao in the mass campaigns of the 1950s, in which they attacked the bourgeois and capitalists, and promoted Mao's ideology. However, the failure of the Great Leap Forward was seen as an indictment on Mao's ability to manage the economy. Peng Dehuai began openly criticizing Mao, while Liu and Deng maintained a more cautious tone, ultimately taking charge of economic policy as Mao ceased to be involved in the day-to-day affairs of the party and state. Mao agreed to cede the presidency (the de jure head of state position) to Liu, while retaining his leadership positions in the party and army.
In 1955, he was considered as a candidate for the PLA rank of Marshal of the People's Republic of China but he was ultimately not awarded the rank.
At the 8th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party in 1956, Deng supported removing all references to "Mao Zedong Thought" from the party statutes.
After the "Seven Thousand Cadres Conference" in 1962, Liu and Deng's economic reforms of the early 1960s were generally popular and restored many of the economic institutions previously dismantled during the Great Leap Forward.
Deng was one of the primary drafters of the Third Five Year Plan. In draft form, it emphasized a consumer focus and further development in China's more industrialized coastal cities. For this and other reasons, Mao launched the Cultural Revolution in 1966, during which Deng fell out of favor and was forced to retire from all his positions.
During the Cultural Revolution, he and his family were targeted by Red Guards, who imprisoned Deng's eldest son, Deng Pufang. Deng Pufang was tortured and jumped out, or was thrown out, of the window of a four-story building in 1968, becoming a paraplegic. In October 1969 Deng Xiaoping was sent to the Xinjian County Tractor Factory in rural Jiangxi province to work as a regular worker. He operated a lathe. Deng spent his spare time writing. He was purged nationally, but to a lesser scale than President Liu Shaoqi.
In 1971, Mao's second official successor and the sole Vice Chairman of the party, Lin Biao, was killed in an air crash. According to official reports, Lin was trying to flee from China after a failed coup against Mao. Mao purged all of Lin's allies, who made up nearly all of the senior ranks of the PLA, leaving Deng (who had been political commissar of the 2nd Field Army during the civil war) the most influential of the remaining army leaders.
Mao sought Deng to take over for Zhou Enlai, who was seriously ill. He remained careful, however, to avoid contradicting Maoist ideology on paper. In January 1975, he was additionally elected Vice Chairman of the party by the 10th Central Committee for the first time in his party career; Li Desheng had to resign in his favour. Deng was one of five Vice Chairmen, with Zhou being the First Vice Chairman.
(left), 1975]]
During his brief ascendency in 1973, Deng established the Political Research Office, headed by intellectuals Hu Qiaomu, Yu Guangyuan and Hu Sheng, delegated to explore approaches to political and economic reforms. He led the group himself and managed the project within the State Council, in order to avoid rousing the suspicions of the Gang of Four.
In 1975, Deng sought to re-orient Chinese Academy of Sciences towards more theoretical research, which had not been a focus during the Cultural Revolution. Deng described scientific research in China as lagging behind the needs of socialist construction and the state of the advanced countries, and stated that to catch up, China should emphasize basic science in order to develop a sound theoretical foundation. Mao, too, was suspicious that Deng would destroy the positive reputation of the Cultural Revolution, which Mao considered one of his greatest policy initiatives. Beginning in late 1975, Deng was asked to draw up a series of self-criticisms. Although he admitted to having taken an "inappropriate ideological perspective" while dealing with state and party affairs, he was reluctant to admit that his policies were wrong in essence. His antagonism with the Gang of Four became increasingly clear, and Mao seemed to lean in the Gang's favour. Mao refused to accept Deng's self-criticisms and asked the party's Central Committee to "discuss Deng's mistakes thoroughly". "Criticize Deng" campaign
Zhou Enlai died in January 1976, to an outpouring of national grief. On 3 March, Mao issued a directive reaffirming the legitimacy of the Cultural Revolution and specifically pointed to Deng as an internal, rather than external, problem. This was followed by a Central Committee directive issued to all local party organs to study Mao's directive and criticize Deng.
Deng's reputation as a reformer suffered a severe blow when the Qingming Festival, after the mass public mourning of Zhou on a traditional Chinese holiday, culminated in the Tiananmen Incident on 5 April 1976, an event the Gang of Four deemed counter-revolutionary and threatening to their power. Deng was removed from all party roles and moved to a house east to Tiananmen Square. but Hua Guofeng wanted to rid the Party of extremists and successfully marginalised the Gang of Four. On 22 July 1977, Deng was restored to the posts of vice-chairman of the Central Committee, Vice-chairman of the Military Commission and Chief of the General Staff of the People's Liberation Army.
By carefully mobilizing his supporters within the party, Deng outmaneuvered Hua, who had pardoned him, then ousted Hua from his top leadership positions by 1980. In contrast to previous leadership changes, Deng allowed Hua to retain membership in the Central Committee and quietly retire, helping to set the precedent that losing a high-level leadership struggle would not result in physical harm.
During his paramount leadership, his official state positions were Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference from 1978 to 1983 and Chairman of the Central Military Commission (an ad hoc body comprising the most senior members of the party elite) of the People's Republic of China from 1983 to 1990, while his official party positions were Vice Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party from 1977 to 1982, Chairman of the Central Military Commission of the Chinese Communist Party from 1981 to 1989 and Chairman of the Central Advisory Commission from 1982 to 1987. He was offered the rank of General First Class in 1988 when the PLA restored military ranks, but as in 1955, he once again declined. Even after retiring from the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party in 1987 and the Central Military Commission in 1989, Deng continued to exert influence over China's policies until his death in 1997.
Important decisions were always taken in Deng's home at No. 11 Miliangku Hutong with a caucus of eight senior party cadres, called "Eight Elders", especially with Chen Yun and Li Xiannian. Despite Deng's recognition as paramount leader, in practice these elders governed China as a small collective leadership. Deng ruled as "paramount leader" although he never held the top title of the party, and was able to successively remove three party leaders, including Hu Yaobang. Deng stepped down from the Central Committee and its Politburo Standing Committee. However, he remained as the chairman of the State and Party's Central Military Commission and was still seen as the paramount leader of China rather than General Secretary Zhao Ziyang and Presidents Li Xiannian and Yang Shangkun. Boluan Fanzheng
Deng repudiated the Cultural Revolution and, in 1977, launched the "Beijing Spring", which allowed open criticism of the excesses and suffering that had occurred during the period, and restored the National College Entrance Examination (Gao Kao) which had been cancelled for ten years during the Cultural Revolution. Meanwhile, he was the impetus for the abolition of the class background system. Under this system, the CCP removed employment barriers to Chinese deemed to be associated with the former landlord class; its removal allowed a faction favoring the restoration of the private market to enter the Communist Party.
Deng gradually outmaneuvered his political opponents. By encouraging public criticism of the Cultural Revolution, he weakened the position of those who owed their political positions to that event, while strengthening the position of those like himself who had been purged during that time. Deng also received a great deal of popular support. As Deng gradually consolidated control over the CCP, Hua was replaced by Zhao Ziyang as premier in 1980, and by Hu Yaobang as party chairman in 1981, despite the fact that Hua was Mao Zedong's designated successor as the "paramount leader" of the Chinese Communist Party and the People's Republic of China. During the Boluan Fanzheng period, the Cultural Revolution was invalidated, and victims of more than 3 million "unjust, false, wrongful cases" by 1976 were officially rehabilitated.
Deng's elevation to China's new number-one figure meant that the historical and ideological questions around Mao Zedong had to be addressed properly. Because Deng wished to pursue deep reforms, it was not possible for him to continue Mao's hard-line "class struggle" policies and mass public campaigns. In 1982 the Central Committee of the Communist Party released a document entitled ''Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party since the Founding of the People's Republic of China''. Mao retained his status as a "great Marxist, proletarian revolutionary, militarist, and general", and the undisputed founder and pioneer of the country and the People's Liberation Army. "His accomplishments must be considered before his mistakes", the document declared. Deng personally commented that Mao was "seven parts good, three parts bad". The document also steered the prime responsibility of the Cultural Revolution away from Mao (although it did state that "Mao mistakenly began the Cultural Revolution") to the "counter-revolutionary cliques" of the Gang of Four and Lin Biao.
International affairs
director Christopher C. Kraft (extreme right)]]Deng prioritized China's modernization and opening up to the outside world, stating that China's "strategy in foreign affairs is to seek a peaceful environment" for the Four Modernizations. Under Deng's leadership, China opened up to the outside world, to learn from more advanced countries. This decentralized approach led to consideration of a number of interests and views, but also fragmentation of policy institutions and extensive bargaining between different bureaucratic units during the policy-making process. In late 1978, the aerospace company Boeing announced the sale of 747 aircraft to various airlines in the PRC, and the beverage company Coca-Cola made public their intention to open a production plant in Shanghai.
On 1 January 1979, the United States recognized the People's Republic of China, leaving the (Taiwan) Republic of China's nationalist government to one side, and business contacts between China and the West began to grow.
In early 1979, Deng undertook an official visit to the United States, meeting President Jimmy Carter in Washington as well as several Congressmen. The Chinese insisted that former President Richard Nixon be invited to the formal White House reception, a symbolic indication of their assertiveness on the one hand, and their desire to continue with the Nixon initiatives on the other. As part of the discussions with Carter, Deng sought United States approval for China's contemplated invasion of Vietnam in the Sino-Vietnamese war. According to United States National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski, Carter reserved judgment, an action which Chinese diplomats interpreted as tacit approval, and China launched the invasion shortly after Deng's return. In response to criticism from within the Party regarding his United States policy, Deng wrote, "I am presiding over the work on the United States. If there are problems, I take full responsibility." Deng used Japan as an example of a rapidly progressing power that set a good example for China economically.
Deng initially continued to adhere to the Maoist line of the Sino–Soviet split era that the Soviet Union was a superpower as "hegemonic" as the United States, but even more threatening to China because of its close proximity. Relations with the Soviet Union improved after Mikhail Gorbachev took over the Kremlin in 1985, and formal relations between the two countries were finally restored at the 1989 Sino-Soviet Summit.
Deng responded to the Western sanctions following the Tiananmen Square protests by adopting the "twenty-four character guidelines" for China's international affairs: observe carefully (冷静观察), secure China's positions (稳住阵脚), calmly cope with the challenges (沉着应付), hide China's capacities and bide its time (韬光养晦), be good at maintaining a low profile (善于守拙), and never claim leadership (绝不当头).
The end of the Cold War and dissolution of the Soviet Union removed the original motives underlying rapprochement between China and the United States. Deng was motivated by concerns that the United States might curtail support for China's modernization, and adopted a low-profile foreign policy to live with the fact of United States hegemony and focus primarily on domestic development. Deng championed the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence stating that they should be used as the "guiding norms of international relations". Reform and Opening-up At the outset of China's reform and opening up, Deng set out the Four Cardinal Principles that had to be maintained in the process: (1) the leadership of the Communist Party, (2) the socialist road, (3) Marxism, and (4) the dictatorship of the proletariat. Overall, reform proceeded gradually, with Deng delegating specific issues to proteges such as Hu Yaobang or Zhao Ziyang, who in turn addressed them under the guiding principle of "seeking truth from facts" - meaning that the correctness of an approach had to be gauged by its economic results.
In Deng's view, socialism could not be considered superior to capitalism unless it improved the lives of the people in material ways. During Reform and Opening-up, he criticized those he deemed as the ideologues of the Cultural Revolution for seeking "poor socialism" and "poor communism" and believing that communism was a "spiritual thing". Deng worked with his team, especially as Zhao Ziyang, who in 1980 replaced Hua Guofeng as premier, and Hu Yaobang, who in 1981 did the same with the post of party chairman. Deng thus took the reins of power and began to emphasize the goals of "four modernizations" (economy, agriculture, scientific and technological development and national defense). He announced an ambitious plan of opening and liberalizing the economy.
The last position of power retained by Hua Guofeng, chairman of the Central Military Commission, was taken by Deng in 1981. However, progress toward military modernization went slowly. A border war with Vietnam in 1977–1979 made major changes unwise. The war puzzled outside observers, but Xiaoming Zhang argues that Deng had multiple goals: stopping Soviet expansion in the region, obtain American support for his four modernizations, and mobilizing China for reform and integration into the world economy. Deng also sought to strengthen his control of the PLA, and demonstrate to the world that China was capable of fighting a real war. Zhang thinks punishment of Vietnam for its invasion of Cambodia was a minor factor. In the event, the Chinese forces did poorly, in terms of equipment, strategy, leadership, and battlefield performance. Deng subsequently used the PLA's poor performance to overcome resistance by military leaders to his military reforms. retiring the elderly and corrupt senior officers and their cronies. He emphasized the recruitment of much better educated young men who would be able to handle the advanced technology when it finally arrived. Instead of patronage and corruption in the officer corps, he imposed strict discipline in all ranks. In 1982 he established a new Commission for Science, Technology, and Industry for National Defense to plan for using technology developed in the civilian sector.
Three steps to economic development
In 1986, Deng explained to Mike Wallace on 60 Minutes that some people and regions could become prosperous first in order to bring about common prosperity faster. In October 1987, at the Plenary Session of the National People's Congress, Deng was re-elected as Chairman of the Central Military Commission, but he resigned as Chairman of the Central Advisory Commission and was succeeded by Chen Yun. Deng continued to chair and develop the reform and opening up as the main policy, and he advanced the three steps suitable for China's economic development strategy within seventy years: the first step, to double the 1980 GNP and ensure that the people have enough food and clothing, was attained by the end of the 1980s; the second step, to quadruple the 1980 GNP by the end of the 20th century, was achieved in 1995 ahead of schedule; the third step, to increase per capita GNP to the level of the medium-developed countries by 2050, at which point, the Chinese people will be fairly well-off and modernization will be basically realized. Further reforms
Improving relations with the outside world was the second of two important philosophical shifts outlined in Deng's program of reform termed Gaige Kaifang (lit. Reforms and Openness). China's domestic social, political, and most notably, economic systems would undergo significant changes during Deng's time. The goals of Deng's reforms were summed up by the Four Modernizations, those of agriculture, industry, science and technology, and the military.
The strategy for achieving these aims of becoming a modern, industrial nation was the socialist market economy. Deng argued that China was in the primary stage of socialism and that the duty of the party was to perfect so-called "socialism with Chinese characteristics",
Deng's economic policy prioritized developing China's productive forces. In Deng's view, this development "is the most fundamental revolution from the viewpoint of historical development[,]" and "[p]oor socialism" is not socialism.}}
Unlike Hua Guofeng, Deng believed that no policy should be rejected outright simply because it was not associated with Mao. Unlike more conservative leaders such as Chen Yun, Deng did not object to policies on the grounds that they were similar to ones that were found in capitalist nations.
This political flexibility towards the foundations of socialism is strongly supported by quotes such as:
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Although Deng provided the theoretical background and the political support to allow economic reform to occur, the general consensus amongst historians is that few of the economic reforms that Deng introduced were originated by Deng himself. Premier Zhou Enlai, for example, pioneered the Four Modernizations years before Deng. In addition, many reforms would be introduced by local leaders, often not sanctioned by central government directives. If successful and promising, these reforms would be adopted by larger and larger areas and ultimately introduced nationally. An often cited example is the household responsibility system, which was first secretly implemented by a poor rural village at the risk of being convicted as "counter-revolutionary". This experiment proved very successful. Deng openly supported it and it was later adopted nationally. Many other reforms were influenced by the experiences of the East Asian Tigers.
This was in sharp contrast to the pattern of perestroika undertaken by Mikhail Gorbachev, in which most major reforms originated with Gorbachev himself. The bottom-up approach of Deng's reforms, in contrast to the top-down approach of perestroika, was likely a key factor in the success of the former.
Deng's reforms actually included the introduction of planned, centralized management of the macro-economy by technically proficient bureaucrats, abandoning Mao's mass campaign style of economic construction. However, unlike the Soviet model, management was indirect through market mechanisms. Deng sustained Mao's legacy to the extent that he stressed the primacy of agricultural output and encouraged a significant decentralization of decision making in the rural economy teams and individual peasant households. At the local level, material incentives, rather than political appeals, were to be used to motivate the labor force, including allowing peasants to earn extra income by selling the produce of their private plots at free market value.
Under Deng Xiaoping's leadership, the Cultural Revolution-era trend towards localizing authority over state-owned enterprises was reversed, and SOE management was again centralized.
Export focus
In the move toward market allocation, local municipalities and provinces were allowed to invest in industries that they considered most profitable, which encouraged investment in light manufacturing. Thus, Deng's reforms shifted China's development strategy to an emphasis on light industry and export-led growth. Light industrial output was vital for a developing country coming from a low capital base. With the short gestation period, low capital requirements, and high foreign-exchange export earnings, revenues generated by light manufacturing were able to be reinvested in technologically more advanced production and further capital expenditures and investments.
However, in sharp contrast to the similar, but much less successful reforms in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the People's Republic of Hungary, these investments were not government mandated. The capital invested in heavy industry largely came from the banking system, and most of that capital came from consumer deposits. One of the first items of the Deng reforms was to prevent reallocation of profits except through taxation or through the banking system; hence, the reallocation in state-owned industries was somewhat indirect, thus making them more or less independent from government interference. In short, Deng's reforms sparked an industrial revolution in China.
These reforms were a reversal of the Maoist policy of economic self-reliance. China decided to accelerate the modernization process by stepping up the volume of foreign trade, especially the purchase of machinery from Japan and the West. In October 1978, to exchange the instruments of ratification for the "Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Japan and the People's Republic of China", Deng Xiaoping visited Japan for the first time and was warmly received by Prime Minister Takeo Fukuda and others. Deng Xiaoping was only Vice Premier during the time of his meetings with Japanese officials, but the Japanese government received Deng as the effective paramount leader of China due to his long history with the CCP, nonetheless. Deng was deemed the first Chinese leader to receive an audience in addition to Japanese Emperor Showa. A news article from NHK Japan in 1978 reported that Deng diplomatically stated "we talked about our past, but His Majesty's focus on building a better future is something I noticed." Deng’s statement suggests the new era of China’s political reform through foreign economic diplomacy.
Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Japan and the People's Republic of China is an ongoing pact between the two nations to this day. Article 1 of the treaty describes mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, mutual non-aggression, and mutual non-interference in internal affairs. Article 2 proclaims anti-hegemony. Article 3 discusses the further development of economic and cultural relations between the two countries, and Article 4 addresses the relationship of this treaty with third countries. Although it took six years from the restoration of diplomatic relations for the peace treaty negotiations to be concluded as the "anti-hegemony" clause and the "third country" clause were considered the most contentious, the agreement still informs much of contemporary Sino-Japanese relations. By participating in such export-led growth, China was able to step up the Four Modernizations by attaining certain foreign funds, market, advanced technologies and management experiences, thus accelerating its economic development. From 1980, Deng attracted foreign companies to a series of Special Economic Zones, where foreign investment and market liberalization were encouraged.
The reforms sought to improve labor productivity. New material incentives and bonus systems were introduced. Rural markets selling peasants' homegrown products and the surplus products of communes were revived. Not only did rural markets increase agricultural output, they stimulated industrial development as well. With peasants able to sell surplus agricultural yields on the open market, domestic consumption stimulated industrialization as well and also created political support for more difficult economic reforms.
There are some parallels between Deng's market socialism especially in the early stages, and Vladimir Lenin's NEP as well as those of Nikolai Bukharin's economic policies, in that both foresaw a role for private entrepreneurs and markets based on trade and pricing rather than central planning. As academics Christopher Marquis and Kunyuan Qiao observe, Deng had been present in the Soviet Union when Lenin implemented the NEP, and it is reasonable to infer that it may have impacted Deng's view that markets could exist within socialism. The result of these negotiations was the Sino-British Joint Declaration, signed on 19 December 1984, which formally outlined the United Kingdom's return of the whole Hong Kong colony to China by 1997. The Chinese government pledged to respect the economic system and civil liberties of the British colony for fifty years after the handover.
Deng's theory of one country, two systems applied to Hong Kong and Macau and Deng intended to also present it as an attractive option to the people of Taiwan for eventual incorporation of that island, where sovereignty over the territory is still disputed. In 1982, Deng first explained the concept of one country, two systems in relation to Taiwan.
Deng's statements during the 1987 drafting of the Basic Law of Hong Kong showed his view of the principle in the Hong Kong context. At that time, Deng stated that the central government would not intervene in the daily business of Hong Kong, but predicted Hong Kong would sometimes have issues affecting national interests that would require the central government's involvement. In June 1988, Deng stated that "Hong Kong's political system today is neither the British system nor the American system, and it should not transplant the Western ways in the future." The policy applied to urban areas, and included forced abortions.
In August 1983, Deng launched the "Strike hard" Anti-crime Campaign due to the worsening public safety after the Cultural Revolution. although more recent estimates have placed the number at 24,000 who were sentenced to death (mostly in the first "battle" of the campaign). A number of people arrested (some even received death penalty) were children or relatives of government officials at various levels, including the grandson of Zhu De, demonstrating the principle of "all are equal before the law". The campaign had an immediate positive effect on public safety, while controversies also arose such as whether some of the legal punishments were too harsh and whether the campaign had long-term positive effect on public safety.
Increasing economic freedom was being translated into a greater freedom of opinion, and critics began to arise within the system, including the famous dissident Wei Jingsheng, who coined the term "fifth modernization" in reference to democracy as a missing element in the renewal plans of Deng Xiaoping. In the late 1980s, dissatisfaction with the authoritarian regime and growing inequalities caused the biggest crisis to Deng's leadership.
Crackdown of Tiananmen Square protests
The 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, culminating in the June Fourth Massacre, were a series of demonstrations in and near Tiananmen Square in the People's Republic of China (PRC) between 15 April and 5 June 1989, a year in which many other communist governments collapsed.
The protests were sparked by the death of Hu Yaobang, a reformist official backed by Deng but ousted by the Eight Elders and the conservative wing of the politburo. Many people were dissatisfied with the party's slow response and relatively subdued funeral arrangements. Public mourning began on the streets of Beijing and universities in the surrounding areas. In Beijing, this was centered on the Monument to the People's Heroes in Tiananmen Square. The mourning became a public conduit for anger against perceived nepotism in the government, the unfair dismissal and early death of Hu, and the behind-the-scenes role of the "old men". By the eve of Hu's funeral, the demonstration had reached 100,000 people on Tiananmen Square. While the protests lacked a unified cause or leadership, participants raised the issue of corruption within the government and some voiced calls for economic liberalization within the structure of the government while others called for a less authoritarian and less centralized form of socialism.
During the demonstrations, Deng's pro-market ally General Secretary Zhao Ziyang supported the demonstrators and distanced himself from the Politburo. Martial law was declared on 20 May by the socialist hardliner, Chinese premier Li Peng, but the initial military advance on the city was blocked by residents. The movement lasted seven weeks. On 3–4 June, over two hundred thousand soldiers in tanks and helicopters were sent into the city to quell the protests by force, resulting in hundreds to thousands of casualties. Many ordinary people in Beijing believed that Deng had ordered the intervention, but political analysts do not know who was actually behind the order.
To purge sympathizers of Tiananmen demonstrators, the Communist Party initiated a one-and-a-half-year-long program similar to the Anti-Rightist Movement. Old-timers like Deng Fei aimed to deal "strictly with those inside the party with serious tendencies toward bourgeois liberalization", and more than 30,000 communist officers were deployed to the task. Deng privately told former Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau that factions of the Communist Party could have grabbed army units and the country had risked a civil war. Two years later, Deng endorsed Zhu Rongji, a Shanghai Mayor, as a vice-premier candidate. Zhu Rongji had refused to declare martial law in Shanghai during the demonstrations even though socialist hardliners had pressured him. Resignation and 1992 southern tour
Officially, Deng decided to retire from top positions when he stepped down as Chairman of the Central Military Commission in November 1989 and his successor Jiang Zemin became the new Chairman of the Central Military Commission and paramount leader. China, however, was still in the era of Deng Xiaoping. He continued to be widely regarded as the de facto leader of the country, believed to have backroom control despite no official position apart from being chairman of the Chinese Contract Bridge Association, and appointed Hu Jintao as Jiang's successor at the 14th Party Congress in 1992. Deng was recognized officially as "the chief architect of China's economic reforms and China's socialist modernization". To the Communist Party, he was believed to have set a good example for communist cadres who refused to retire at old age. He broke earlier conventions of holding offices for life. He was often referred to as simply Comrade Xiaoping, with no title attached.
Because of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, Deng's power had been significantly weakened and there was a growing formalist faction opposed to Deng's reforms within the Communist Party. To reassert his economic agenda, in the spring of 1992, Deng made a tour of southern China, visiting Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Zhuhai and spending the New Year in Shanghai, using his travels as a method of reasserting his economic policy after his retirement from office. He said "Some people slander our socialist system as the Qin system, which is vexatious! Our system is not totalitarian, but democratic centralism. During the period of Chairman Mao, it was not the Qin system, but also democratic centralism. I would say that it is more like the system of France." The 1992 Southern Tour is widely regarded as a critical point in the modern history of China, as it saved the Chinese economic reform and preserved the stability of the society.
Deng's health deteriorated drastically after 1994. In January 1995, Deng's daughter told the press that "A year ago, he could walk for 30 minutes twice a day, but now he cannot walk … He needs two people to support him." It was also reported that Parkinson's experts were sent to Beijing to help him in 1995. Deng generally preferred not to directly speak of dying, instead describing himself as "going to see the Premier", meaning Zhou Enlai. The public was largely prepared for his death, as there had been rumors that his health was deteriorating. At 10:00 on the morning of 24 February, people were asked by Premier Li Peng to pause in silence for three minutes. The nation's flags flew at half-mast for over a week.
Deng's official obituary instructed Chinese people to study Deng Xiaoping's method of building socialism with Chinese characteristics. Some elements, notably modern Maoists and radical reformers (the far left and the far right), had negative views, however.
Deng's death drew international reaction. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan said Deng was to be remembered "in the international community at large as a primary architect of China's modernization and dramatic economic development". French President Jacques Chirac said "In the course of this century, few men have, as much as Deng, led a vast human community through such profound and determining changes"; British Prime Minister John Major commented about Deng's key role in the return of Hong Kong to Chinese control; Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien called Deng a "pivotal figure" in Chinese history. The Kuomintang chair in Taiwan also sent its condolences, saying it longed for peace, cooperation, and prosperity. The Dalai Lama voiced regret that Deng died without resolving questions over Tibet.
The song Story of Spring, by Dong Wenhua, celebrates Deng's achievements. At the Fourth Plenary Session of the 13th Central Committee, Jiang Zemin and the third generation of leaders stated, "Development is the Party's top priority in governing and rejuvenating the country."
Deng Xiaoping's Former Residence in his hometown of Paifang Village in Sichuan has been preserved as an historical museum.
In Bishkek, capital of Kyrgyzstan, there is a six-lane boulevard, wide and long, the Deng Xiaoping Prospekt, which was dedicated on 18 June 1997. A two-meter high red granite monument stands at the east end of this route. The epigraph is written in Chinese, Russian and Kyrgyz.
The documentary, Deng Xiaoping, released by CCTV in January 1997, presents his life from his days as a student in France to his "Southern Tour" of 1993. In 2014, CCTV released a TV series, ''Deng Xiaoping at History's Crossroads'', in anticipation of the 110th anniversary of his birth. Assessment Deng has been called the "architect of contemporary China" and is widely considered to have been one of the most influential figures of the 20th century. He was the Time Person of the Year in 1978 and 1985, the third Chinese leader (after Chiang Kai-shek and his wife Soong Mei-ling) and the fourth time for a communist leader (after Joseph Stalin, picked twice; and Nikita Khrushchev) to be selected.
Deng is remembered primarily for the economic reforms he initiated while paramount leader of the People's Republic of China, which pivoted China towards a market economy, led to high economic growth, increased standards of living of hundreds of millions, expanded personal and cultural freedoms, and substantially integrated the country into the world economy. More people were lifted out of poverty during his leadership than during any other time in human history, attributed largely to his reforms. Deng is also credited with reducing the cult of Mao Zedong and with bringing an end to the chaotic era of the Cultural Revolution. Furthermore, his strong-handed tactics have been credited with keeping the People's Republic of China unified, in contrast to the other major Communist power of the time, the Soviet Union, which collapsed in 1991.
However, Deng is also remembered for human rights violations and for numerous instances of political violence. As paramount leader, he oversaw the Tiananmen Square massacre; afterwards, he was influential in the Communist Party's domestic cover-up of the event. Furthermore, he is associated with some of the worst purges during Mao Zedong's rule; for instance, he ordered an army crackdown on a Muslim village in Yunnan which resulted in the deaths of 1,600 people, including 300 children. In August 1980, he started China's political reforms by setting term limits for officials and proposing a systematic revision of China's third Constitution which was made during the Cultural Revolution; the new Constitution embodied Chinese-style constitutionalism and was passed by the National People's Congress in December 1982, with most of its content still being effective as of today. He helped establish China's nine-year compulsory education, and revived China's political reforms. Works *
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See also
* Chinese economic reform
** Moderately prosperous society
* Historical Museum of French-Chinese Friendship
Explanatory notes
References
Citations
General and cited sources
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* ; focus on rise to power, with brief coverage of actions in power.
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Further reading
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* Dillon, Michael. Deng Xiaoping: The Man Who Made Modern China (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014).
* Hayford, Charles W. "Where's the Omelet? Bad King Deng and the Challenges of Biography and History". Journal of Asian Studies (2016) 75#1 pp 19–30; historiography. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24738509 online]
* Kau, Michael Y. M. China in the Era of Deng Xiaoping: A Decade of Reform (Routledge, 2016).
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* Pantsov, Alexander V., and Steven I. Levine. Deng Xiaoping: A Revolutionary Life (Oxford UP, 2015). .
* Vogel, Ezra F. Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China (2011) [https://www.amazon.com/Deng-Xiaoping-Transformation-China-Vogel/dp/0674725867/ excerpt]
* Zhang, Xiaoming. "Deng Xiaoping and China's Decision to go to War with Vietnam". Journal of Cold War Studies 12.3 (Summer 2010): 3–29. [https://direct.mit.edu/jcws/article-pdf/12/3/3/697598/jcws_a_00001.pdf online]
* Zhang, Xiaoming. ''Deng Xiaoping's Long War: The Military Conflict Between China and Vietnam, 1979–1991] (U North Carolina Press, 2015). [https://www.amazon.com/Deng-Xiaopings-Long-War-1979-1991/dp/1469642344/ excerpt] .
External links
* [https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0822.html The New York Times obituary on Deng Xiaoping]
* [https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/collection/185/reform-and-opening-in-china-1978 "Reform and opening in China, 1978–"]—Online documents in English from the Wilson Center in Washington
* [https://archive.org/details/DengBuildSocialism Build Socialism with Chinese Characteristics], speeches by Deng Xiaoping from 1982 to 1984
* Foreign Relations Series. Includes US State Department reports:
** Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977–1980, Volume XIII [http://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1977-80v13/pdf/frus1977-80v13.pdf 1977–1980, China], US State Dept, published 2013
** Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume XVIII [http://static.history.state.gov/frus/frus1969-76v18/pdf/frus1969-76v18.pdf 1969–1976, China 1973–1976]'', US State Dept, published 2008
*
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Category:1904 births
Category:1997 deaths
Category:20th-century Chinese heads of government
Category:20th-century Chinese writers
Category:Burials at sea
Category:Chinese diplomats
Category:Chinese expatriates in France
Category:Chinese expatriates in the Soviet Union
Category:Chinese guerrillas
Category:Chinese Marxists
Category:Chinese nationalists
Category:Chinese people of World War II
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Category:Chinese reformers
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Category:Delegates to the 8th National People's Congress
Category:First vice premiers of the People's Republic of China
Category:Hakka writers
Category:Members of the 7th Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party
Category:Members of the 8th Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
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Category:Ministers of finance of the People's Republic of China
Category:Moscow Sun Yat-sen University alumni
Category:Neurological disease deaths in the People's Republic of China
Category:People of the Chinese Civil War
Category:People's Liberation Army Chiefs of General Staff
Category:People's Republic of China politicians from Sichuan
Category:Politicians from Guang'an
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Category:Spouses of Chinese politicians
Category:Time Person of the Year
Category:Vice premiers of the People's Republic of China
Category:Victims of the Cultural Revolution
Category:People of the Sino-Vietnamese War
Category:Reform and opening up
Category:Heads of the Organization Department of the Chinese Communist Party
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HM Prison Dartmoor
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| status | classification Adult Male/Category C
| capacity | population 640
| populationdate = January 2016
| opened = 1809
| closed = 2024
| former_name | managed_by HM Prison Services
| governor Steve Mead
| website =
}}
HM Prison Dartmoor is a currently inactive Category C men's prison, located in Princetown, high on Dartmoor in the English county of Devon. Its high granite walls dominate this area of the moor. The prison is owned by the Duchy of Cornwall, and is operated by His Majesty's Prison Service.
As of Summer 2024, Dartmoor Prison is not being used due to safety concerns, regarding high levels of radon.
Dartmoor Prison was given Grade II heritage listing in 1987.HistoryPOW prison
In 1805, the United Kingdom was at war with Napoleonic France, a conflict during which thousands of prisoners were taken and confined in prison "hulks" or derelict ships. This was considered a security risk, partially due to the proximity of the Royal Naval dockyard at Devonport (then called Plymouth Dock) and living conditions were appalling in the extreme; consequently, a prisoner of war depot was planned in the remote isolation of Dartmoor.
The prison was designed by Daniel Asher Alexander. Construction by local labour started in 1806, taking three years to complete. In 1809, the first French prisoners arrived and the prison was full by the end of the year.
From the spring of 1813 until March 1815, about 6,500 American sailors from the War of 1812 were imprisoned at Dartmoor in poor conditions (food was bad and the roofs leaked). These were either naval prisoners or impressed American seamen discharged from British vessels. Whilst the British were in overall charge of the prison, the prisoners created their own governance and culture. They had courts which meted out punishments, a market, a theatre and a gambling room. About 1,000 of the prisoners were Black. A recent examination of the General Entry Book of American Prisoners of War at Dartmoor, by Nicholas Guyatt, found "Eight Hundred and Twenty - Nine Sailors of Colour had been entered into the register by the end of October 1814."
Escapes
Unlike many detention facilities of the period, Dartmoor Prison was purpose built in an isolated location, ringed by high stone walls, and manned by hundreds of armed militia sentries. In addition a rope ran around the entire circumference of the prison, linked to a series of bells, which quickly spread an alarm. Even if a determined prisoner made it beyond the walls, he would still have to traverse ten miles on foot, over wild moorland and bogs, an area frequently beset with fog and chilling winds, to reach the nearest town. Local residents turning in an escapee could expect a reward of a guinea. Yet, despite these daunting odds, scholar Nicholas Guyatt has tallied a total of twenty-four American POWs successfully making their way to freedom.
;Disorder
Although the war ended with the Treaty of Ghent on 24 December 1814, American prisoners of war remained in Dartmoor because the British government refused to let them go on parole or take any steps until the treaty was ratified by the United States Senate on 17 February 1815. It took several weeks for the American agent to secure ships for their transportation home, and the men grew very impatient. On 4 April, a food contractor attempted to work off some damaged hardtack on them in place of soft bread and was forced to yield by their insurrection. The commandant, Captain T. G. Shortland, suspected them of a design to break out of the gaol. This was the reverse of the truth in general, as they would lose their chance of going on the ships, but a few had made threats of the sort, and the commandant was very uneasy. By July 1815 at least 270 Americans and 1,200 French prisoners had died.
Closure and reopening
.]]
After all American and French prisoners had been released, paroled and repatriated, the gaol on Dartmoor was left unused for 35 years until 1850. Work then began to rebuild and recommission the prison for civilian convicts. It reopened in 1851. The POW remains that had been originally buried on the moor were exhumed and re-interred in two cemeteries behind the prison when the prison farm was established in about 1852.
During the First World War in 1917, criminals were removed from the gaol when it was converted into a Home Office Work Centre for conscientious objectors granted release from other prisons. The cells were left unlocked, inmates wore their own clothes and could go outside to visit the village in their off-duty time. Numerous escape attempts have been made by inmates to get out of the prison and onto the moors, leading to massive manhunts by the police and prison service. Instances of disobedience included a model prisoner attacking a popular guard with a razor blade and rough treatment by prisoners of a prisoner being removed to solitary. At the parade later that day, 50 prisoners refused orders, and the rest were marched back to their cells but refused to enter. At this point, the prison governor and his staff fled to an unused part of the prison and secured themselves there. The prisoners then released those held in solitary. There was extensive damage to property, and a prisoner was shot by one of the staff, but no prison staff were injured.
*F. Digby Hardy
*John Williams
*Frank Mitchell
*Fahad Mihyi, Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine terrorist behind the 1978 London bus attack
*Aravindan Balakrishnan
Modern operations
Dartmoor continues to suffer from its age, in 2001 a Board of Visitors report condemned sanitation, as well as highlighting a list of urgent repairs needed. A year later, the prison was converted to a Category C prison for less violent offenders. In 2002, the Prison Reform Trust warned that the prison may be breaching the Human Rights Act 1998 due to severe overcrowding at the jail. A year later, however, the Chief Inspector of Prisons declared that the prison had made substantial improvements to its management and regime.
In March 2008, staff at the prison passed a vote of no confidence in the governor Serena Watts, claiming they felt bullied by managers and unsafe.
Dartmoor is now a Category C prison, which means it houses mainly non-violent offenders and white-collar criminals. It also holds people with convictions for sexual offences, but it is designated as a support site only for these individuals and as such does not offer treatment programmes for them.
Dartmoor operates cell accommodation on six wings. Education is available at the prison (full and part-time), and ranges from basic educational skills to Open University courses. Vocational training includes electronics, brickwork and carpentry courses up to City & Guilds and NVQ level, Painting and Decorating courses, industrial cleaning and desktop publishing. Full-time employment is also available in catering, farming, gardening, laundry, textiles, Braille, contract services, furniture manufacturing and polishing. Employment is supported with NVQ or City & Guilds vocational qualifications. All courses and qualifications at Dartmoor are operated by South Gloucestershire and Stroud College and Cornwall College.
The "Dartmoor Jailbreak" is a yearly event, in which members of the public "escape" from the prison and must travel as far as possible in four days, without directly paying for transport. By doing so they raise money for charity.
In September 2013, it was announced that discussions would commence with the Duchy of Cornwall about the long-term future of HMP Dartmoor. In January 2014 it was stated on the BBC news website that the notice period with the Duchy for closing is 10 years. In November 2015 the Ministry of Justice confirmed that, as part of a major programme to replace older prisons, it would not renew its lease on the prison.
It was announced in October 2019 that HMP Dartmoor would close in 2023, but in December 2021 it was confirmed that, following negotiations with the Duchy, it would remain open beyond 2023 and for the foreseeable future.
In 2023, 96 inmates of the prison had to be evacuated due to the presence of radon gas, caused by the decay of uranium in the prison bedrock and walls. No adverse health effects related to radon poisoning have been recorded at the prison.
In 2024, hundreds of prisoners were transferred to other prisons due to the presence of unsafe levels of radon gas throughout the prison and in cells. In total 682 prisoners were required to be moved. By the summer of 2024, any remaining prisoners were ordered to be transferred out and the prison closed. However, it is unclear when or even if the prison will ever be operational again.Dartmoor Prison Museum
The Dartmoor Prison Museum, located in the old dairy buildings, focuses on the history of HMP Dartmoor. Exhibits include the prison's role in housing prisoners of war from the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812, manacles and weapons, memorabilia, clothing and uniforms, famous prisoners, and the changed focus of the prison. It also sells (2015) garden ornaments and other items made in the prison concrete and carpentry shops by prisoners engaged in educational courses.
There are also displays and information on less well known aspects of the prison such as the incarceration of conscientious objectors during World War One.
In popular culture
*In the 1963 James Bond film From Russia with Love, the main villainous henchman, SPECTRE assassin Red Grant (played by Robert Shaw) is described as a psychopathic paranoid and a convicted murderer, who once escaped from Dartmoor Prison.
*The adventure story A Rogue by Compulsion. An Affair of the Secret Service (1915) by Victor Bridges begins with a dramatic escape from Dartmoor.
*In Mutiny on the Bounty (1935), Mr. Christian states to Captain Bligh that Seaman Burkitt chose service in the Royal Navy as an alternative to imprisonment at Dartmoor.
*In the John Galsworthy play, Escape, Dartmoor is the prison whence the hero, Captain Denman escapes. The stage production in 1927 starred Leslie Howard and the 1930 film version starred Sir Gerald du Maurier.
*The 1929 movie A Cottage on Dartmoor begins with an escapee from Dartmoor prison, and proceeds to a flashback as to how he came to be incarcerated.
*An escaped convict from Dartmoor figures in Nevil Shute's first novel Marazan, published in 1926.
*Decline and Fall, a novel by Evelyn Waugh, first published in 1928 makes thinly disguised references to Dartmoor Prison.
*Dartmoor Prison is mentioned in The Thirteen Problems, a short story collection written by Agatha Christie, and first published in 1932. Christie's The Sittaford Mystery (1931) is set on Dartmoor and features an escaped prisoner.
*Arthur Conan Doyle made reference to 'Princetown Prison' in four stories that he wrote between 1890 and 1903. In The Hound of the Baskervilles (1902), an escaped prisoner from Princetown serves as a red herring for Holmes and Watson.
*Dressed to Kill, a 1946 Sherlock Holmes film uses Dartmoor Prison in the plot as the supposed location where three music boxes were made that contain a secret code for a criminal gang.
*Mentioned in the Dermot Hegarty song Twenty One Years (1970).
*Referenced in Bob Miller's song, Twenty-One Years, more recently recorded by Daniel O'Donnell on his debut album.
*In the Tales of Old Dartmoor episode (recorded in 1956) of The Goons radio comedy series, Grytpype-Thynne arranges for the prison to put to sea to visit the Château d'If in France as part of a plan to find the treasure of the Count of Monte Cristo hid there. A cardboard replica is left in its place, which is left standing after the original Dartmoor Prison sinks with all hands at the end of the episode.
*In an episode of The Saint television series entitled "Escape Route" (1966), Simon Templar (Roger Moore) is sent to Dartmoor to uncover a planned escape.
*Comedy band The Barron Knights' 1978 UK No. 3 hit single "A Taste of Aggro", a medley of parodies, included a version of "The Smurf Song" featuring, in place of the Smurfs, a group of bank robbers from Catford who have escaped from Dartmoor Prison.
*Dartmoor is mentioned several times in the British comedy series ''You Rang, M'Lord?, especially in connection with the scheming butler, Alf Stokes, who mentions on multiple occasions that he will end up in Dartmoor.
*In 1988, the prison played host to a storyline in EastEnders, where Den Watts (played by Leslie Grantham) was being held on remand for arson. He was also joined for some of the storyline by Nick Cotton (played by John Altman), who was imprisoned for a different offence. The prison was called Dickens Hill.
*Dartmoor is frequently mentioned in the Agent Z'' series of comical children's books written by Mark Haddon.
*Dartmoor prison is implicated in the local Dartmoor 'Hairy hands' ghost story/legend.
*Dartmoor prison plays a central role in The Lively Lady, American author Kenneth Roberts' 1931 historical novel taking place during The War of 1812
*In the first episode of the second series of ''James May's Man Lab'', James May and Oz Clarke were demonstrating map-reading skills by pretending to escape from Dartmoor prison and cross Dartmoor to their escape car (although they had to start their escape from outside the prison grounds as they were not allowed permission inside the prison).
*One of the intersecting story lines in Edward Marston's novel, Shadow of the Hangman (2013) involves two American seamen who escape during the 1815 riot.
*The prison and the American sailors imprisoned towards the end of the War of 1812 are central to Simon Mayo's 2018 novel Mad Blood Stirring.
*In The Voice of Terror (1942), Sherlock Holmes is angrily confronted in a tavern by an ex-convict who says he had been sent to Dartmoor Prison by Holmes.
*In John Buchan's third Richard Hannay novel Mr Standfast (1919), two passing references are made of Dartmoor as a place for conscientious objectors who are "quodded" (jailed) there.
*The narrator of the Hammond Innes novel Maddon's Rock is sentenced to (and escapes from) Dartmoor along with a co-conspirator after being wrongly convicted of mutiny.
References
External links
*[http://www.justice.gov.uk/global/contacts/noms/prison-finder/dartmoor/ Ministry of Justice pages on Dartmoor]
*[http://www.dartmoor-prison.co.uk/ Dartmoor Prison Museum]
*[http://www.justiceinspectorates.gov.uk/hmiprisons/inspections/?s&location=dartmoor HMP Dartmoor - HM Inspectorate of Prisons Reports]
Category:Category C prisons in England
Category:Dartmoor
Category:Prisons in Devon
Category:1809 establishments in England
Category:Museums in Devon
Category:Prison museums in the United Kingdom
Category:Men's prisons
Category:Grade II listed prison buildings
Category:Grade II listed buildings in Devon
Category:Princetown
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Dilation and curettage
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Dilation (or dilatation) and curettage (D&C) refers to the dilation (widening or opening) of the cervix and surgical removal of sections and/or layers of the lining of the uterus and or contents of the uterus such as an unwanted fetus (early abortion before 13 weeks), remains of a non-viable fetus, retained placenta after birth or abortion as well as any abnormal tissue which may be in the uterus causing abnormal cycles by scraping and scooping (curettage). It is a gynecologic procedure used for treatment and removal as well as diagnostic and therapeutic purposes, and is the most commonly used method for first trimester abortion or miscarriage.
D&C normally refers to a procedure involving a curette, also called sharp curettage.
Clinical uses
D&Cs may be performed in pregnant and non-pregnant patients, for different clinical indications. Such examples are for early abortion, removing the remains of a non-viable pregnancy or retention of placenta from a pregnancy loss/abortion. Treatment of menopause induced anomalies with menstrual cycle.
During pregnancy or postpartum
A D&C may be performed early in pregnancy to remove pregnancy tissue, either in the case of a non-viable pregnancy, such as a missed or incomplete miscarriage, or an undesired pregnancy, as in a surgical abortion. The World Health Organization recommends D&C with a Sharp Curette as a method of surgical abortion only when manual vacuum aspiration with a suction curette is unavailable.
For patients who have recently given birth, a D&C may be indicated to remove retained placental tissue that does not pass spontaneously or for postpartum hemorrhage.
Non-pregnant patients
D&Cs for non-pregnant patients are commonly performed in tandem with Hysteroscopy another diagnostic procedure, for the diagnosis of gynecological conditions usually involving abnormal bleeding; during menopause or with various abnormal structures growing within the uterus to remove the excess uterine lining in women who have conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome; to remove tissue in the uterus that may be causing abnormal uterine bleeding, such as endometrial polyps or uterine fibroids;
Procedure
thumb|An illustration of a dilation and curettage Depending on the anticipated duration and difficulty expected with the procedure, as well as the clinical indication and patient preferences, a D&C may be performed with local anesthesia, moderate sedation, deep sedation, or general anesthesia. The first step in a D&C is to place a speculum in the vagina so as to see the cervix. Often, a tenaculum is placed to steady the cervix. Next, the provider will dilate the cervix. This can be done with Hegar or similar dilators. The amount of dilation depends on the amount of tissue to be removed as well as the size of the instruments to be used. After sufficient dilation, a curette, a metal rod with a handle on one end and a loop on the other, is then inserted into the uterus through the dilated cervix. The curette is used to gently scrape the lining of the uterus and remove the tissue in the uterus. If a suction curette is used, as in a vacuum aspiration, a plastic tubular curette will be introduced into the uterus and connected to suction to remove all tissue in the uterus. This tissue is examined for completeness (in the case of abortion or miscarriage treatment) or by pathology for abnormalities (in the case of treatment for abnormal bleeding). Aside from the surgery itself, complications related to anesthesia administration may also occur.
Infection is uncommon after D&C for a non-pregnant patient, and society practice guidelines do not recommend routine prophylactic antibiotics to patients. However, for curettage of a pregnant patient, the risk of infection is higher, and patients should receive antibiotics that cover the bacteria commonly found in the vagina and gastrointestinal tract; doxycycline is a common recommendation, though azithromycin may also be used. Perforation may cause excessive bleeding or damage to organs outside the uterus. If the provider is concerned about ongoing bleeding or the possibility of injury to organs outside the uterus, a laparoscopy may be done to verify that there has been no undiagnosed injury.
Another potential risk is Asherman's syndrome, a condition where intrauterine adhesions lead to subfertility, amenorrhea, or recurrent pregnancy loss. Although older studies described a high (25-30%) risk of developing this condition after dilation and curettage for treatment of miscarriage, these procedures were likely done using sharp curettage, which is no longer routinely performed in modern miscarriage and abortion care. Newer studies reflect the common technique of suction curettage and demonstrate a much lower risk of Asherman's syndrome, with incidence in large prospective trials ranging from 0.7 to 1.6%. A history of multiple (>3) procedures There are currently no studies linking asymptomatic intrauterine adhesions and long-term reproductive outcomes, and similar pregnancy outcomes have been found after miscarriage regardless of whether surgical treatment, medication management, or conservative management (i.e. watchful waiting) was chosen.
See also
Dilation and evacuation
Menstrual extraction
Vacuum aspiration
References
External links
Dilation and curettage (D&C) at Mayo Clinic
Category:Obstetrical and gynaecological procedures
Category:Miscarriage
Category:Methods of abortion
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Doctor Who
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| creator =
| showrunner = <!--year of latest episode-->, Russell T Davies)
}}
| writer = Various
| starring = <!--year of latest episode-->, Ncuti Gatwa)
| Various companions
| (<!--year of latest episode-->, Millie Gibson)
}}
| theme_music_composer = Ron Grainer
| opentheme = Doctor Who theme music
| composer = <!--year of latest episode-->, Murray Gold)
}}
| country = United Kingdom
| language = English
| num_seasons = 26 (1963–1989)<!-- Please do not change to series. It is well documented that this term was used until 1989, and consensus has previously been reached -->
| num_series = 14 (2005–present)<!-- This separation conforms with WP:WHO/MOS#Terminology -->
| num_episodes = (97 missing)<!--Do not report fewer missing until reliably confirmed.-->
| stories
}}
| list_episodes = Lists of Doctor Who episodes
| executive_producer = <!--year of latest episode-->, Russell T Davies, Julie Gardner, Jane Tranter, Joel Collins, and Phil Collinson)
}}
| camera =
| runtime |
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* 44–46 mins (1984, 1985)
* 85–89 mins (1996)
Premise
Doctor Who follows the adventures of the title character, a rogue Time Lord with somewhat unknown origins who goes by the name "the Doctor". The Doctor fled Gallifrey, the planet of the Time Lords, in a stolen TARDIS ("Time and Relative Dimension(s) in Space"), a time machine that travels by materialising into, and dematerialising out of, the time vortex. The TARDIS has a vast interior but appears smaller on the outside, and is equipped with a "chameleon circuit" intended to make the machine take on the appearance of local objects as a disguise. Because of a malfunction, the Doctor's TARDIS remains fixed as a blue British police box.
Across time and space, the Doctor's many incarnations often find events that pique their curiosity, and try to prevent evil forces from harming innocent people or changing history, using only ingenuity and minimal resources, such as the versatile sonic screwdriver. The Doctor rarely travels alone and is often joined by one or more companions on these adventures; these companions are usually humans, owing to the Doctor's fascination with planet Earth, which also leads to frequent collaborations with the international military task force UNIT when Earth is threatened. The Doctor is centuries old and, as a Time Lord, has the ability to regenerate when there is mortal damage to their body. The Doctor's various incarnations have gained numerous recurring enemies during their travels, including the Daleks, their creator Davros, the Cybermen, and the renegade Time Lord the Master.
History
History of Doctor Who}}
Doctor Who was originally intended to appeal to a family audience as an educational programme using time travel as a means to explore scientific ideas and famous moments in history. The programme first appeared on the BBC Television Service at 17:16:20 GMT on 23 November 1963; this was eighty seconds later than the scheduled programme time, because of announcements concerning the previous day's assassination of John F. Kennedy. It was to be a regular weekly programme, each episode 25 minutes of transmission length. Discussions and plans for the programme had been in progress for a year. The head of drama Sydney Newman was mainly responsible for developing the programme, with the first format document for the series being written by Newman along with the head of the script department (later head of serials) Donald Wilson and staff writer C. E. Webber; in a 1971 interview Wilson claimed to have named the series, and when this claim was put to Newman he did not dispute it. Writer Anthony Coburn, story editor David Whitaker and initial producer Verity Lambert also heavily contributed to the development of the series.
On 31 July 1963, Whitaker commissioned Terry Nation to write a story under the title The Mutants. As originally written, the Daleks and Thals were the victims of an alien neutron bomb attack but Nation later dropped the aliens and made the Daleks the aggressors. When the script was presented to Wilson, it was immediately rejected as the programme was not permitted to contain any "bug-eyed monsters". According to Lambert, "We didn't have a lot of choice—we only had the Dalek serial to go ... We had a bit of a crisis of confidence because Donald [Wilson] was so adamant that we shouldn't make it. Had we had anything else ready we would have made that." Nation's script became the second Doctor Who serial – The Daleks (also known as The Mutants). The serial introduced the eponymous aliens that would become the series' most popular monsters, dubbed "Dalekmania", and was responsible for the BBC's first merchandising boom.
The BBC drama department produced the programme for 26 seasons, broadcast on BBC One. Due to his increasingly poor health, William Hartnell, first actor to play the Doctor, was succeeded by Patrick Troughton in 1966. In 1970, Jon Pertwee replaced Troughton and the series began production in colour. In 1974, Tom Baker was cast as the Doctor. His eccentric personality became hugely popular, with viewing figures for the series returning to a level not seen since the height of "Dalekmania" a decade earlier. After seven years in the role, Baker was replaced by Peter Davison in 1981, and Colin Baker replaced Davison in 1984. In 1985, the channel's controller Michael Grade cancelled the upcoming twenty-third season, forcing the series into an eighteen-month hiatus. In 1986, the series was recommissioned on the condition that Baker left the role of the Doctor, Although it was effectively cancelled, the BBC repeatedly affirmed over several years that the series would return. Segal's negotiations eventually led to a Doctor Who television film as a pilot for an American series, broadcast on the Fox Network in 1996, as an international co-production between Fox, Universal Pictures, the BBC and BBC Worldwide. Starring Paul McGann as the Doctor, the film was successful in the UK (with 9.1 million viewers), but was less so in the United States and did not lead to a series. BBC Television announced the in-house production of a new series, after several years of attempts by BBC Worldwide to find backing for a feature film version. The 2005 revival of Doctor Who is a direct plot continuation of the original 1963–1989 series and the 1996 television film. The executive producers of the new incarnation of the series were Queer as Folk writer Russell T Davies and BBC Cymru Wales head of drama Julie Gardner. From 2005, the series switched from a multi-camera to a single-camera setup.
in November 2013, included an appearance of three former Doctors: pictured left to right: Peter Davison, Sylvester McCoy and Colin Baker.]]
Starring Christopher Eccleston as the Doctor, Doctor Who returned with the episode "Rose" on BBC One on 26 March 2005, after a 16-year hiatus of in-house production. Eccleston left after one series and was replaced by David Tennant. Davies left the production team in 2009. Steven Moffat, a writer under Davies, was announced as his successor, along with Matt Smith as the new Doctor. Smith decided to leave the role of the Doctor in 2013, the 50th anniversary year. He was replaced by Peter Capaldi.
In January 2016, Moffat announced that he would step down after the 2017 finale, to be replaced by Chris Chibnall in 2018. Jodie Whittaker, the first female Doctor, appeared in three series, the last of which was shortened due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Both Whittaker and Chibnall announced that they would depart the series after a series of specials in 2022. Davies returned as showrunner from the 60th anniversary specials, twelve years after he had left the series previously. Bad Wolf's involvement sees Gardner return to the series alongside Davies and Jane Tranter, who recommissioned the series in 2005.
The programme has been sold to many other countries worldwide }}.
Public consciousness
It has been claimed that the transmission of the first episode was delayed by ten minutes due to extended news coverage of the assassination of US President John F. Kennedy the previous day; in fact, it went out after a delay of eighty seconds. The BBC believed that coverage of the assassination, as well as a series of power blackouts across the country, had caused many viewers to miss this introduction to a new series, and it was broadcast again on 30 November 1963, just before episode two.
in Cardiff. The programme's broad appeal attracts audiences of children and families as well as science fiction fans.]]
The programme soon became a national institution in the United Kingdom, with a large following among the general viewing audience. The show received controversy over the suitability of the series for children. Morality campaigner Mary Whitehouse repeatedly complained to the BBC over what she saw as the programme's violent, frightening and gory content. According to Radio Times, the series "never had a more implacable foe than Mary Whitehouse".
A BBC audience research survey conducted in 1972 found that, by their own definition of violence ("any act[s] which may cause physical and/or psychological injury, hurt or death to persons, animals or property, whether intentional or accidental"), Doctor Who was the most violent of the drama programmes the corporation produced at the time. The same report found that 3% of the surveyed audience believed the series was "very unsuitable" for family viewing. Responding to the findings of the survey in The Times newspaper, journalist Philip Howard maintained that, "to compare the violence of Dr Who, sired by a horse-laugh out of a nightmare, with the more realistic violence of other television series, where actors who look like human beings bleed paint that looks like blood, is like comparing Monopoly with the property market in London: both are fantasies, but one is meant to be taken seriously." Other notable moments in that decade include a disembodied brain falling to the floor in The Brain of Morbius and the Doctor apparently being drowned by a villain in The Deadly Assassin (both 1976). Mary Whitehouse's complaint about the latter incident prompted a change in BBC policy towards the series, with much tighter controls imposed on the production team, and the series' next producer, Graham Williams, was under a directive to take out "anything graphic in the depiction of violence". John Nathan-Turner produced the series during the 1980s and said in the documentary More Than Thirty Years in the TARDIS that he looked forward to Whitehouse's comments because the ratings of the series would increase soon after she had made them. Nathan-Turner also got into trouble with BBC executives over the violence he allowed to be depicted for season 22 of the series in 1985, which was publicly criticised by controller Michael Grade and given as one of his reasons for suspending the series for 18 months.
The phrase "hiding " (or "watching from behind the sofa") entered British pop culture, signifying the stereotypical but apocryphal early-series behaviour of children who wanted to avoid seeing frightening parts of a television programme while remaining in the room to watch the remainder of it. The Economist presented "hiding behind the sofa whenever the Daleks appear" as a British cultural institution on a par with Bovril and tea-time. Paul Parsons, author of The Science of Doctor Who, explains the appeal of hiding behind the sofa as the activation of the fear response in the amygdala in conjunction with reassurances of safety from the brain's frontal lobe. The phrase retains this association with Doctor Who, to the point that in 1991 the Museum of the Moving Image in London named its exhibition celebrating the programme Behind the Sofa. The electronic theme music too was perceived as eerie, novel, and frightening at the time. A 2012 article placed this childhood juxtaposition of fear and thrill "at the center of many people's relationship with the series", and a 2011 online vote at Digital Spy deemed the series the "scariest TV show of all time".
The image of the TARDIS has become firmly linked to the series in the public's consciousness; BBC scriptwriter Anthony Coburn, who lived in the resort of Herne Bay, Kent, was one of the people who conceived the idea of a police box as a time machine. In 1996, the BBC applied for a trademark to use the TARDIS' blue police box design in merchandising associated with Doctor Who. In 1998, the Metropolitan Police Authority filed an objection to the trademark claim; but in 2002, the Patent Office ruled in favour of the BBC.
The 21st-century revival of the programme became the centrepiece of BBC One's Saturday schedule and "defined the channel". Many renowned actors have made guest-starring appearances in various stories including Kylie Minogue, Sir Ian McKellen, and Andrew Garfield among others. According to an article in the Daily Telegraph in 2009, the revival of Doctor Who had consistently received high ratings, both in number of viewers and as measured by the Appreciation Index. In 2007, Caitlin Moran, television reviewer for The Times, wrote that Doctor Who is "quintessential to being British". According to Steven Moffat, the American film director Steven Spielberg has commented that "the world would be a poorer place without Doctor Who".
On 4 August 2013, a live programme titled Doctor Who Live: The Next Doctor was broadcast on BBC One, during which the actor who was going to play the Twelfth Doctor was revealed. The live show was watched by an average of 6.27 million in the UK, and was also simulcast in the United States, Canada and Australia.Episodes
List of Doctor Who episodes (1963–1989)|List of Doctor Who episodes (2005–present)List of Doctor Who episodes (2005–present)}}
Doctor Who originally ran for 26 seasons on BBC One, from 23 November 1963 until 6 December 1989. During the original run, each weekly episode formed part of a story (or "serial")—usually of four to six parts in earlier years and three to four in later years. Some notable exceptions were: ''The Daleks' Master Plan, which aired twelve episodes (plus an earlier one-episode teaser, "Mission to the Unknown", featuring none of the regular cast); almost an entire season of seven-episode serials (season 7); the ten-episode serial The War Games; and The Trial of a Time Lord, which ran for fourteen episodes (albeit divided into three production codes and four narrative segments) during season 23. Occasionally, serials were loosely connected by a story line, such as season 8 focusing on the Doctor battling a rogue Time Lord called the Master, season 16's quest for the Key to Time, season 18's journey through E-Space and the theme of entropy, and season 20's Black Guardian trilogy.
The programme was intended to be educational and for family viewing on the early Saturday evening schedule. It initially alternated stories set in the past, which taught younger audience members about history, and with those in the future or outer space, focusing on science. with one exception: Black Orchid (1982), set in 1920s England.
The early stories were serialised in nature, with the narrative of one story flowing into the next and each episode having its own title, although produced as distinct stories with their own production codes. Following The Gunfighters (1966), however, each serial was given its own title, and the individual parts were assigned episode numbers. while Douglas Adams became the best known outside Doctor Who itself, due to the popularity of his ''Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' works.
The serial format changed for the 2005 revival, with what was now called a series usually consisting of thirteen 45-minute, self-contained episodes (60 minutes with adverts, on overseas commercial channels) and an extended 60-minute episode broadcast on Christmas Day. This system was shortened to twelve episodes and one Christmas special following the revival's eighth series, and ten episodes from the eleventh series. Each series includes standalone and multiple episodic stories, often linked with a loose story arc resolved in the series finale. As in the early "classic" era, each episode has its own title, whether stand-alone or part of a larger story. Occasionally, regular-series episodes will exceed the 45-minute run time; for example, the episodes "Journey's End" (2008) and "The Eleventh Hour" (2010) were longer than an hour.
Doctor Who instalments have been televised since 1963, ranging between 25-minute episodes (the most common format for the classic era), 45/50-minute episodes (for Resurrection of the Daleks in the 1984 series, a single season in 1985, and the most common format for the revival era since 2005), two feature-length productions (1983's "The Five Doctors" and the 1996 television film), twelve Christmas specials (most of approximately 60 minutes' duration, one of 72 minutes), and four additional specials ranging from 60 to 75 minutes in 2009, 2010, and 2013. Four mini-episodes, running about eight minutes each, were also produced for the 1993, 2005, and 2007 Children in Need charity appeals, while another mini-episode was produced in 2008 for a Doctor Who–themed edition of The Proms. The 1993 two-part story, entitled Dimensions in Time, was made in collaboration with the cast of the BBC soap-opera EastEnders and was filmed partly on the EastEnders set. A two-part mini-episode was also produced for the 2011 edition of Comic Relief. Starting with the 2009 special "Planet of the Dead", the series was filmed in 1080i for HDTV and broadcast simultaneously on BBC One and BBC HD.
To celebrate the 50th anniversary of the show, a special 3D episode, "The Day of the Doctor", was broadcast in 2013. In March 2013, it was announced that Tennant and Piper would be returning and that the episode would have a limited cinematic release worldwide.
In June 2017, it was announced that due to the terms of a deal between BBC Worldwide and SMG Pictures in China, the company has first right of refusal on the purchase for the Chinese market of future series of the programme until and including Series 15.Missing episodes
Doctor Who missing episodes}}
Between 1967 and 1978, large amounts of older material stored in the BBC's various video tape and film libraries was either destroyed or wiped. This included many early episodes of Doctor Who, those stories featuring the first two Doctors: William Hartnell and Patrick Troughton. In all, 97 of 253 episodes produced during the programme's first six years are not held in the BBC's archives (most notably seasons 3, 4, and 5, from which 79 episodes are missing). In 1972, almost all episodes then made were known to exist at the BBC, while by 1978 the practice of wiping tapes and destroying "spare" film copies had been brought to a stop.
No 1960s episodes exist on their original videotapes (all surviving prints being film transfers), though some were transferred to film for editing before transmission and exist in their broadcast form.
Some episodes have been returned to the BBC from the archives of other countries that bought prints for broadcast or by private individuals who acquired them by various means. Early colour videotape recordings made off-air by fans have also been retrieved, as well as excerpts filmed from the television screen onto 8 mm cine film and clips that were shown on other programmes. Audio versions of all lost episodes exist from home viewers who made tape recordings of the show. Short clips from every story with the exception of Marco Polo (1964), "Mission to the Unknown" (1965) and The Massacre (1966) also exist.
In addition to these, there are off-screen photographs made by photographer John Cura, who was hired by various production personnel to document many of their programmes during the 1950s and 1960s, including Doctor Who. These have been used in fan reconstructions of the serials. The BBC has tolerated these amateur reconstructions, provided they are not sold for profit and are distributed as low-quality copies.
One of the most sought-after lost episodes is part four of the last William Hartnell serial, The Tenth Planet (1966), which ends with the First Doctor transforming into the Second. The only portion of this in existence, barring a few poor-quality silent 8 mm clips, is the few seconds of the regeneration scene, as it was shown on the children's magazine show Blue Peter. With the approval of the BBC, efforts are now underway to restore as many of the episodes as possible from the extant material.
"Official" reconstructions have also been released by the BBC on VHS, on MP3 CD-ROM, and as special features on DVD. The BBC, in conjunction with animation studio Cosgrove Hall, reconstructed the missing episodes 1 and 4 of The Invasion (1968), using remastered audio tracks and the comprehensive stage notes for the original filming, for the serial's DVD release in November 2006. The missing episodes of The Reign of Terror were animated by animation company Theta-Sigma, in collaboration with Big Finish, and became available for purchase in May 2013 through Amazon.com. Subsequent animations made in 2013 include The Tenth Planet, The Ice Warriors (1967) and The Moonbase (1967).
In April 2006, Blue Peter launched a challenge to find missing Doctor Who episodes with the promise of a full-scale Dalek model as a reward. In December 2011, it was announced that part 3 of Galaxy 4 (1965) and part 2 of The Underwater Menace (1967) had been returned to the BBC by a fan who had purchased them in the mid-1980s without realising that the BBC did not hold copies of them.
On 10 October 2013, the BBC announced that films of eleven episodes, including nine missing episodes, had been found in a Nigerian television relay station in Jos. Six of the eleven films discovered were the six-part serial The Enemy of the World (1968), from which all but the third episode had been missing. The remaining films were from another six-part serial, The Web of Fear (1968), and included the previously missing episodes 2, 4, 5 and 6. Episode 3 of The Web of Fear is still missing.
Characters
List of Doctor Who cast members}}
The Doctor
The Doctor was initially shrouded in mystery. In the programme's early days, the character was an eccentric alien traveller of great intelligence who battled injustice while exploring time and space in an unreliable time machine, the "TARDIS" (an acronym for Time and Relative Dimension in Space), which notably appears much larger on the inside than on the outside.
The initially irascible and slightly sinister Doctor quickly mellowed into a more compassionate figure and was eventually revealed to be a Time Lord, whose race are from the planet Gallifrey, which the Doctor fled by stealing the TARDIS.Changes of appearanceProducers introduced the concept of regeneration to permit the recasting of the main character. This was prompted by the poor health of the original star, William Hartnell. The term "regeneration" was not conceived until the Doctor's third on-screen regeneration; Hartnell's Doctor merely described undergoing a "renewal", and the Second Doctor underwent a "change of appearance". The device has allowed for the recasting of the actor various times in the show's history, as well as the depiction of alternative Doctors either from the Doctor's relative past or future.
The serials The Deadly Assassin (1976) and Mawdryn Undead (1983) established that a Time Lord can only regenerate 12 times, for a total of 13 incarnations. This line became stuck in the public consciousness despite not often being repeated and was recognised by producers of the show as a plot obstacle for when the show finally had to regenerate the Doctor a thirteenth time. The episode "The Time of the Doctor" (2013) depicted the Doctor acquiring a new cycle of regenerations, starting from the Twelfth Doctor, due to the Eleventh Doctor being the product of the Doctor's twelfth regeneration from his original set.<!--A note explaining this can go here, but it would be best not to digress into an explanation of the circumstances of a particular regeneration in the paragraph which introduces the general concept-->
Although the idea of casting a woman as the Doctor had been suggested by the show's writers several times, including by Newman in 1986 and Davies in 2008, until 2017, all official depictions were played by men. Jodie Whittaker took over the role as the Thirteenth Doctor at the end of the 2017 Christmas special and is the first woman to be cast as the character. The show introduced the Time Lords' ability to change sex on regeneration in earlier episodes, first in dialogue, then with Michelle Gomez's version of the Master and T'Nia Miller's version of the General.
Upon Whittaker's final appearance as the character in "The Power of the Doctor" on 23 October 2022, she regenerated into a form portrayed by David Tennant, who was confirmed to be the Fourteenth Doctor and the first actor to play two incarnations, having previously played the Tenth Doctor. In the same year, Ncuti Gatwa was revealed to be portraying the Fifteenth Doctor, making him the first black actor to headline the series.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Series lead !! Incarnation !! Tenure
|-
| William Hartnell || First Doctor || 1963–1966
|-
| Patrick Troughton || Second Doctor || 1966–1969
|-
| Jon Pertwee || Third Doctor || 1970–1974
|-
| Tom Baker || Fourth Doctor || 1974–1981
|-
| Peter Davison || Fifth Doctor || 1982–1984<!--Do not change to 1981; as per WP:CONSENSUS of previous talk-page discussions, 1982 is when this Doctor became the lead.-->
|-
| Colin Baker || Sixth Doctor || 1984–1986
|-
| Sylvester McCoy || Seventh Doctor || 1987–1989<!--Do not change to 1996 without discussing it on the talk-page. 1987–1989 was when this Doctor was the lead. Even though he had a starring role in the movie, it was McGann's movie.-->
|-
| Paul McGann || Eighth Doctor || 1996
|-<!-- Please do not add John Hurt here -->
| Christopher Eccleston || Ninth Doctor || 2005
|-
| David Tennant || Tenth Doctor || 2005–2010
|-
| Matt Smith || Eleventh Doctor || 2010–2013
|-
| Peter Capaldi || Twelfth Doctor || 2014–2017<!--Do not change to 2013; as per WP:CONSENSUS of previous talk-page discussions, 2014 is when this Doctor became the lead.-->
|-
| Jodie Whittaker || Thirteenth Doctor || 2018–2022
|-
| David Tennant || Fourteenth Doctor || 2023
|-
| Ncuti Gatwa || Fifteenth Doctor || 2023–present
|}
In addition to those actors who have headlined the series, others have portrayed versions of the Doctor in guest roles. Notably, in 2013, John Hurt guest-starred as a hitherto unknown incarnation of the Doctor known as the War Doctor in the run-up to the show's 50th-anniversary special "The Day of the Doctor". He is shown in mini-episode "The Night of the Doctor" retroactively inserted into the show's fictional chronology between McGann's and Eccleston's Doctors, although his introduction was written so as not to disturb the established numerical naming of the Doctors. The show later introduced another such unknown past Doctor with Jo Martin's recurring portrayal of the Fugitive Doctor, beginning with "Fugitive of the Judoon" (2020). An example from the classic series comes from The Trial of a Time Lord (1986), in which Michael Jayston's character the Valeyard is described as an amalgamation of the darker sides of the Doctor's nature, somewhere between the twelfth and final incarnation. The most recent example is when Richard E. Grant, who previously portrayed an alternate version of the Doctor known as the Shalka Doctor in the animated series Scream of the Shalka (2003), appeared as a hologram of a past Doctor in "Rogue" (2024).
On rare occasions, other actors have stood in for the lead. In "The Five Doctors", Richard Hurndall played the First Doctor due to William Hartnell's death in 1975; 34 years later David Bradley similarly replaced Hartnell in "Twice Upon a Time". In Time and the Rani, Sylvester McCoy briefly played the Sixth Doctor during the regeneration sequence, carrying on as the Seventh. In other media, the Doctor has been played by various other actors, including Peter Cushing in two films.
The casting of a new Doctor has often inspired debate and speculation. Common topics of focus include the Doctor's sex (prior to the casting of Whittaker, all official incarnations were male), race (all Doctors were white prior to the casting of Jo Martin in "Fugitive of the Judoon") and age (the youngest actor to be cast is Smith at 26, and the oldest are Capaldi and Hartnell, both 55).
Meetings of different incarnations
There have been instances of actors returning later to reprise their specific Doctor's role. In 1973's The Three Doctors, William Hartnell and Patrick Troughton returned alongside Jon Pertwee. For 1983's "The Five Doctors", Troughton and Pertwee returned to star with Peter Davison, and Tom Baker appeared in previously unseen footage from the uncompleted Shada serial. For this episode, Richard Hurndall replaced William Hartnell. Patrick Troughton again returned in 1985's The Two Doctors with Colin Baker. In "The Name of the Doctor" (2013), the Eleventh Doctor meets a previously unseen incarnation of himself, subsequently revealed to be the War Doctor. In 2017, the First Doctor (this time portrayed by David Bradley) returned alongside Peter Capaldi in "The Doctor Falls" and "Twice Upon a Time". In "The Giggle" (2023), following the unusual bi-generation of the Fourteenth Doctor which saw the Fifteenth Doctor split out from him, the two Doctors shared a scene together as they defeated the episode's villain, the Toymaker. Additionally, multiple incarnations of the Doctor have met in various audio dramas and novels based on the television show.Companions
Companion Doctor Who)}}
The companion figure – generally a human – has been a constant feature in Doctor Who since the programme's inception in 1963. One of the roles of the companion is to be a reminder for the Doctor's "moral duty". The Doctor's first companions seen on-screen were his granddaughter Susan Foreman (Carole Ann Ford) and her teachers Barbara Wright (Jacqueline Hill) and Ian Chesterton (William Russell). These characters were intended to act as audience surrogates, through which the audience would discover information about the Doctor, who was to act as a mysterious father figure. Notable companions from the earlier series include a Time Lady named Romana (Mary Tamm and Lalla Ward), and humans such as Jamie McCrimmon (Frazer Hines), Jo Grant (Katy Manning), Sarah Jane Smith (Elisabeth Sladen), Tegan Jovanka (Janet Fielding), Peri Brown (Nicola Bryant), and Ace (Sophie Aldred). Dramatically, these characters provide a figure with whom the audience can identify and serve to further the story by requesting exposition from the Doctor and manufacturing peril for the Doctor to resolve. The Doctor regularly gains new companions and loses old ones; sometimes they return home or find new causes—or loves—on worlds they have visited. Some have died during the course of the series. Companions are usually humans or humanoid aliens. The primary companions of the Ninth and Tenth Doctors were Rose Tyler (Billie Piper), Martha Jones (Freema Agyeman), and Donna Noble (Catherine Tate), with Mickey Smith (Noel Clarke) and Jack Harkness (John Barrowman) recurring as secondary companion figures. The Eleventh Doctor became the first to travel with a married couple, Amy Pond (Karen Gillan) and Rory Williams (Arthur Darvill), whilst out-of-sync meetings with River Song (Alex Kingston) and Clara Oswald (Jenna Coleman) The tenth series included the alien Nardole (Matt Lucas) and introduced Pearl Mackie as Bill Potts, the Doctor's first openly gay companion. Pearl Mackie said that the increased representation of LGBTQ people is important on a mainstream show. The Thirteenth Doctor primarily travelled with Ryan Sinclair (Tosin Cole), Graham O'Brien (Bradley Walsh), Yasmin Khan (Mandip Gill), and Dan Lewis (John Bishop). When David Tennant returned as the Fourteenth Doctor, former co-star Catherine Tate joined him to reprise her role of Donna Noble for the 2023 specials. The Fifteenth Doctor travelled with Ruby Sunday (Millie Gibson) in his first series and Belinda Chandra (Varada Sethu) in his second. The combination of Gatwa and Sethu was notable for being the first time the primary cast of the show consisted entirely of non-white actors.
Some companions have gone on to reappear, either in the main series or in spin-offs. Sarah Jane Smith became the central character in The Sarah Jane Adventures (2007–2011) following a return to Doctor Who in 2006. Guest stars in the series include former companions Jo Grant, K9, and Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart (Nicholas Courtney). The character of Jack Harkness also served to launch a spin-off, Torchwood (2006–2011), in which Martha Jones also appeared.
Foes
List of Doctor Who universe creatures and aliens|List of Doctor Who villainsList of Doctor Who villains}}
When Sydney Newman commissioned the series, he specifically did not want to perpetuate the cliché of the "bug-eyed monster" of science fiction. However, monsters were popular with audiences and so became a staple of Doctor Who almost from the beginning. Daleks, Cybermen, and the Master are some of the most iconic foes the Doctor has battled in the series. The Autons with the Nestene Consciousness, first seen in 1970's Spearhead from Space, and Daleks, first seen in 1963's The Daleks, returned in series 1. Davies's successor, Steven Moffat, continued the trend by reviving the Silurians, also first seen in 1970, in series 5 and Zygons, first seen in 1975, in the 50th-anniversary special. Since its 2005 return, the series has also introduced new recurring aliens: Slitheen (Raxacoricofallapatorians), Ood, Judoon, Weeping Angels and the Silence.Daleks
]]
The Daleks, which first appeared in the show's second serial in 1963, are Doctor Whos oldest villains. The Daleks are Kaleds from the planet Skaro, mutated by the scientist Davros and housed in mechanical armour shells for mobility. The actual creatures resemble octopuses with large, pronounced brains. Their armour shells have a single eye-stalk, a sink-plunger-like device that serves the purpose of a hand, and a directed-energy weapon. Their main weakness is their eyestalk; attacks upon them using various weapons can blind a Dalek, making it go mad. Their chief role in the series plot, as they frequently remark in their instantly recognisable metallic voices, is to "exterminate" all non-Dalek beings. They even attack the Time Lords in the Time War, as shown during the 50th Anniversary of the show. They continue to be a recurring 'monster' within the Doctor Who franchise, having appeared in every series since 2005. Davros has also been a recurring figure since his debut in Genesis of the Daleks, although played by several different actors.
The Daleks were created by the writer Terry Nation (who intended them to be an allegory of the Nazis) and BBC designer Raymond Cusick. The Daleks' début in the programme's second serial, The Daleks (1963–1964), made both the Daleks and Doctor Who very popular. A Dalek appeared on a postage stamp celebrating British popular culture in 1999, photographed by Lord Snowdon. The Daleks received another stamp in 2013 as part of the 50th anniversary. In "Victory of the Daleks" a new set of Daleks were introduced that come in a range of colours; the colour denoting its role within the species. Cybermen
Cybermen were originally a wholly organic species of humanoids originating on Earth's twin planet Mondas that began to implant more and more artificial parts into their bodies. This led to the race becoming coldly logical and calculating cyborgs, with emotions usually only shown when naked aggression was called for. With the demise of Mondas, they acquired Telos as their new home planet. They continue to be a recurring 'monster' within the Doctor Who franchise.
The Cybermen have evolved dramatically over the course of the show. They were reintroduced in the 2006 series in the form of alternate universe aliens, with radically different back stories. The standard Cybermen returned in "Closing Time", though they kept their 2006 design. In the 2020 series, the Cybermen aligned themselves with The Master, and were given the ability to regenerate.The Master
The Master Doctor Who)}}
The Master is the Doctor's archenemy, a renegade Time Lord who desires to rule the universe. Conceived as "Professor Moriarty to the Doctor's Sherlock Holmes", the character first appeared in 1971. As with the Doctor, the role has been portrayed by several actors, since the Master is a Time Lord as well and able to regenerate; the first of these actors was Roger Delgado, who continued in the role until his death in 1973. The Master was briefly played by Peter Pratt and Geoffrey Beevers until Anthony Ainley took over and continued to play the character until Doctor Whos hiatus in 1989. The Master returned in the 1996 television movie of Doctor Who, and was played by American actor Eric Roberts.
Following the series revival in 2005, Derek Jacobi provided the character's reintroduction in the 2007 episode "Utopia". During that story, the role was then assumed by John Simm, who returned to the role multiple times throughout the Tenth Doctor's tenure. In the 2014 episode "Dark Water", it was revealed that the Master had become a female incarnation or "Time Lady", going by the name of "Missy" (short for Mistress, the feminine equivalent of "Master"). This incarnation is played by Michelle Gomez. Simm returned to his role as the Master alongside Gomez in the tenth series. The Master returned for the 2020 twelfth series with Sacha Dhawan in the role. This incarnation dubbed himself the "Spy Master" referencing a role he had taken with MI6.MusicList of Doctor Who composers}}Theme music
Doctor Who theme music}}
The Doctor Who theme music was one of the first electronic music signature tunes for television, and after more than a half century remains one of the most easily recognised. The original theme was composed by Ron Grainer and realised by Delia Derbyshire of the BBC Radiophonic Workshop, with assistance from Dick Mills, and was released as a single on Decca F 11837 in 1964. The Derbyshire arrangement served, with minor edits, as the theme tune up to the end of season 17 (1979–1980). It is regarded as a significant and innovative piece of electronic music recorded well before the availability of commercial synthesisers or multitrack mixers. Each note was individually created by cutting, splicing, speeding up and slowing down segments of analogue tape containing recordings of a single plucked string, white noise, and the simple harmonic waveforms of test-tone oscillators, intended for calibrating equipment and rooms, not creating music. New techniques were invented to allow mixing of the music, as this was before the era of multitrack tape machines. On hearing the finished result, Grainer asked, "Jeez, Delia, did I write that?" She answered, "Most of it." Although Grainer was willing to give Derbyshire the co-composer credit, it was against BBC policy at the time. She would not receive an on-screen credit until the 50th-anniversary story "The Day of the Doctor" in 2013.
A different arrangement was recorded by Peter Howell for season 18 (1980), which was in turn replaced by Dominic Glynn's arrangement for the season-long serial The Trial of a Time Lord in season 23 (1986). Keff McCulloch provided the new arrangement for the Seventh Doctor's era, which lasted from season 24 (1987) until the series' suspension in 1989. American composer John Debney created a new arrangement of Grainer's original theme for Doctor Who in 1996. For the return of the series in 2005, Murray Gold provided a new arrangement, which featured samples from the 1963 original with further elements added in the 2005 Christmas episode "The Christmas Invasion".
A new arrangement of the theme, once again by Gold, was introduced in the 2007 Christmas special episode, "Voyage of the Damned". Gold returned as composer for the 2010 series, and was responsible for a new version of the theme which was reported to have had a hostile reception from some viewers. In 2011, the theme tune charted at number 228 of radio station Classic FM's Hall of Fame, a survey of classical music tastes. A revised version of Gold's 2010 arrangement had its debut over the opening titles of the 2012 Christmas special "The Snowmen", and a further revision of the arrangement was made for the 50th-anniversary special "The Day of the Doctor" in November 2013.
With the arrival of new composer Segun Akinola for series 11 came a new version of the opening theme, which incorporated elements of Derbyshire's original arrangement. Akinola also created a new arrangement of the show's closing theme to play over the end credits of "Demons of the Punjab" in the style of Punjabi music.
Versions of the "Doctor Who Theme" have also been released as pop music. In the early 1970s, Jon Pertwee, who had played the Third Doctor, recorded a version of the Doctor Who theme with spoken lyrics, titled, "Who Is the Doctor". In 1978, a disco version of the theme in the UK, Denmark and Australia by the group Mankind, which reached number 24 in the UK charts. In 1988, the band The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu (later known as The KLF) released the single "Doctorin' the Tardis" under the name The Timelords, which reached No. 1 in the UK and No. 2 in Australia; this version incorporated several other songs, including "Rock and Roll Part 2" by Gary Glitter (who recorded vocals for some of the CD-single remix versions of "Doctorin' the Tardis"). Others who have covered or reinterpreted the theme include Orbital,
The incidental music for the first Doctor Who adventure, An Unearthly Child, was written by Norman Kay. Many of the stories of the William Hartnell period were scored by electronic music pioneer Tristram Cary, whose Doctor Who credits include The Daleks, Marco Polo, ''The Daleks' Master Plan, The Gunfighters and The Mutants. Other composers in this early period included Richard Rodney Bennett, Carey Blyton and Geoffrey Burgon.
The most frequent musical contributor during the first 15 years was Dudley Simpson, who is also well known for his theme and incidental music for Blake's 7, and for his haunting theme music and score for the original 1970s version of The Tomorrow People''. Simpson's first Doctor Who score was Planet of Giants (1964) and he went on to write music for many adventures of the 1960s and 1970s, including most of the stories of the Jon Pertwee/Tom Baker periods, ending with The Horns of Nimon (1979). He also made a cameo appearance in The Talons of Weng-Chiang (as a Music hall conductor).
In 1980 starting with the serial The Leisure Hive the task of creating incidental music was assigned to the Radiophonic Workshop. Paddy Kingsland and Peter Howell contributed many scores in this period and other contributors included Roger Limb, Malcolm Clarke and Jonathan Gibbs. The Radiophonic Workshop was dropped after 1986's The Trial of a Time Lord series, and Keff McCulloch took over as the series' main composer until the end of its run, with Dominic Glynn and Mark Ayres also contributing scores.
From the 2005 revival to the 2017 Christmas episode "Twice Upon a Time", all incidental music for the series was composed by Murray Gold and Ben Foster and has been performed by the BBC National Orchestra of Wales from the 2005 Christmas episode "The Christmas Invasion" onwards. A concert featuring the orchestra performing music from the first two series took place on 19 November 2006 to raise money for Children in Need. David Tennant hosted the event, introducing the different sections of the concert. Murray Gold and Russell T Davies answered questions during the interval, and Daleks and Cybermen appeared whilst music from their stories was played. The concert aired on BBCi on Christmas Day 2006. A Doctor Who Prom was celebrated on 27 July 2008 in the Royal Albert Hall as part of the annual BBC Proms. The BBC Philharmonic and the London Philharmonic Choir performed Murray Gold's compositions for the series, conducted by Ben Foster, as well as a selection of classics based on the theme of space and time. The event was presented by Freema Agyeman and guest-presented by various other stars of the show with numerous monsters participating in the proceedings. It also featured the specially filmed mini-episode "Music of the Spheres", written by Russell T Davies and starring David Tennant.
On 26 June 2018, producer Chris Chibnall announced that the musical score for series 11 would be provided by Royal Birmingham Conservatoire alumnus Segun Akinola. and Akinola remained composer throughout Chibnall's tenure, scoring all of the Thirteenth Doctor's episodes.
When Davies returned to produce the show in 2023, he rehired Gold to work on the series for the 60th anniversary episodes and continuing into the Fifteenth Doctor's tenure. Gold made a cameo in the 2024 episode "The Devil's Chord".
Six soundtracks have been released since 2005. The first featured tracks from the first two series, the second and third featured music from the third and fourth series respectively. The fourth was released on 4 October 2010 as a two-disc special edition and contained music from the 2008–2010 specials (The Next Doctor to "End of Time Part 2"). The soundtrack for Series 5 was released on 8 November 2010. In February 2011, a soundtrack was released for the 2010 Christmas special "A Christmas Carol", and in December 2011, the soundtrack for Series 6 was released, both by Silva Screen Records.
In 2013, a 50th-anniversary boxed set of audio CDs was released featuring music and sound effects from Doctor Who's 50-year history. The celebration continued in 2016 with the release of Doctor Who: The 50th Anniversary Collection Four LP Box Set by New York City-based Spacelab9. The company pressed 1,000 copies of the set on "Metallic Silver" vinyl, dubbed the "Cyberman Edition".
Viewership
Doctor Who fandom}}
United Kingdom
is iconic in British popular culture. Here, a woman is dressed as a TARDIS.]]
Premiering the day after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the first episode of Doctor Who was repeated with the second episode the following week. Doctor Who has always appeared initially on the BBC's mainstream BBC One channel, where it is regarded as a family show, drawing audiences of many millions of viewers; The programme's popularity has waxed and waned over the decades, with three notable periods of high ratings. The first of these was the "Dalekmania" period (), when the popularity of the Daleks regularly brought Doctor Who ratings of between 9 and 14 million, even for stories which did not feature them. Figures remained respectable into the 1980s, but fell noticeably after the programme's 23rd series was postponed in 1985 and the show was off the air for 18 months.
Its late 1980s performance of three to five million viewers was seen as poor at the time and was, according to the BBC Board of Control, a leading cause of the programme's 1989 suspension. Some fans considered this disingenuous, since the programme was scheduled against the ITV soap opera Coronation Street, the most popular show at the time. During Tennant's run (the third notable period of high ratings), the show had consistently high viewership, with the Christmas specials regularly attracting over 10 million. The current revival also garners the highest audience Appreciation Index of any drama on television.
International
Doctor Who has been broadcast internationally outside of the United Kingdom since 1964, a year after the show first aired. , the modern series has been broadcast in more than 50 countries. The 50th anniversary episode, "The Day of the Doctor", was broadcast in 94 countries and screened to more than half a million people in cinemas across Australia, Latin America, North America and Europe. The scope of the broadcast was a world record, according to Guinness World Records.
Doctor Who is one of the five top-grossing titles for BBC Worldwide, the BBC's commercial arm. BBC Worldwide CEO John Smith has said that Doctor Who is one of a small number of "Superbrands" which are heavily promoted worldwide.
Only four episodes have premiere showings on channels other than BBC One. The 1983 20th-anniversary special "The Five Doctors" had its debut on 23 November (the actual date of the anniversary) on a number of PBS stations two days before its BBC One broadcast. The 1988 story Silver Nemesis was broadcast with all three episodes airing back to back on TVNZ in New Zealand in November, after the first episode had been shown in the UK but before the final two instalments had aired there.
Starting with the 60th-anniversary specials in 2023, Doctor Who has been released on Disney+ outside the United Kingdom and Ireland.
Oceania
Doctor Who in Australia}}
New Zealand was the first country outside the United Kingdom to screen Doctor Who, beginning in September 1964, and continued to screen the series for many years, including the new revived series that aired on Prime Television from 2005 to 2017. In 2018, the series is aired on Fridays on TVNZ 2, and on TVNZ On Demand on the same episode as the UK. The series moved to TVNZ 1 in 2021, before TVNZ lost the rights to the show altogether in 2022.
In Australia, the show has had a strong fan base since its inception, having been exclusively first run by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) since January 1965. The ABC has periodically repeated episodes; of note were the daily screenings of all available classic episodes starting in 2003 for the show's 40th anniversary and the weekly screenings of all available revived episodes in 2013 for the show's 50th anniversary. The ABC broadcast the modern series' first run on ABC1 and ABC Me, with repeats on ABC2 and streaming available on ABC iview.Americas
Doctor Who in Canada and the United States}}
, Seattle ]]
The series also has a fan base in the United States, where it was shown in syndication from the 1970s to the 1990s, particularly on PBS stations.
as the Doctor and his companion, Rose, at WonderCon, California]]
TVOntario picked up the show in 1976 beginning with The Three Doctors and aired each series (several years late) through to series 24 in 1991. From 1979 to 1981, TVO airings were bookended by science-fiction writer Judith Merril who introduced the episode and then, after the episode concluded, tried to place it in an educational context in keeping with TVO's status as an educational channel. Its airing of The Talons of Weng-Chiang was cancelled as a result of accusations that the story was racist; the story was later broadcast in the 1990s on cable station YTV. CBC began showing the series again in 2005. The series moved to the Canadian cable channel Space in 2009. and the Sci Fi Channel began on 6 July 2007, starting with the second Christmas special at 8:00 pm E/P followed by the first episode.
Series four aired in the United States on the Sci Fi Channel (now known as Syfy), beginning in April 2008. It aired on CBC beginning 19 September 2008, although the CBC did not air the "Voyage of the Damned" special. The Canadian cable network Space (now known as CTV Sci-Fi Channel) broadcast "The Next Doctor" (in March 2009) and all subsequent series and specials.
The series was aired in Brazil at the TV networks Syfy and, more frequently, at the public broadcaster TV Cultura. Expect international distribution rights holders, it had already been made available on local streaming platforms Looke and Globoplay. Starting from 2024, the previous 13 series will be available at the upcoming streaming service +SBT.
Asia
Series 1 through 3 of Doctor Who were broadcast on various NHK channels from 2006 to 2008 with Japanese subtitles. Beginning on 2 August 2009, upon the launch of Disney XD in Japan, the series has been broadcast with Japanese dubbing.
Home media
List of Doctor Who home video releases}}
A wide selection of serials is available from BBC Video on DVD, on sale in the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and the United States. Every fully extant serial has been released on VHS, and BBC Worldwide continues to regularly release serials on DVD. The 2005 series is also available in its entirety on UMD for the PlayStation Portable. Eight original series serials have been released on Laserdisc and many have also been released on Betamax tape and Video 2000. One episode of Doctor Who (The Infinite Quest) was released on VCD. Initially, only the series from 2005 onwards were also available on Blu-ray, along with the 1996 TV film Doctor Who, released in September 2016. However in March 2021, it was announced that the classic run would be released on Blu-ray starting with seasons 12 and 19.
Over 600 episodes of the classic series (the first 8 Doctors, from 1963 to 1996) are available to stream on BritBox (launched in 2017) and Pluto TV. From 2020, the revival series is available for streaming on HBO Max, as well as spin-offs Sarah Jane Adventures and Torchwood. Ahead of the 60th anniversary of the series, BBC cleared the rights to allow almost every single non-missing episode of Doctor Who onto iPlayer. Additionally various spin-offs were also added to iPlayer including Torchwood, The Sarah Jane Adventures, Class, and Doctor Who Confidential.
Adaptations and other appearances
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Films
Dr. Who Dalek films)|Doctor Who (film)Doctor Who (film)}}
There are two Dr. Who feature films: Dr. Who and the Daleks, released in 1965 and ''Daleks' Invasion Earth 2150 A.D.'' in 1966. Both are retellings of existing television stories (specifically, the first two Dalek serials, The Daleks and The Dalek Invasion of Earth respectively) with a larger budget and alterations to the series concept.
In these films, Peter Cushing plays a human scientist named "Dr. Who" who travels with his granddaughter, niece, and other companions in a time machine he has invented. The Cushing version of the character reappears in both comic strips and a short story, the latter attempting to reconcile the film continuity with that of the series. In addition, several planned films were proposed, including a sequel, The Chase, loosely based on the original series story, for the Cushing Doctor, plus many attempted television movie and big-screen productions to revive the original Doctor Who after the original series was cancelled.
Paul McGann starred in the only television film as the eighth incarnation of the Doctor. After the film, he continued the role in audio dramas and was confirmed as the eighth incarnation through flashback footage and a mini episode in the 2005 revival, effectively linking the two series and the television movie.
In 2011, David Yates announced that he had started work with the BBC on a Doctor Who film, a project that would take three or more years to complete. Yates indicated that the film would take a different approach from Doctor Who, although then showrunner Steven Moffat stated later that any such film would not be a reboot of the series and that a film should be made by the BBC team and star the current TV Doctor.
Spin-offs
Doctor Who spin-offs}}
Doctor Who has appeared on stage numerous times. In the early 1970s, Trevor Martin played the role in Doctor Who and the Daleks in the Seven Keys to Doomsday. In the late 1980s, Jon Pertwee and Colin Baker both played the Doctor at different times during the run of a play titled Doctor Who – The Ultimate Adventure. For two performances, while Pertwee was ill, David Banks (better known for playing Cybermen) played the Doctor. Other original plays have been staged as amateur productions, with other actors playing the Doctor, while Terry Nation wrote The Curse of the Daleks, a stage play mounted in the late 1960s, but without the Doctor.
A pilot episode ("A Girl's Best Friend") for a potential spin-off series, K-9 and Company, aired in 1981, with Elisabeth Sladen reprising her role as companion Sarah Jane Smith and John Leeson as the voice of K9, but was not picked up as a regular series. Concept art for an animated Doctor Who series was produced by animation company Nelvana in the 1980s, but the series was not produced.
Following the success of the 2005 series produced by Russell T Davies, the BBC commissioned Davies to produce a 13-part spin-off series titled Torchwood (an anagram of "Doctor Who"), set in modern-day Cardiff and investigating alien activities and crime. The series debuted on BBC Three on 22 October 2006. John Barrowman reprised his role of Jack Harkness from the 2005 series of Doctor Who. Two other actresses who appeared in Doctor Who also star in the series: Eve Myles as Gwen Cooper, who played the similarly named servant girl Gwyneth in the 2005 Doctor Who episode "The Unquiet Dead", and Naoko Mori, who reprised her role as Toshiko Sato, first seen in "Aliens of London". A second series of Torchwood aired in 2008; for three episodes, the cast was joined by Freema Agyeman reprising her Doctor Who role of Martha Jones. A third series was broadcast from 6 to 10 July 2009, and consisted of a single five-part story called Children of Earth which was set largely in London. A fourth series, Torchwood: Miracle Day jointly produced by BBC Wales, BBC Worldwide and the American entertainment company Starz debuted in 2011. The series was predominantly set in the United States, though Wales remained part of the show's setting.
The Sarah Jane Adventures, starring Elisabeth Sladen who reprised her role as investigative journalist Sarah Jane Smith, was developed by CBBC; a special aired on New Year's Day 2007, and a full series began on 24 September 2007. A second series followed in 2008, featuring the return of Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart. A third in 2009 featured a crossover appearance from the main show by David Tennant as the Tenth Doctor. In 2010, a fourth season featured Matt Smith as the Eleventh Doctor alongside former companion actress Katy Manning reprising her role as Jo Grant. A final, three-story fifth series was transmitted in autumn 2011 – uncompleted due to Sladen's death in early 2011.
An animated serial, The Infinite Quest, aired alongside the 2007 series of Doctor Who as part of the children's television series Totally Doctor Who. The serial featured the voices of series regulars David Tennant and Freema Agyeman but is not considered part of the 2007 series. A second animated serial, Dreamland, aired in six parts on the BBC Red Button service, and the official Doctor Who website in 2009.
Class, featuring students of Coal Hill School, was first aired on-line on BBC Three from 22 October 2016, as a series of eight 45 minute episodes, written by Patrick Ness. Peter Capaldi as the Twelfth Doctor appears in the show's first episode. The series was picked up by BBC America on 8 January 2016 and by BBC One a day later. On 7 September 2017, BBC Three controller Damian Kavanagh confirmed that the series had officially been cancelled.
On 27 January 2023, Russell T Davies confirmed via GQ that future Doctor Who spin-offs were in the works. At San Diego Comic-Con in July 2024, Davies confirmed a new spin-off series, The War Between the Land and the Sea, was in development. Davies wrote the spin-off with Pete McTighe, which will consist of five parts, and is set to be directed by Dylan Holmes Williams. Jemma Redgrave and Alexander Devrient are expected to reprise their roles from Doctor Who as Kate Lethbridge-Stewart and Colonel Ibrahim, while Russell Tovey and Gugu Mbatha-Raw, who portrayed characters in Doctor Who, were cast as new characters. The series is expected to see the return of the Sea Devils.
Numerous other spin-off series have been created not by the BBC but by the respective owners of the characters and concepts. Such spin-offs include the novel and audio drama series Faction Paradox, Iris Wildthyme and Bernice Summerfield; as well as the made-for-video series P.R.O.B.E.; the Australian-produced television series K-9, which aired a 26-episode first season on Disney XD; and the audio spin-off Counter-Measures.AftershowsWhen the revived series of Doctor Who was brought back, an aftershow series was created by the BBC, titled Doctor Who Confidential. There have been three aftershow series created, with the latest one titled Doctor Who: The Fan Show, which began airing from the tenth series. Each series follows behind-the-scenes footage on the making of Doctor Who through clips and interviews with the cast, production crew and other people, including those who have participated in the television series in some manner. Each episode deals with a different topic, and in most cases refers to the Doctor Who episode that preceded it.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Series !! Episodes !! First aired !! Last aired !! Narrator / Presenter
|-
| Doctor Who Confidential || 87 || 26 March 2005 || 1 October 2011 || David Tennant (2005)<br />Simon Pegg (2005)<br />Mark Gatiss (2005–2006)<br />Anthony Head (2006–2010)<br />Noel Clarke (2009)<br />Alex Price (2010)<br />Russell Tovey (2010–2011)
|-
| Doctor Who Extra || 90 || 23 August 2014 || 5 December 2015 || Matt Botten<br />Rufus Hound<br />Matt Lucas<br />Charity Wakefield
|-
| Doctor Who: The Fan Show || 166 || 8 May 2015 || 3 August 2018 || Christel Dee (main host)<br />Luke Spillane (co-host)
|-
| Doctor Who Access All Areas || 10 || 13 October 2018 || 13 December 2018 || Yinka Bokinni
|-
| Doctor Who: Unleashed || <!--Automatically updates with the article's infobox value--> || 17 November 2023 || present || Steffan Powell
|}
Charity episodes and appearances
In 1983, coinciding with the series' 20th anniversary, "The Five Doctors" was shown as part of the annual BBC Children in Need Appeal, however it was not a charity-based production, simply scheduled within the line-up of Friday 25 November 1983. This was the programme's first co-production with Australian broadcaster ABC. At 90 minutes long it was the longest single episode of Doctor Who produced to date. It featured three of the first five Doctors, a new actor to replace the deceased William Hartnell, and unused footage to represent Tom Baker.
In 1993, for the franchise's 30th anniversary, another charity special, Dimensions in Time, was produced for Children in Need, featuring all the surviving actors who played the Doctor and a number of previous companions. It also featured a crossover with the soap opera EastEnders, the action taking place in the latter's Albert Square location and around Greenwich. The special was one of several special 3D programmes the BBC produced at the time, using a 3D system that made use of the Pulfrich effect, requiring glasses with one darkened lens; the picture would look normal to those viewers who watched without the glasses.
statue at the Royal Observatory, London, in 2014. Designed by the twelfth Doctor Peter Capaldi, it was auctioned for the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC).]]
In 1999, another special, Doctor Who and the Curse of Fatal Death, was made for Comic Relief and later released on VHS. An affectionate parody of the television series, it was split into four segments, mimicking the traditional serial format, complete with cliffhangers, and running down the same corridor several times when being chased (the version released on video was split into only two episodes). In the story, the Doctor (Rowan Atkinson) encounters both the Master (Jonathan Pryce) and the Daleks. During the special, the Doctor is forced to regenerate several times, with his subsequent incarnations played by, in order, Richard E. Grant, Jim Broadbent, Hugh Grant, and Joanna Lumley. The script was written by Steven Moffat, later to be head writer and executive producer of the revived series.
Since the return of Doctor Who in 2005, the franchise has produced two original "mini-episodes" to support Children in Need. The first, which aired in November 2005, was an untitled seven-minute scene introducing David Tennant as the Tenth Doctor. It was followed in November 2007 by "Time Crash", a 7-minute scene that featured the Tenth Doctor meeting the Fifth Doctor, Peter Davison.
A set of two mini-episodes, titled "Space" and "Time" respectively, were produced to support Comic Relief. They were aired during the Comic Relief 2011 event. During Children in Need 2011, an exclusively filmed segment showed the Doctor addressing the viewer, attempting to persuade them to purchase items of his clothing, which were going up for auction for Children in Need. Children in Need 2012 featured the mini-episode "The Great Detective". In 2014, the Twelfth Doctor Peter Capaldi designed a Doctor Who-themed Paddington Bear statue, which was located at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich (one of 50 placed around London), which was auctioned to raise funds for the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC).
Spoofs and cultural references
Doctor Who spoofs}}
Doctor Who has been satirised and spoofed on many occasions by comedians including Spike Milligan (a Dalek invades his bathroom—Milligan, naked, hurls a soap sponge at it) and Lenny Henry. Jon Culshaw frequently impersonates the Fourth Doctor in the BBC Dead Ringers series. Doctor Who fandom has also been lampooned on programs such as Saturday Night Live, ''The Chaser's War on Everything, Mystery Science Theater 3000, Family Guy, American Dad!, Futurama, South Park,
Community as Inspector Spacetime, The Simpsons and The Big Bang Theory. As part of the 50th-anniversary programmes, former Fifth Doctor Peter Davison directed, wrote, and co-starred in the parody The Five(ish) Doctors Reboot, which also starred two other former Doctors, Colin Baker and Sylvester McCoy, and had cameo appearances from cast and crew involved in the programme, including showrunner Steven Moffat and Doctors Paul McGann, David Tennant, and Matt Smith.
There have also been many references to Doctor Who in popular culture and other science fiction, including Star Trek: The Next Generation ("The Neutral Zone") and Leverage. In the Channel 4 series Queer as Folk (created by later Doctor Who executive producer Russell T. Davies), the character of Vince was portrayed as an avid Doctor Who fan, with references appearing many times throughout in the form of clips from the programme. In a similar manner, the character of Oliver on Coupling (created and written by Steven Moffat) is portrayed as a Doctor Who collector and enthusiast.
References to Doctor Who have also appeared in the young adult fantasy novels Brisingr'' and High Wizardry, the video game Rock Band, the Adult Swim comedy show Robot Chicken, the Family Guy episodes "Blue Harvest" and "420", and the game RuneScape. It has also been referenced in Destroy All Humans! 2, by civilians in the game's variation of England, and multiple times throughout the Ace Attorney series. It has been featured in Good Omens through the first Doctor Who Annual.
Doctor Who has been a reference in several political cartoons, from a 1964 cartoon in the Daily Mail depicting Charles de Gaulle as a Dalek to a 2008 edition of This Modern World by Tom Tomorrow in which the Tenth Doctor informs an incredulous character from 2003 that the Democratic Party will nominate an African-American as its presidential candidate.
The word "TARDIS" is an entry in the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary.Audio
List of Doctor Who audio releases|List of Doctor Who audiobooksList of Doctor Who audiobooks|List of Doctor Who audio plays by Big FinishList of Doctor Who audio plays by Big Finish}}
The earliest Doctor Who–related audio release was a 21-minute narrated abridgement of the First Doctor television story The Chase released in 1966. Ten years later, the first original Doctor Who audio was released on LP record; Doctor Who and the Pescatons featuring the Fourth Doctor. The first commercially available audiobook was an abridged reading of the Fourth Doctor story State of Decay in 1981. In 1988, during a hiatus in the television show, Slipback, the first radio drama, was transmitted.
Since 1999, Big Finish Productions has released several different series of Doctor Who audios on CD. The earliest of these featured the Fifth, Sixth and Seventh Doctors, with Paul McGann's Eighth Doctor joining the line in 2001. Tom Baker's Fourth Doctor began appearing for Big Finish in 2012. Along with the main range, adventures of the First, Second and Third Doctors have been produced in both limited cast and full cast formats, as well as audiobooks. The 2013 series Destiny of the Doctor, produced as part of the series' 50th-anniversary celebrations, marked the first time Big Finish created stories (in this case audiobooks) featuring the Doctors from the revived show. Along with this, in May 2016, the Tenth Doctor, David Tennant, appeared alongside Catherine Tate in a collection of three audio adventures, before receiving his own range. In 2020 Big Finish revealed that The Monthly Adventures would come to an end in favor of individual box sets.
In 2022, BBC Sounds began airing Doctor Who: Redacted, a podcast written by Juno Dawson and starring Charlie Craggs and Jodie Whittaker. The podcast focuses on a trio of friends who host a paranormal conspiracy podcast, "The Blue Box Files", and end up getting involved in much more than they expected. The podcast was later renewed for a second series.
Books
List of Doctor Who novelisations|List of Doctor Who anthologies (2009–present)List of Doctor Who anthologies (2009–present)|Eighth Doctor AdventuresEighth Doctor Adventures|Past Doctor AdventuresPast Doctor Adventures|New Series AdventuresNew Series Adventures}}
Doctor Who books have been published from the mid-sixties through to the present day. From 1965 to 1991 the books published were primarily novelised adaptations of broadcast episodes; beginning in 1991 an extensive line of original fiction was launched, the Virgin New Adventures and Virgin Missing Adventures. Since the relaunch of the programme in 2005, a new range of novels has been published by BBC Books. Numerous non-fiction books about the series, including guidebooks and critical studies, have also been published, and a dedicated Doctor Who Magazine (DWM) with newsstand circulation has been published regularly since 1979: DWM is recognised by Guinness World Records as the longest running TV tie-in magazine, celebrating 40 years of continuous publication on 11 October 2019. This is published by Panini, as is the Doctor Who Adventures magazine for younger fans.Video games
List of Doctor Who video games}}
Numerous Doctor Who video games have been created from the mid-80s through to the present day. A Doctor Who game was planned for the Sega Mega Drive but never released. One of the recent ones is a match-3 game released in November 2013 for iOS, Android, Amazon App Store and Facebook called Doctor Who: Legacy. It has been constantly updated since its release and features all the Doctors as playable characters as well as over 100 companions.
Another video game instalment is Lego Dimensions – in which Doctor Who is one of the many "Level Packs" in the game. The pack contains the Twelfth Doctor (who can reincarnate into the others), K9, the TARDIS and a Victorian London adventure level area. The game and pack released in November 2015.
Doctor Who: Battle of Time was a digital collectible card game developed by Bandai Namco Entertainment and released for iOS and Android. It was soft-launched on 30 May 2018 in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Thailand, but was shut down on 26 November of that same year.
Doctor Who Infinity was released on Steam on 7 August 2018. It was nominated for "Best Start-up" at The Independent Game Developers' Association Awards 2018.
Chronology and canonicity
Since the creation of the Doctor Who character by BBC Television in the early 1960s, a myriad of stories have been published about Doctor Who, in different media: apart from the actual television episodes that continue to be produced by the BBC, there have also been novels, comics, short stories, audio books, radio plays, interactive video games, game books, webcasts, DVD extras, and stage performances. The BBC takes no position on the canonicity of any of such stories, and producers of the show have expressed distaste for the idea of canonicity.Awards
List of awards and nominations received by Doctor Who}}
The show has received recognition as one of Britain's finest television programmes, winning the 2006 British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Series and five consecutive (2005–2010) awards at the National Television Awards during Russell T Davies' tenure as executive producer. In 2011, Matt Smith became the first Doctor to be nominated for a BAFTA Television Award for Best Actor, and in 2016, Michelle Gomez became the first woman to receive a BAFTA nomination for the series, getting a Best Supporting Actress nomination for her work as Missy.
, Jenna-Louise Coleman and Steven Moffat accepting a Peabody Award for Doctor Who in 2013]]
In 2013, the Peabody Awards honoured Doctor Who with an Institutional Peabody "for evolving with technology and the times like nothing else in the known television universe." The programme is listed in Guinness World Records as the longest-running science-fiction television show in the world, as the "most successful" science-fiction series of all time—based on its overall broadcast ratings, DVD and book sales, and iTunes traffic
In 1975, Season 11 of the series won a Writers' Guild of Great Britain award for Best Writing in a Children's Serial. In 1996, BBC television held the "Auntie Awards" as the culmination of their "TV60" series, celebrating 60 years of BBC television broadcasting, where Doctor Who was voted as the "Best Popular Drama" the corporation had ever produced, ahead of such ratings heavyweights as EastEnders and Casualty. In 2000, Doctor Who was ranked third in a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes of the 20th century, produced by the British Film Institute and voted on by industry professionals. In 2005, the series came first in a survey by SFX magazine of "The Greatest UK Science Fiction and Fantasy Television Series Ever". In Channel 4's 2001 list of the 100 Greatest Kids' TV shows, Doctor Who was placed at number nine. In 2004 and 2007, Doctor Who was ranked number 18 and number 22 on TV Guide's Top Cult Shows Ever. In 2013, TV Guide ranked it as the sixth-best sci-fi show.
The revived series has received recognition from critics and the public, across various awards ceremonies. It won five BAFTA TV Awards, including Best Drama Series, the highest-profile and most prestigious British television award for which the series has ever been nominated. It was very popular at the BAFTA Cymru Awards, with 25 wins overall including Best Drama Series (twice), Best Screenplay/Screenwriter (thrice) and Best Actor. It was also nominated for 7 Saturn Awards, winning the only Best International Series in the ceremony's history. In 2009, Doctor Who was voted the 3rd greatest show of the 2000s by Channel 4, behind Top Gear and The Apprentice. The episode "Vincent and the Doctor" was shortlisted for a Mind Award at the 2010 Mind Mental Health Media Awards for its "touching" portrayal of Vincent van Gogh.
It has won the Short Form of the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, the oldest science fiction/fantasy award for films and series, six times since 2006. The winning episodes were "The Empty Child"/"The Doctor Dances" (2006), "The Girl in the Fireplace" (2007), "Blink" (2008), "The Waters of Mars" (2010), "The Pandorica Opens"/"The Big Bang" (2011), and "The Doctor's Wife" (2012). The 2016 Christmas special "The Return of Doctor Mysterio" was also a finalist for the 2017 Hugo Awards. Doctor Who star Matt Smith won Best Actor in the 2012 National Television awards alongside Karen Gillan, who won Best Actress.
As a British series, the majority of its nominations and awards have been for national competitions such as the BAFTAs, but it has occasionally received nominations in mainstream American awards, most notably a nomination for "Favorite Sci-Fi Show" in the 2008 People's Choice Awards, and the series has been nominated multiple times in the Spike Scream Awards, with Smith winning Best Science Fiction Actor in 2011. The Canadian Constellation Awards have also recognised the series. In 2019, Doctor Who was inducted into the Science Fiction Hall of Fame based in Seattle, Washington.
See also
* Time travel in fiction
* List of Welsh television series
Notes
References
Citations
Cited texts
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
* Matt Hills. Triumph of a Time Lord: Regenerating "Doctor Who" in the Twenty-First Century (I. B. Tauris, 2010). 261 pages. Discusses the revival of the BBC's Doctor Who in 2005 after it had been off the air as a regular series for more than 15 years; topics include the role of "fandom" in the sci-fi programme's return, and notions of "cult" and "mainstream" in television.
Scholarly views
*
*
* Charles, Alec. "War Without End?: Utopia, the Family, and the Post-9/11 World in Russell T. Davies's Doctor Who. Science Fiction Studies (2008): 450–465.
* Charles, Alec. 2011. "[http://muse.jhu.edu/article/427006/pdf The crack of doom: The uncanny echoes of Steven Moffat's Doctor Who]". Science Fiction Film and Television; Vol. 4, Issue 1, Spring 2011. Liverpool University Press. This analysis is framed specifically by the Freudian notion of the uncanny, and suggests that Moffat's work on Doctor Who confronts unconscious perceptions, repressed fears and death itself through storytelling techniques which attempt to connect directly with the audience by deconstructing the distance between material reality and the fantasy space of the series.
* Fisher, R. Michael, and Barbara Bickel. "The Mystery of Dr. Who? On A Road Less Traveled in Art Education". Journal of Social Theory in Art Education 26.1 (2006): 28–57.
* Fiske, John. "Popularity and ideology: A structuralist reading of Dr. Who". Interpreting television: Current research perspectives (1984): 165–198.
* McCormack, Una (2011). "He's Not the Messiah: Undermining Political and Religious Authority in New Doctor Who". In Bradshaw, S., Anthony Keen and Graham Sleight (eds.), The Unsilent Library: Essays on the Russell T. Davies Era of the New Doctor Who. The Science Fiction Foundation.
* Orthia, Lindy A. "Antirationalist critique or fifth column of scientism? Challenges from Doctor Who to the mad scientist trope". Public Understanding of Science 20.4 (2011): 525–542.
* Perryman, Neil. "Doctor Who and the Convergence of Media: A Case Study in Transmedia Storytelling". Convergence 14.1 (2008): 21–39.
External links
Official websites
*
*
*
* [http://www.doctorwho.tv/ Doctor Who] at BBC Worldwide
* Archived websites: [https://www.bbc.co.uk/doctorwho/classic/ 1963–1996], [https://www.bbc.co.uk/doctorwho/archive.shtml 2005–2007], [https://www.bbc.co.uk/doctorwho/s4/ 2008]
* [https://www.bbcstudios.com/case-studies/doctor-who/ Production website]
Reference websites
* [http://drwhoguide.com/who.htm Doctor Who Reference Guide] – synopses of all media based on the series (1963–2012)
* Doctor Who at IMDb: [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0056751/ 1963], [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0116118/ 1996], [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0436992/ 2005], [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt31433814/ 2023]
*
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}}
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Democritus
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| birth_place = Abdera, Thrace
| death_date = (aged approximately 90)
| era = Pre-Socratic philosophy
| region = Western philosophy
| school_tradition = Atomism
| main_interests
| notable_ideas
}}
| influences =
| influenced =
}}
Democritus (, ; , Dēmókritos, meaning "chosen of the people"; – ) was an Ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher from Abdera, primarily remembered today for his formulation of an atomic theory of the universe. Democritus wrote extensively on a wide variety of topics.
None of Democritus' original work has survived, except through second-hand references. Many of these references come from Aristotle, who viewed him as an important rival in the field of natural philosophy. He was known in antiquity as the ‘laughing philosopher’ because of his emphasis on the value of cheerfulness.LifeDemocritus was born in Abdera, on the coast of Thrace. He was a polymath and prolific writer, producing nearly eighty treatises on subjects such as poetry, harmony, military tactics, and Babylonian theology. He traveled extensively, visiting Egypt and Persia, but was not particularly impressed by these countries. He once remarked that he would rather uncover a single scientific explanation than become the king of Persia. Democritus was a student of Leucippus. Early sources such as Aristotle and Theophrastus credit Leucippus with creating atomism and sharing its ideas with Democritus, but later sources credit only Democritus, making it hard to distinguish their individual contributions.
Atomic hypothesis
We have various quotes from Democritus on atoms, one of them being:
}}
He concluded that divisibility of matter comes to an end, and the smallest possible fragments must be bodies with sizes and shapes, although the exact argument for this conclusion of his is not known. The smallest and indivisible bodies he called "atoms". He also wrote a treatise on the purpose of life and the nature of happiness. He held that "happiness was not to be found in riches but in the goods of the soul and one should not take pleasure in mortal things". Another saying that is often attributed to him is "The hopes of the educated were better than the riches of the ignorant". He also stated that "the cause of sin is ignorance of what is better", which become a central notion later in the Socratic moral thought. Another idea he propounded which was later echoed in the Socratic moral thought was the maxim that "you are better off being wronged than doing wrong".AestheticsLater Greek historians consider Democritus to have established aesthetics as a subject of investigation and study, as he wrote theoretically on poetry and fine art long before authors such as Aristotle. Specifically, Thrasyllus identified six works in the philosopher's oeuvre which had belonged to aesthetics as a discipline, but only fragments of the relevant works are extant; hence of all Democritus writings on these matters, only a small percentage of his thoughts and ideas can be known.
Works
Diogenes Laertius attributes several works to Democritus, but none of them have survived in a complete form.
; Ethics: Pythagoras, On the Disposition of the Wise Man, On the Things in Hades, Tritogenia, On Manliness or On Virtue, The Horn of Amaltheia, On Contentment, Ethical Commentaries
; Natural science: The Great World-System, Cosmography, On the Planets, On Nature, On the Nature of Man or On Flesh (two books), On the Mind, On the Senses, On Flavours, On Colours, On Different Shapes, On Changing Shape, Buttresses, On Images, On Logic (three books)
; Nature: Heavenly Causes, Atmospheric Causes, Terrestrial Causes, Causes Concerned with Fire and Things in Fire, Causes Concerned with Sounds, Causes Concerned with Seeds and Plants and Fruits, Causes Concerned with Animals (three books), Miscellaneous Causes, On Magnets
; Mathematics: On Different Angles or On contact of Circles and Spheres, On Geometry, Geometry, Numbers, On Irrational Lines and Solids (two books), Planispheres, On the Great Year or Astronomy (a calendar) Contest of the Waterclock, Description of the Heavens, Geography, Description of the Poles, Description of Rays of Light,
; Literature: On the Rhythms and Harmony, On Poetry, On the Beauty of Verses, On Euphonious and Harsh-sounding Letters, On Homer, On Song, On Verbs, Names
; Technical works: Prognosis, On Diet, Medical Judgment, Causes Concerning Appropriate and Inappropriate Occasions, On Farming, On Painting, Tactics, Fighting in Armor
; Commentaries: On the Sacred Writings of Babylon, On Those in Meroe, Circumnavigation of the Ocean, On History, Chaldaean Account, Phrygian Account, On Fever and Coughing Sicknesses, Legal Causes, Problems
A collections of sayings credited to Democritus have been preserved by Stobaeus, as well as a collection of sayings ascribed to Democrates which some scholars including Diels and Kranz have also ascribed to Democritus.
Legacy
Diogenes Laertius claims that Plato disliked Democritus so much that he wished to have all of his books burned. He was nevertheless well known to his fellow northern-born philosopher Aristotle, and was the teacher of Protagoras.
Democritus is evoked by English writer Samuel Johnson in his poem, The Vanity of Human Wishes (1749), ll. 49–68, and summoned to "arise on earth, /With chearful wisdom and instructive mirth, /See motley life in modern trappings dress'd, /And feed with varied fools th'eternal jest." <!--- Epicurus badly needs to be added --->
<gallery>
File:Bust of Democritus.jpg|Portrait of a philosopher, possibly Democritus. Villa of the Papyri, Herculaneum.
File:Vincent, François-André - Democritus among the Abderites.jpg|Democritus among the Abderites.
File:Charles-Antoine Coypel - The Cheerful Democritus.jpg|Charles-Antoine Coypel, Cheerful Democritus, 1746.
File:Greece donates Democritus Bust (01613420) (50691165646).jpg|2020 bust of Democritus presented to the International Atomic Energy Agency by Greece.
</gallery>
See also
* Atom
* John Dalton
* Democritus University of Thrace
* Kaṇāda
* Mochus
* National Centre of Scientific Research "DEMOKRITOS"
* Pseudo-Democritus
* Vaisheshika
Notes
Citations
References
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Ancient testimony
* <cite id="DS">Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC). Bibliotheca historica.</cite>
*
* <cite id="Petronius">Petronius (late 1st century AD). Satyricon. Trans. William Arrowsmith. New York: A Meridian Book, 1987.</cite>
* <cite id"Sextus">Sextus Empiricus (). Adversus Mathematicos.</cite> Translations * <cite id"Fr">Bakalis, Nikolaos (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics: Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing, .</cite>
* Freeman, Kathleen (2008). Ancilla to the Pre-Socratic Philosophers: A Complete Translation of the Fragments in Diels, Forgotten Books, .
Further reading
* Bailey, C. (1928). The Greek Atomists and Epicurus. Oxford.
* Barnes, Jonathan (1982). The Presocratic Philosophers, Routledge Revised Edition.
*
*
* Guthrie, W. K. (1979) A History of Greek Philosophy – The Presocratic tradition from Parmenides to Democritus, Cambridge University Press.
* Kirk, G. S., J. E. Raven and M. Schofield (1983). The Presocratic Philosophers, Cambridge University Press, 2nd edition.
*
*
*
External links
*
*
*
*
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Category:Ancient Greek metaphysicians
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Category:4th-century BC mathematicians
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Disc golf
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Disc golf, also known as frisbee golf, is a flying disc sport in which players throw a disc at a target, using rules similar to golf.
The sport is usually played on a course with 9 or 18 holes, each consisting of a teeing area and target (basket). Players complete a hole by throwing a disc from a tee pad or tee area toward a basket, throwing again from where the previous throw came to rest, until the disc comes to rest in the designated basket. Disc golf targets are composed of a metal basket supported by a center pole, with chains hanging from an upper band. They are designed to catch the incoming discs, which then fall into the basket.
Usually, the number of throws a player uses to reach each basket is tallied (most often in relation to par), and players seek to complete each hole in the lowest number of total throws. Par is considered to be the number of strokes a skilled player is expected to make for a given hole or a group of holes (usually 9 or 18).
The game is played in about 40 countries, and as of 2023, there are }}}} active members of the Professional Disc Golf Association (PDGA) worldwide. According to the UDisc course directory, there are over 15,000 disc golf courses, with roughly 90% being accessible for free. Origin and early history
Modern disc golf started in the early 1960s, but there is debate over who came up with the idea first. The consensus is that multiple groups of people played independently throughout the 1960s. Students at Rice University in Houston, Texas, for example, held tournaments with trees as targets as early as 1964, and in the early 1960s, players in Pendleton King Park in Augusta, Georgia, would toss Frisbees into 50-gallon barrel trash cans designated as targets. In 1968 Frisbee Golf was also played in Alameda Park in Santa Barbara, California, by teenagers in the Anacapa and Sola street areas. Gazebos, water fountains, lamp posts, and trees were all part of the course. This took place for several years and an Alameda Park collectors edition disc still exists, though rare, as few were made. Clifford Towne from this group went on to hold a National Time Aloft record.
1970s
Ed Headrick, also known as "Steady" Ed Headrick, (June 28, 1924 – August 12, 2002) was an American toy inventor. He is most well known as the father of both the modern-day Frisbee and of the sport and game of disc golf.
In 1975, Headrick's tenure at Wham-O where he helped redesign the flying disc known as the frisbee ended, and ties between Headrick and Wham-O eventually split. Headrick left the company to start out on his own to focus all his efforts on his new interest, which he coined and trademarked "Disc Golf".
In 1976, "Steady" Ed Headrick and his son Ken Headrick started the first disc golf company, the Disc Golf Association (DGA). The purpose of DGA was to manufacture discs and baskets and to formalize the sport. The first disc golf target was Ed's pole hole design which consisted of a pole sticking out of the ground. Courses Most disc golf courses have 9 or 18 holes, and exceptions most often have holes in multiples of three. Courses with 6, 10, 12, 21, 24 or 27 holes are not uncommon. The PDGA recommends that courses average per hole, with holes no shorter than . The longest holes in the world measure more than long. Course designers use trees, bushes, elevation changes, water hazards, and distance variation, along with out-of-bounds zones and mandatory flight paths (often referred to as "Mandos") to make each hole challenging and unique. Many courses include multiple tee positions or multiple target positions to cater to players of different ability levels.
List by country
Three countries account for 85% of all disc golf courses worldwide: the United States (75%), Finland (7%) and Canada (3%). Other notable countries include Sweden and Estonia, which has the highest density of disc golf courses per km<sup>2</sup> of dry land of any country and the second-highest number of courses per capita. Iceland and Finland have 150 and 111 courses per million inhabitants, respectively. Outside the North American and European continents, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and South Korea have the most courses. There are disc golf courses on every continent, including 24 in Latin America, 8 in Africa, and one in Antarctica. Åland has been defined as the world's largest single disc golf park, with one course in each of the 16 municipalities of Åland.
<big><big>*</big></big> indicates "Disc golf in COUNTRY or TERRITORY" links.
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align: right; font-size: 0.90em;"
!Country
!Disc golf courses
!colspan="2"|as % of world total
!colspan="2"|per 1M inhabitants
!colspan="2"|per 10,000 km<sup>2</sup> of dry land<!--see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_area -->
!Distribution # Holes (18+ 9+ <9)
|-
|
|<section beginUSA/>7,379<section endUSA/>
||R}}/|R}}*100 round 1}}|%|2}}
||R}}/|R}}*1000000 round 1}} ||1}}
||R}}/*10000 round 1}} ||4}}
|
|-
|
|<section beginFIN/>1000<section endFIN/>
||R}}/|R}}*100 round 1}}|%|2}}
|/|R}}*1000000 round 1}} ||1}}
|/*10000 round 1}} ||4}}
|
|-
|
|<section beginCAN/>360<section endCAN/>
||R}}/|R}}*100 round 1}}|%|2}}
|/|R}}*1000000 round 1}} ||1}}
|/*10000 round 1}} ||4}}
|
|-
|
|<section beginSWE/>242<section endSWE/>
||R}}/|R}}*100 round 1}}|%|2}}
|/|R}}*1000000 round 1}} ||1}}
|/*10000 round 1}} ||4}}
|
|-
|
|<section beginEST/>150<section endEST/>
||R}}/|R}}*100 round 1}}|%|2}}
|/|R}}*1000000 round 1}} ||1}}
|/*10000 round 1}} ||4}}
|
|-
|
|<section beginDEU/>129<section endDEU/>
||R}}/|R}}*100 round 1}}|%|2}}
|/|R}}*1000000 round 1}} ||1}}
|/*10000 round 1}} ||4}}
|
|-
|
|<section beginNOR/>124<section endNOR/>
||R}}/|R}}*100 round 1}}|%|2}}
|/|R}}*1000000 round 1}} ||1}}
|/*10000 round 1}} ||4}}
|
|-
|
|<section beginUK/>107<section endUK/>
||R}}/|R}}*100 round 1}}|%|2}}
|/|R}}*1000000 round 1}} ||1}}
|/*10000 round 1}} ||4}}
|
|-
|
|<section beginCZE/>99<section endCZE/>
||R}}/|R}}*100 round 1}}|%|2}}
|/|R}}*1000000 round 1}} ||1}}
|/*10000 round 1}} ||4}}
|
|-
|
|<section beginFRA/>97<section endFRA/>
||R}}/|R}}*100 round 1}}|%|2}}
|/|R}}*1000000 round 1}} ||1}}
|/*10000 round 1}} ||4}}
|
|-
|
|<section beginAUS/>89<section endAUS/>
||R}}/|R}}*100 round 1}}|%|2}}
|/|R}}*1000000 round 1}} ||1}}
|/*10000 round 1}} ||4}}
|
|-
|
|<section beginDNK/>76<section endDNK/>
||R}}/|R}}*100 round 1}}|%|2}}
|/|R}}*1000000 round 1}} ||1}}
|/*10000 round 1}} ||4}}
|
|-
|
|<section beginJPN/>75<section endJPN/>
||R}}/|R}}*100 round 1}}|%|2}}
|/|R}}*1000000 round 1}} ||1}}
|/*10000 round 1}} ||4}}
|
|-
|
|<section beginISL/>62<section endISL/>
||R}}/|R}}*100 round 1}}|%|2}}
|/|R}}*1000000 round 1}} ||1}}
|/*10000 round 1}} ||4}}
|
|-
|
|<section beginNZL/>49<section endNZL/>
||R}}/|R}}*100 round 1}}|%|2}}
|/|R}}*1000000 round 1}} ||1}}
|/*10000 round 1}} ||4}}
|
|-
|
|<section beginCHE/>36<section endCHE/>
||R}}/|R}}*100 round 1}}|%|2}}
|/|R}}*1000000 round 1}} ||1}}
|/*10000 round 1}} ||4}}
|
|-
|
|<section beginAUT/>21<section endAUT/>
||R}}/|R}}*100 round 1}}|%|2}}
|/|R}}*1000000 round 1}} ||1}}
|/*10000 round 1}} ||4}}
|
|-
|
|<section beginNLD/>21<section endNLD/>
||R}}/|R}}*100 round 1}}|%|2}}
|/|R}}*1000000 round 1}} ||1}}
|/*10000 round 1}} ||4}}
|
|-
|
|<section beginESP/>17<section endESP/>
||R}}/|R}}*100 round 1}}|%|2}}
|/|R}}*1000000 round 1}} ||1}}
|/*10000 round 1}} ||4}}
|
|-
|
|<section beginKOR/>16<section endKOR/>
||R}}/|R}}*100 round 1}}|%|2}}
|/|R}}*1000000 round 1}} ||1}}
|/*10000 round 1}} ||4}}
|
|-
|
|<section beginPOL/>12<section endPOL/>
||R}}/|R}}*100 round 1}}|%|2}}
|/|R}}*1000000 round 1}} ||1}}
|/*10000 round 1}} ||4}}
|
|-
|
|<section beginSVK/>12<section endSVK/>
||R}}/|R}}*100 round 1}}|%|2}}
|/|R}}*1000000 round 1}} ||1}}
|/*10000 round 1}} ||4}}
|
|-
|Rest of the world
|<section beginWorldRest/>|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}}}<section endWorldRest/>
||R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}}-|R}})/|R}}*100 round 1}}|%|2}}
|-
!Total
!style"text-align:right;"|<section beginWorldTotal/>10,103<section end=WorldTotal/>
!colspan"7" style"text-align:left;"|Source: https://www.pdga.com/course-directory/advanced and https://frisbeegolfradat.fi/2024/06/18/suomalaisten-suosikkilaji-jatkaa-kasvuaan-suomessa-on-nyt-tuhat-frisbeegolfrataa/ (in Finnish)
|}
Tees
A disc golf tee (commonly referred to as a tee pad, tee box or the box) is the starting position of a hole. The PDGA recommends that the tee area be no smaller than 1.2 meters wide by 3 meters long, allowing ample space to run up and release the disc. There are many different brands of baskets made by numerous manufacturers. Gameplay
]]
The sport of disc golf is set up similar to a game of golf. A "round" is played on a disc golf course consisting of a number of "holes", usually 9 or 18. Each hole includes a tee position for starting play and a disc golf target some distance away, often with obstacles such as trees, hills or bodies of water in between. Players begin by throwing a disc from the tee, without crossing over the front of the tee prior to releasing the disc when throwing. This could lead to a fault similar to a bowling foot fault in cricket. Players then navigate the hole by picking up the disc where it comes to rest and throwing again until they reach the target. The object of the game is to get through the course with the lowest number of total throws. Play is usually in groups of five or fewer, with each player taking turn at the tee box, then progressing with the player furthest from the hole throwing first, while the other players stand aside.
Each course is unique, and so requires a different combination of throws to complete, with the best players aiming to shape the flight of the disc to account for distance, terrain, obstacles and weather. In order to facilitate making different shots, players carry a variety of discs with different flight characteristics, choosing an appropriate disc for each throw. Some players also carry a mini marker disc, used to accurately mark the throwing position before each throw. Use of mini marker discs is particularly prevalent in formal competitive play.
Many courses include out-of-bounds areas, commonly called "OB zones" or just "OB". If the disc lands in these areas, the player is usually required to add a penalty throw onto their score and continue play from near where the disc entered the out-of-bounds zone. Some courses include out-of-bounds areas with special rules requiring the player to resume play from a specified area called a drop zone or requiring the player to restart the hole from the tee. Some courses also include Mandatories (also called "Mandos") which require the path of the disc to be above, below or to one side of a specific line indicated by a sign.
By tradition, players throw from the tee box in the order of their score on the previous hole, with the lowest scorer throwing first. Most players also follow a loose code of courtesy while playing, which includes norms such as standing out of the sight line of the throwing player and avoiding making distracting noises. Because a thrown disc could injure someone, the Professional Disc Golf Association recommends that players "Never throw into a blind area or when spectators, pedestrians or facility users are within range."
Formal competitive play is governed by the PDGA Official Rules of Disc Golf and the PDGA Competition Manual for Disc Golf events.
Disc types
Disc golf discs are smaller than Ultimate flying discs or general-purpose recreational frisbees. They typically measure in diameter and weigh . All PDGA-approved discs measure in diameter and weigh no more than . Discs used for disc golf are designed and shaped for control, speed, and accuracy, while general-purpose flying discs, such as those used for playing guts or ultimate, have a more traditional shape, similar to a catch disc. There is a wide variety of discs used in disc golf and they are generally divided into three categories: drivers, mid-range discs, and putters.
Driver
Drivers are recognized by their sharp, beveled edge and have most of their mass concentrated on the outer rim of the disc rather than distributed equally throughout. They are optimized for aerodynamics and designed to travel maximum distances at high speeds. They are typically thrown by experienced players during tee-off and other long distance fairway throws.
Some disc brands further sub-divide their drivers into different categories. For example, Innova has Distance Drivers and Fairway Drivers, with a fairway driver being somewhere between a distance driver and a mid-range disc. Discraft has three categories of drivers: Long Drivers, Extra Long Drivers, and Maximum Distance Drivers. Another type of driver, used less frequently, is a roller. As the name indicates, it has an edge designed to roll rather than fly. (Although any disc can be used for a roller, some behave quite differently than others.)
The world record distance for a golf disc was once , thrown by Simon Lizotte on October 25, 2014. That record was held for approximately 17 months until David Wiggins Jr. broke it with a distance of on March 28, 2016. Mid-range Mid-range discs feature a dull, beveled edge and a moderate rim width. They offer more control than drivers, but they have a smaller range. Mid-range discs are typically used as approach discs. Beginner players will often use mid-ranges instead of drivers at tee-off, as they require less strength and technique to fly straight than higher speed drivers. Putter Putters are designed to fly straight, predictably, and very slowly compared to mid-range discs and drivers. They are typically used for tight, controlled shots that are close to the basket, although some players use them for short drives where trees or other obstacles come into play. Additionally, higher speed discs will not fly properly without a fast enough release snap, so a putter or mid-range with lower snap requirements is more forgiving and will behave in a more regular way. Professional players often carry multiple putters with varying flight characteristics. Stability Stability is the measurement of a disc's tendency to bank laterally during its flight. A disc that is over-stable will tend to track left (for a right-handed, backhand throw), whereas a disc that is under-stable will tend to track right (also for a right-handed, backhand throw). The stability rating of the discs differs depending on the manufacturer of the disc. Innova Discs rate stability as "turn" and "fade". "Turn" references how the disc will fly at high speed during the beginning and middle of its flight, and is rated on a scale of +1 to −5, where +1 Plastics There are dozens of different types of plastic used for making discs by the various disc manufacturers. The type of plastic affects the feel of the disc's grip as well as its durability, which in turn affects its flight pattern as the disc becomes worn. Stamps Stamps refer to the artwork or lettering that appears on a disc. Stamps can appear on the top or the bottom of a disc. Stamps are applied by disc manufacturers by using a hot stamp machine, usually with foil. Stamps not only serve a creative design purpose, but are also used to identify different disc molds. Throwing styles
While there are many different grips and styles to throwing the disc, there are two basic throwing techniques: backhand and forehand (or sidearm). These techniques vary in effectiveness under different circumstances. Their understanding and mastery can greatly improve a player's game and offer diverse options in maneuvering the disc to the basket with greater efficacy. Many players use what is referred to as a run-up during their drive. This is practiced to build more forward disc momentum and distance. Throwing styles vary from player to player, and there is no standard throwing style.
All discs when thrown will naturally fall to a certain direction determined by the rotation direction of the disc when released. This direction is termed hyzer, the natural fall of the disc, or anhyzer, making the disc fall against its natural flight pattern. For a right-handed backhand throw (RHBH), the disc will naturally fall to the left. For a right-handed forehand throw (RHFH), the disc will naturally fall to the right. For a left-handed, backhand throw (LHBH), the disc will naturally fall to the right. For a left-handed, forehand throw (LHFH), the disc will naturally fall to the left.
Backhand
To perform this throw, the disc is rapidly drawn from across the front of the body, and released towards a forward aimpoint. Due to the high level of potential spin generated with this technique, it often results in greater distance than with a forehand throw. Power is created by initiating momentum from the feet and allow it to travel up the body, hips, and shoulders, culminating in the transfer of energy to the disc.
Forehand
The forehand (sidearm) throw is performed by drawing the disc from behind and partially across the front of the body: similar to a sidearm throw in baseball. The term sidearm actually predates the term forehand, which is seemingly in use today as a simpler means to communicate the technique, equating to a tennis forehand. Alternative throws
The following examples of throws may be used to better deliver a disc where the former common two throws would be impeded by obstacles such as bushes, trees, boulders, or artificial structures.
Common alternative styles
*The Hatchet (or Tomahawk). Gripped similarly to the sidearm toss but thrown with an overhand motion; the disc orientation is nearly perpendicular to the ground over much of the flight.
*The Thumber (or U.D.). Thrown in an overhand manner but with thumb held on the disc's underside.
*The Roller. Thrown either backhand or forehand, the disc will predominately be in contact with the ground. The disc remains in motion while travelling on its edge at a slight angle and can travel exceedingly far in ideal situations. Once perfected, the roller is an invaluably versatile tool in the golfer's arsenal.
*The Turbo-Putt Thrown with a putter when the player holds the disc upright, supported in the middle by the thumb, with the finger tips outside of the edge, somewhat like a waiter holding a platter. The player stands with the leg opposite from the throwing arm forward, reaches back, and then extends their arm towards the basket, throwing the disc in a motion similar to that of throwing a dart. Ideally the thrower's wrist does not rotate; the act of following through will give the disc its spin. The Turbo-Putt is a throw known for its accuracy, but it has extremely limited range.
Other alternative styles
*The Baseball or Grenade. Thrown as in the backhand, but with the disc upside-down. This shot is used often to get up and down on a short shot where there is danger of a shot rolling away or going out of bounds if thrown too far. Primarily used on downhill shots but can be used to go up and over. Also due to the quick turn and backspin of this shot, it is sometimes used to get out of the woods.
*The Overhand wrist flip (or chicken-wing [ambiguous origin] ). This is a very difficult and stylized throw with which accomplished free-stylers and classic ultimate players are familiar; it is less used in disc golf. It is thrown in the same manner as the "baseball" but drawn on the sidearm side of the body, and by inverting the arm and disc. Using the thumb as the power finger, the disc is drawn from the thigh area rearwards and up from behind the body to over the shoulder, releasing toward a forward aimpoint. The disc flies in a conventional flight pattern. To the untrained eye, this appears to be an ungainly throw. It is, however, elegant and accurate. The term "overhand wristflip" has been in use since at least circa 1970. Scoring
Stroke play is the most common scoring method used in the sport but there are many other forms. These include match play, skins, speed golf and captain's choice, which in disc golf is referred to as "doubles" (not to be confused with partner or team play).
Regardless of which form of play the participants choose, the main objectives of disc golf are conceptually the same as traditional golf in the sense that players follow the same scorekeeping technique.
Scoring terms for a single hole:
* Condor – Where a player is four throws under par, or "-4".
* Albatross (or double-eagle) – Where a player is three throws under par, or "-3".
* Eagle (or double-birdie) – Where a player is two throws under par, or "-2".
* Birdie – Where a player is one throw under par, or "-1".
* Par – Where a player has thrown par, "E" or "0".
* Bogey – Where a player is one throw over par, or "+1".
* Double Bogey – Where a player is two throws over par, or "+2".
* Triple Bogey – Where a player is three throws over par, or "+3".
Doubles play is a unique style of play that many local courses offer on a weekly basis. In this format, teams of two golfers are determined. Sometimes this is done by random draw, and other times it is a pro-am format. On the course, it is a "best-disc" scramble, meaning both players throw their tee shot and then decide which lie they would like to play. Both players then play from the same lie, again choosing which lie is preferable. The World Amateur Doubles Format includes best shot, alternate shot, best score (players play singles and take the best result from the hole) and worst shot (both players must sink the putt).
Tournaments
teeing off at hole 5 of the 2008 USDGC]]
Tournaments are held nationwide and yearlong in the United States. Sanctioned Tournament play is communicated through the Professional Disc Golf Association Membership. The PDGA provides international, professional, and amateur disc golf tournaments as well as communicates event results, opinions and other information beneficial to the sport via electronic and printed media. In 1982 the PDGA hosted the first World Championship Tournament. Since then, the World Championships have been held in 17 different American states, as well as Toronto, Ontario. One of the largest disc golf tournaments is the United States Disc Golf Championship, held in October in Rock Hill, South Carolina.
As a show of the year-round sustainability of the sport, annual winter tournaments, known as Ice Bowls, are held at courses around the world. Using the motto "No Wimps, No Whiners", Ice Bowls collectively create sport awareness and are considered charity events that typically benefit a local food bank. The official website reports that the 2010 Ice Bowls raised over $250,000 and donated over 67,000 pounds of food in the 222 tournaments for the year. Other charitable tournaments include the annual St. Jude Disc Golf Tournament which started in 2017 and has raised over $100,000 for St. Jude Children's Research Hospital.
Popularity
A website that tracks courses worldwide along with their opening dates has shown a rapid increase in installed permanent courses with an average of more than 400 new courses added each year between 2007 and 2017. The site lists 9744 courses worldwide .
During the COVID-19 pandemic, as shutdowns and social distancing forced people to avoid indoor gatherings, disc golf experienced significant growth.
Although most players play on a casual, amateur level, the professional disc golf scene is also growing rapidly, with the top professionals playing full-time and earning their livings through tournament winnings and sponsorship from equipment manufacturers. Online viewership of major tournaments and events has increased rapidly, with coverage of the 2019 world championship achieving more than 3 million views on YouTube, and a clip of an albatross by professional Philo Brathwaite gaining more than 1.4 million views.
Post-round coverage
Increased popularity of disc golf can be largely attributed to increased coverage of pro tour events, available for free on YouTube. Jomez Productions, Gatekeeper Media, and Go Throw (formerly GKPro) all film events the day of, and then air them the morning after. Often, these videos can have a reach of as many as 200,000 viewers. Jomez's coverage of the final round of the 2019 World Championships has more than 5.5 million YouTube views. In the 2020 season, Jomez Productions and the Disc Golf Pro Tour reached an agreement with CBS Sports and ESPN 2 to air post production coverage of a tournament on each network. The Dynamic Discs Open was shown on CBS Sports, and the Disc Golf Pro Tour championship was re-aired on ESPN2 November 24, 2020. With 225,000 viewers, it was the most-watched show on the channel that day. Women in disc golf While there are more male than female players, the Women's Disc Golf Association exists to encourage female players and arrange women's tournaments. A PDGA survey from 2020 states that out of its 71,016 active members, 4,752 are female.
Several companies have started programs and websites to help attract women to the sport. The PDGA Women's Committee is "Dedicated to Attract, Encourage, and Retain Female Participation in Organized Disc Golf Events". The PDGA Women's Committee set historical records on 12 May 2012 by running the Inaugural Women's Global Event that attracted 636 female players in 24 states and 4 countries. The Women's Global Event was expected to take place every two years from 2014, with hopes of increasing the number of participants. The 2021 Women's Global Event had 99 registered tournaments that spanned the globe, from Minnesota to Malaysia, with a combined turnout of 3224 women competing in 23 different PDGA divisions.
There are also disc golf companies such as Disc-Diva, that have started up with a primary, though not exclusive, focus on women in the sport, promoting accessories geared towards women and using catch phrases like "you wish you threw like a girl". Sassy Pants is another group that focuses on getting more involvement from women in the sport, advocating for sponsorship of women to enter tournaments.
Women's disc golf teams are involved in the National Collegiate Disc Golf Championship, and the Mississippi State Women's Team were the inaugural champions.
The Disc Golf Hall of Fame
Inductees:
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|-
! Year
! colspan"5" | Disc Golf Hall of Fame Inductees
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1993
|Vanessa Chambers || Dave Dunipace || Ed Headrick|| Tom Monroe
|
|-
| Jim Palmeri || Dan Roddick || Ted Smethers
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1994
|Harold Duvall || Nobuya Kobayashi || Darrell Lynn || Dan Mangone| Dan Mangone
|
|-
| Doug Newland || Snapper Pierson || Lavone Wolfe
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1995
|Ken Climo || John David || David Greenwell || Johnny Roberts | Johnny Roberts
|
|-
| Dr. Rick Voakes
|
|
|
|
|-
!1996
|Mike Conger || Patti Kunkle || Rick Rothstein
|
|
|-
!1997
|Steve Slasor || Elaine King || Jim Kenner
|
|
|-
!1998
|Gregg Hosfeld || John Houck || Carlton Howard
|
|
|-
!1999
|Sam Ferrans || Steve Wisecup || Tim Selinske
|
|
|-
!2000
|Tom Schot || Royce Racinowski
|
|
|
|-
!2001
|Stan McDaniel || Johnny Sias
|
|
|
|-
!2002
|Alan Beaver || Gary Lewis
|
|
|
|-
!2003
|Mark Horn || Brian Hoeniger || Dr. Stancil Johnson
|
|
|-
!2004
|Derek Robins || Geoff Lissaman || Johnny Lissaman || Marty Hapner| Marty Hapner
|
|-
!2005
|Mats Bengtsson || Sylvia Voakes
|
|
|
|-
!2006
|Chuck Kennedy || Kozo Shimbo
|
|
|
|-
!2007
|Fred Salaz || Michael Travers
|
|
|
|-
!2008
|Dan Ginnelly || Juliana Korver
|
|
|
|-
!2009
|Crazy John Brooks || Lynne Warren || Michael Sullivan
|
|
|-
!2010
|Charlie Callahan || Tomas Ekstrom || Brian Cummings
|
|
|-
!2011
|Don Hoffman || Joe Feidt || Brent Hambrick
|
|
|-
!2012
|Tim Willis || Jeff Homburg || Bob Gentil (New Zealand)
|
|
|-
!2013
|Barry Schultz || Becky Zallek || Jim Challas || Ken Westerfield
|
|-
!2014
|Don Wilchek || Jim Oates || Italian Victor Parra
|
|
|-
!2015
|Gail McColl || Anni Kreml || J Gary Dropcho
|
|
|-
!2016
|Joseph Mela || Ace Mason || Tita Ugalde
|
|
|-
!2017
|John Bird || Des Reading || Brian Graham
|
|
|-
!2018
|Andi Young || Jay Reading || George Sappenfield
|
|
|-
!2019
|Eric Marx || Mitch McClellan
|
|
|
|-
!2020
|Jesper Lundmark
|Cliff Towne
|Al "Speedy" Guerrero
|Bob Harris
|Valarie Jenkins-Doss
|-
!2021
|Dean Tannock
|Glen Whitlock
|Jonas Löf
|Martin Fredericksen
|Dave McCormack
|-
!2022
|Pete May
|Jim Orum
|Peter Shive
|Steve Lambert
|Jo Cahow
|}
Disc golf associations
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"font-size: 0.90em;"
! Est. !! Name!! Abbr. !! Location
!Region!! Reach
|-
|1976
|Professional Disc Golf Association
|PDGA
|Appling, Georgia
|
|International
|-
|1977
|French Flying Disc Federation ()
|FFFD and FFDF
|Poissy
|
|National
|-
|1986
|Swiss Disc Golf Association (; )
|(; )
|Reichenbach im Kandertal, Bern
|
|National
|-
|1997
|Maui Disc Golf Association
|MDGA
|Lahaina, Hawaii
|
|State
|-
|1998
|Finnish Disc Golf Association ()
|FDGA ()
|
|
|National
|-
|2011
|Czech Disc Golf Association ()
|()
|Prague
|
|National
|-
|2013
|Regina Disc Golf Association
|RDGA
|Regina, Saskatchewan
| Regina, Saskatchewan
|City
|-
|2014
|Estonian Disc Golf Association ()
|EDGA ()
|Pärnu
|
|National
|-
|2016
|Swedish Disc Golf Association ()
|()
|Gothenburg
|
|National
|}
See also
* Flying disc sports
* Glossary of disc golf terms
* List of disc golf players
* List of disc golf brands and manufacturers
Notes
References
External links
* [http://www.pdga.com/ Professional Disc Golf Association] (PDGA) – official rules, course directory and list of members
* [http://www.pdga.com/rules/official-rules-disc-golf PDGA Official Rules of Disc Golf]
* [http://www.pdga.com/rules/competition-manual-disc-golf-events PDGA Competition Manual for Disc Golf Events]
* [http://www.freestyledisc.org/freestyle-history/ History of Early Frisbee Sports]
* [https://discsportshistory.com/ History of Disc Golf, Ultimate and Frisbee Pioneers]
Category:Flying disc games
Category:Forms of golf
Category:Individual sports
Category:Sports originating in Canada
Category:Sports originating in the United States
Category:Throwing sports
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc_golf
|
2025-04-05T18:28:30.517881
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Decimal
|
The decimal numeral system (also called the base-ten positional numeral system and denary or decanary) is the standard system for denoting integer and non-integer numbers. It is the extension to non-integer numbers (decimal fractions) of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system. The way of denoting numbers in the decimal system is often referred to as decimal notation.
A decimal numeral (also often just decimal or, less correctly, decimal number), refers generally to the notation of a number in the decimal numeral system. Decimals may sometimes be identified by a decimal separator (usually "." or "," as in or ).
Decimal may also refer specifically to the digits after the decimal separator, such as in " is the approximation of to two decimals". Zero-digits after a decimal separator serve the purpose of signifying the precision of a value.
The numbers that may be represented in the decimal system are the decimal fractions. That is, fractions of the form , where is an integer, and is a non-negative integer. Decimal fractions also result from the addition of an integer and a fractional part; the resulting sum sometimes is called a fractional number.
Decimals are commonly used to approximate real numbers. By increasing the number of digits after the decimal separator, one can make the approximation errors as small as one wants, when one has a method for computing the new digits.
Originally and in most uses, a decimal has only a finite number of digits after the decimal separator. However, the decimal system has been extended to infinite decimals for representing any real number, by using an infinite sequence of digits after the decimal separator (see decimal representation). In this context, the usual decimals, with a finite number of non-zero digits after the decimal separator, are sometimes called terminating decimals. A repeating decimal is an infinite decimal that, after some place, repeats indefinitely the same sequence of digits (e.g., }}). An infinite decimal represents a rational number, the quotient of two integers, if and only if it is a repeating decimal or has a finite number of non-zero digits.
Origin
Many numeral systems of ancient civilizations use ten and its powers for representing numbers, possibly because there are ten fingers on two hands and people started counting by using their fingers. Examples are firstly the Egyptian numerals, then the Brahmi numerals, Greek numerals, Hebrew numerals, Roman numerals, and Chinese numerals. Very large numbers were difficult to represent in these old numeral systems, and only the best mathematicians were able to multiply or divide large numbers. These difficulties were completely solved with the introduction of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system for representing integers. This system has been extended to represent some non-integer numbers, called decimal fractions or decimal numbers, for forming the decimal numeral system. the decimal separator is the dot "" in many countries (mostly English-speaking), and a comma "" in other countries. For example, the decimal expressions <math>0.8, 14.89, 0.00079, 1.618, 3.14159</math> represent the fractions }}, }}, }}, }} and }}, and therefore denote decimal fractions. An example of a fraction that cannot be represented by a decimal expression (with a finite number of digits) is }}, 3 not being a power of 10.
More generally, a decimal with digits after the separator (a point or comma) represents the fraction with denominator , whose numerator is the integer obtained by removing the separator.
It follows that a number is a decimal fraction if and only if it has a finite decimal representation.
Expressed as fully reduced fractions, the decimal numbers are those whose denominator is a product of a power of 2 and a power of 5. Thus the smallest denominators of decimal numbers are
:<math>12^0\cdot 5^0, 22^1\cdot 5^0, 42^2\cdot 5^0, 52^0\cdot 5^1, 82^3\cdot 5^0, 102^1\cdot 5^1, 162^4\cdot 5^0, 202^2\cdot5^1, 252^0\cdot 5^2, \ldots</math>Approximation using decimal numbers
Decimal numerals do not allow an exact representation for all real numbers. Nevertheless, they allow approximating every real number with any desired accuracy, e.g., the decimal 3.14159 approximates , being less than 10<sup>−5</sup> off; so decimals are widely used in science, engineering and everyday life.
More precisely, for every real number and every positive integer , there are two decimals and with at most digits after the decimal mark such that and .
Numbers are very often obtained as the result of measurement. As measurements are subject to measurement uncertainty with a known upper bound, the result of a measurement is well-represented by a decimal with digits after the decimal mark, as soon as the absolute measurement error is bounded from above by . In practice, measurement results are often given with a certain number of digits after the decimal point, which indicate the error bounds. For example, although 0.080 and 0.08 denote the same number, the decimal numeral 0.080 suggests a measurement with an error less than 0.001, while the numeral 0.08 indicates an absolute error bounded by 0.01. In both cases, the true value of the measured quantity could be, for example, 0.0803 or 0.0796 (see also significant figures).
Infinite decimal expansion
For a real number and an integer , let denote the (finite) decimal expansion of the greatest number that is not greater than that has exactly digits after the decimal mark. Let denote the last digit of . It is straightforward to see that may be obtained by appending to the right of . This way one has
:,
and the difference of and amounts to
:<math>\left\vert \left [ x \right ]_n-\left [ x \right ]_{n-1} \right\vert=d_n\cdot10^{-n}<10^{-n+1}</math>,
which is either 0, if , or gets arbitrarily small as tends to infinity. According to the definition of a limit, is the limit of when tends to infinity. This is written as<math display"inline">\; x \lim_{n\rightarrow\infty} [x]_n \;</math>or
: ,
which is called an infinite decimal expansion of .
Conversely, for any integer and any sequence of digits<math display"inline">\;(d_n)_{n1}^{\infty}</math> the (infinite) expression is an infinite decimal expansion of a real number . This expansion is unique if neither all are equal to 9 nor all are equal to 0 for large enough (for all greater than some natural number ).
If all for equal to 9 and , the limit of the sequence<math display"inline">\;([x]_n)_{n1}^{\infty}</math> is the decimal fraction obtained by replacing the last digit that is not a 9, i.e.: , by , and replacing all subsequent 9s by 0s (see 0.999...).
Any such decimal fraction, i.e.: for , may be converted to its equivalent infinite decimal expansion by replacing by and replacing all subsequent 0s by 9s (see 0.999...).
In summary, every real number that is not a decimal fraction has a unique infinite decimal expansion. Each decimal fraction has exactly two infinite decimal expansions, one containing only 0s after some place, which is obtained by the above definition of , and the other containing only 9s after some place, which is obtained by defining as the greatest number that is less than , having exactly digits after the decimal mark.
Rational numbers
Long division allows computing the infinite decimal expansion of a rational number. If the rational number is a decimal fraction, the division stops eventually, producing a decimal numeral, which may be prolongated into an infinite expansion by adding infinitely many zeros. If the rational number is not a decimal fraction, the division may continue indefinitely. However, as all successive remainders are less than the divisor, there are only a finite number of possible remainders, and after some place, the same sequence of digits must be repeated indefinitely in the quotient. That is, one has a repeating decimal. For example,
: = 0.012345679012... (with the group 012345679 indefinitely repeating).
The converse is also true: if, at some point in the decimal representation of a number, the same string of digits starts repeating indefinitely, the number is rational.
{|
|-
|For example, if x is || 0.4156156156...
|-
|then 10,000x is || 4156.156156156...
|-
|and 10x is|| 4.156156156...
|-
|so 10,000x − 10x, i.e. 9,990x, is||4152.000000000...
|-
|and x is||
|}
or, dividing both numerator and denominator by 6, .
Decimal computation
]]
Most modern computer hardware and software systems commonly use a binary representation internally (although many early computers, such as the ENIAC or the IBM 650, used decimal representation internally).
For external use by computer specialists, this binary representation is sometimes presented in the related octal or hexadecimal systems.
For most purposes, however, binary values are converted to or from the equivalent decimal values for presentation to or input from humans; computer programs express literals in decimal by default. (123.1, for example, is written as such in a computer program, even though many computer languages are unable to encode that number precisely.)
Both computer hardware and software also use internal representations which are effectively decimal for storing decimal values and doing arithmetic. Often this arithmetic is done on data which are encoded using some variant of binary-coded decimal, especially in database implementations, but there are other decimal representations in use (including decimal floating point such as in newer revisions of the IEEE 754 Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic).
Decimal arithmetic is used in computers so that decimal fractional results of adding (or subtracting) values with a fixed length of their fractional part always are computed to this same length of precision. This is especially important for financial calculations, e.g., requiring in their results integer multiples of the smallest currency unit for book keeping purposes. This is not possible in binary, because the negative powers of <math>10</math> have no finite binary fractional representation; and is generally impossible for multiplication (or division). See Arbitrary-precision arithmetic for exact calculations.
History
period in China.]]
Many ancient cultures calculated with numerals based on ten, perhaps because two human hands have ten fingers. Standardized weights used in the Indus Valley Civilisation () were based on the ratios: 1/20, 1/10, 1/5, 1/2, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500, while their standardized ruler – the Mohenjo-daro ruler – was divided into ten equal parts. Egyptian hieroglyphs, in evidence since around 3000 BCE, used a purely decimal system, as did the Linear A script () of the Minoans and the Linear B script (c. 1400–1200 BCE) of the Mycenaeans. The Únětice culture in central Europe (2300-1600 BC) used standardised weights and a decimal system in trade. The number system of classical Greece also used powers of ten, including an intermediate base of 5, as did Roman numerals. Notably, the polymath Archimedes (c. 287–212 BCE) invented a decimal positional system in his Sand Reckoner which was based on 10<sup>8</sup>. Hittite hieroglyphs (since 15th century BCE) were also strictly decimal.
The Egyptian hieratic numerals, the Greek alphabet numerals, the Hebrew alphabet numerals, the Roman numerals, the Chinese numerals and early Indian Brahmi numerals are all non-positional decimal systems, and required large numbers of symbols. For instance, Egyptian numerals used different symbols for 10, 20 to 90, 100, 200 to 900, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, to 10,000.
The world's earliest positional decimal system was the Chinese rod calculus. Calculations with decimal fractions of lengths were performed using positional counting rods, as described in the 3rd–5th century CE Sunzi Suanjing. The 5th century CE mathematician Zu Chongzhi calculated a 7-digit approximation of . Qin Jiushao's book Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections (1247) explicitly writes a decimal fraction representing a number rather than a measurement, using counting rods. The number 0.96644 is denoted
:
: .
Historians of Chinese science have speculated that the idea of decimal fractions may have been transmitted from China to the Middle East.
Al-Khwarizmi introduced fractions to Islamic countries in the early 9th century CE, written with a numerator above and denominator below, without a horizontal bar. This form of fraction remained in use for centuries.
Positional decimal fractions appear for the first time in a book by the Arab mathematician Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi written in the 10th century. The Jewish mathematician Immanuel Bonfils used decimal fractions around 1350 but did not develop any notation to represent them. The Persian mathematician Jamshid al-Kashi used, and claimed to have discovered, decimal fractions in the 15th century.
John Napier introduced using the period (.) to separate the integer part of a decimal number from the fractional part in his book on constructing tables of logarithms, published posthumously in 1620.
Natural languages
A method of expressing every possible natural number using a set of ten symbols emerged in India. Several Indian languages show a straightforward decimal system. Dravidian languages have numbers between 10 and 20 expressed in a regular pattern of addition to 10.
The Hungarian language also uses a straightforward decimal system. All numbers between 10 and 20 are formed regularly (e.g. 11 is expressed as "tizenegy" literally "one on ten"), as with those between 20 and 100 (23 as "huszonhárom" = "three on twenty").
A straightforward decimal rank system with a word for each order (10 , 100 , 1000 , 10,000 ), and in which 11 is expressed as ten-one and 23 as two-ten-three, and 89,345 is expressed as 8 (ten thousands) 9 (thousand) 3 (hundred) 4 (tens) 5 is found in Chinese, and in Vietnamese with a few irregularities. Japanese, Korean, and Thai have imported the Chinese decimal system. Many other languages with a decimal system have special words for the numbers between 10 and 20, and decades. For example, in English 11 is "eleven" not "ten-one" or "one-teen".
Incan languages such as Quechua and Aymara have an almost straightforward decimal system, in which 11 is expressed as ten with one and 23 as two-ten with three.
Some psychologists suggest irregularities of the English names of numerals may hinder children's counting ability.
Other bases
Some cultures do, or did, use other bases of numbers.
* Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures such as the Maya used a base-20 system (perhaps based on using all twenty fingers and toes).
* The Yuki language in California and the Pamean languages in Mexico have octal (base-8) systems because the speakers count using the spaces between their fingers rather than the fingers themselves.
* The existence of a non-decimal base in the earliest traces of the Germanic languages is attested by the presence of words and glosses meaning that the count is in decimal (cognates to "ten-count" or "tenty-wise"); such would be expected if normal counting is not decimal, and unusual if it were. Where this counting system is known, it is based on the "long hundred" 120, and a "long thousand" of 1200. The descriptions like "long" only appear after the "small hundred" of 100 appeared with the Christians. Gordon's [https://www.scribd.com/doc/49127454/Introduction-to-Old-Norse-by-E-V-Gordon Introduction to Old Norse] p. 293, gives number names that belong to this system. An expression cognate to 'one hundred and eighty' translates to 200, and the cognate to 'two hundred' translates to 240. [http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-352-1/dissemination/pdf/vol_123/123_395_418.pdf Goodare] details the use of the long hundred in Scotland in the Middle Ages, giving examples such as calculations where the carry implies i C (i.e. one hundred) as 120, etc. That the general population were not alarmed to encounter such numbers suggests common enough use. It is also possible to avoid hundred-like numbers by using intermediate units, such as stones and pounds, rather than a long count of pounds. Goodare gives examples of numbers like vii score, where one avoids the hundred by using extended scores. There is also a paper by W.H. Stevenson, on 'Long Hundred and its uses in England'.
* Many or all of the Chumashan languages originally used a base-4 counting system, in which the names for numbers were structured according to multiples of 4 and 16.
* Many languages use quinary (base-5) number systems, including Gumatj, Nunggubuyu, Kuurn Kopan Noot and Saraveca. Of these, Gumatj is the only true 5–25 language known, in which 25 is the higher group of 5.
* Some Nigerians use duodecimal systems. So did some small communities in India and Nepal, as indicated by their languages.
* The Huli language of Papua New Guinea is reported to have base-15 numbers. Ngui means 15, ngui ki means 15 × 2 30, and ngui ngui means 15 × 15 225.
* Umbu-Ungu, also known as Kakoli, is reported to have base-24 numbers. Tokapu means 24, tokapu talu means 24 × 2 48, and tokapu tokapu means 24 × 24 576.
* Ngiti is reported to have a base-32 number system with base-4 cycles. Mer means 6, mer an thef means 6 × 2 12, nif means 36, and nif thef means 36×2 72. See also
Notes
References
Category:Elementary arithmetic
Category:Fractions (mathematics)
Category:Positional numeral systems
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal
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Dorians
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The Dorians (; , , singular , ) were one of the four major ethnic groups into which the Hellenes (or Greeks) of Classical Greece divided themselves (along with the Aeolians, Achaeans, and Ionians). They are almost always referred to as just "the Dorians", as they are called in the earliest literary mention of them in the Odyssey, where they already can be found inhabiting the island of Crete.
They were diverse in way of life and social organization, varying from the populous trade center of the city of Corinth, known for its ornate style in art and architecture, to the isolationist, military state of Sparta; and yet, all Hellenes knew which localities were Dorian and which were not. Dorian states at war could more likely, but not always, count on the assistance of other Dorian states. Dorians were distinguished by the Doric Greek dialect and by characteristic social and historical traditions.
In the 5th century BC, Dorians and Ionians were the two most politically important Greek , whose ultimate clash resulted in the Peloponnesian War. The degree to which fifth-century Hellenes self-identified as "Ionian" or "Dorian" has itself been disputed. At one extreme concludes that there was no true ethnic component in fifth-century Greek culture, in spite of anti-Dorian elements in Athenian propaganda. At the other extreme John Alty reinterprets the sources to conclude that ethnicity did motivate fifth-century actions. Moderns viewing these ethnic identifications through the 5th and 4th century BC literary tradition have been profoundly influenced by their own social politics. Also, according to E. N. Tigerstedt, nineteenth-century European admirers of virtues they considered "Dorian" identified themselves as "Laconophile" and found responsive parallels in the culture of their day as well; their biases contribute to the traditional modern interpretation of "Dorians".OriginAccounts vary as to the Dorians' place of origin. One theory, widely believed in ancient times, is that they originated in the mountainous regions of Greece, such as Macedonia and Epirus, and obscure circumstances brought them south into the Peloponnese, to certain Aegean islands.Peloponnesian dialect replacement
The origin of the Dorians is a multifaceted concept. In modern scholarship, the term has often meant the location of the population disseminating the Doric Greek dialect within a hypothetical Proto-Greek speaking population. The dialect is known from records of classical northwestern Greece, the Peloponnesus and Crete and some of the islands. The geographic and ethnic information found in the West's earliest known literary work, the Iliad, combined with the administrative records of the former Mycenaean states, prove to universal satisfaction that East Greek (Ionian) speakers were once dominant in the Peloponnesus but suffered a setback there and were replaced at least in official circles by West Greek (Doric) speakers. A historical event is associated with the overthrow, called anciently the Return of the Heracleidai and by moderns the Dorian Invasion.
This theory of a return or invasion presupposes that West Greek speakers resided in northwest Greece but overran the Peloponnesus replacing the East Greek there with their own dialect. No records other than Mycenaean ones are known to have existed in the Bronze Age so a West Greek of that time and place can be neither proved nor disproved. West Greek speakers were in western Greece in classical times. Unlike the East Greeks, they are not associated with any evidence of displacement events. That provides circumstantial evidence that the Doric dialect disseminated among the Hellenes of northwest Greece, a highly-mountainous and somewhat-isolated region.
Dorian invasion
The Dorian invasion is a modern historical concept attempting to account for:
* at least the replacement of dialects and traditions in southern Greece in pre-classical times
* more generally, the distribution of the Dorians in Classical Greece
* the presence of the Dorians in Greece at all
On the whole, none of the objectives has been met, but the investigations served to rule out various speculative hypotheses. Most scholars doubt that the Dorian invasion was the main cause of the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization. The source of the West Greek speakers in the Peloponnese remains unattested by any solid evidence.
Post-migrational distribution of the Dorians
on the island of Crete]]
Though most of the Dorians settled in the Peloponnese, they also settled on Rhodes and Sicily and in what is now Southern Italy. In Asia Minor existed the Dorian Hexapolis (the six great Dorian cities): Halikarnassos (Halicarnassus) and Knidos (Cnidus) in Asia Minor, Kos, and Lindos, Kameiros, and Ialyssos on the island of Rhodes. The six cities would later become rivals with the Ionian cities of Asia Minor. The Dorians also settled Crete. The origin traditions remained strong into classical times: Thucydides saw the Peloponnesian War in part as "Ionians fighting against Dorians" and reported the tradition that the Syracusans in Sicily were of Dorian descent. Other such "Dorian" colonies, originally from Corinth, Megara, and the Dorian islands, dotted the southern coasts of Sicily from Syracuse to Selinus. Also Taras was a Spartan colony.
Identity
Ethnonym<!--a section at Dorus redirects here: if the heading is changed please update the link-->
]]
Dorian of Bronze Age Pylos
A man's name, Dōrieus, occurs in the Linear B tablets at Pylos, one of the regions later invaded and subjugated by the Dorians. Pylos tablet Fn867 records it in the dative case as do-ri-je-we, *Dōriēwei, a third- or consonant-declension noun with stem ending in w. An unattested nominative plural, *Dōriēwes, would have become Dōrieis by loss of the w and contraction. The tablet records the grain rations issued to the servants of "religious dignitaries" celebrating a religious festival of Potnia, the mother goddess.
The nominative singular, Dōrieus, remained the same in the classical period. Many Linear B names of servants were formed from their home territory or the places where they came into Mycenaean ownership. Carl Darling Buck sees the -eus suffix as very productive. One of its uses was to convert a toponym to an anthroponym; for example, Megareus, "Megarian", from Megara.
A Dōrieus would be from Dōris, the only classical Greek state to serve as the basis for the name of the Dorians. The state was a small one in the mountains of west central Greece. However, classical Doris may not have been the same as Mycenaean Doris.
Dorians of upland Doris
A number of credible etymologies by noted scholars have been proposed. Julius Pokorny derives Δωριεύς, Dōrieus from δωρίς, dōris, "woodland" (which can also mean upland). The dōri- segment is from the o-grade (either ō or o) of Proto-Indo-European *deru-, "tree", which also gives the Homeric Δούρειος Ἵππος (Doureios Hippos, "Wooden Horse"). This derivation has the advantage of naming the people after their wooded, mountainous country.LancersA second popular derivation was given by the French linguist, Émile Boisacq, from the same root, but from Greek (doru) 'spear-shaft' (which was made of wood); i.e., "the people of the spear" or "spearmen." In this case the country would be named after the people, as in Saxony from the Saxons. However, R. S. P. Beekes doubted the validity of this derivation and asserted that no good etymology exists.Chosen GreeksIt sometimes happens that different derivations of an Indo-European word exploit similar-sounding Indo-European roots. Greek doru, "lance," is from the o-grade of Indo-European *deru, "solid," in the sense of wood. It is similar to an extended form, *dō-ro-, of *dō-, (give), as can be seen in the modern Greek imperative δώσε (dose, "give [sing.]!") appearing in Greek as δῶρον (dōron, "gift"). This is the path taken by Jonathan Hall, relying on elements taken from the myth of the Return of the Herakleidai.
Hall cites the tradition, based on a fragment of the poet, Tyrtaeus, that "Sparta is a divine gift granted by Zeus and Hera" to the Heracleidae. In another version, Tyndareus gives his kingdom to Heracles in gratitude for restoring him to the throne, but Heracles "asks the Spartan king to safeguard the gift until his descendants might claim it."
Hall, therefore, proposes that the Dorians are the people of the gift. They assumed the name on taking possession of Lacedaemon. Doris was subsequently named after them. Hall makes comparisons of Spartans to Hebrews as a chosen people maintaining a covenant with God and being assigned a Holy Land. To arrive at this conclusion, Hall relies on Herodotus' version of the myth (see below) that the Hellenes under Dorus did not take his name until reaching the Peloponnesus. In other versions the Heracleidae enlisted the help of their Dorian neighbors. Hall does not address the problem of the Dorians not calling Lacedaemon Doris, but assigning that name to some less holy and remoter land. Similarly, he does not mention the Dorian servant at Pylos, whose sacred gift, if such it was, was still being ruled by the Achaean Atreid family at Lacedaemon.
A minor, and perhaps regrettably forgotten, episode in the history of scholarship was the attempt to emphasize the etymology of Doron with the meaning of 'hand'. This in turn was connected to an interpretation of the famous lambda on Spartan shields, which was to rather stand for a hand with outstanding thumb than the initial letter of Lacedaimon. Given the origin of the Spartan shield lambda legend, however, in a fragment by Eupolis, an Athenian comic poet, there has been a recent attempt to suggest that a comic confusion between the letter and the hand image may yet have been intended.
Social structure
Dorian social structure was characterized by a communal social structure and separation of the sexes. The lives of free men centered around military campaigns. When not abroad, men stayed in all-male residences focusing on military training until the age of 30, regardless of marital status.
Dorian women had greater freedom and economic power than women of other Greek ethnicities. Unlike other Hellenic women, Dorian women were able to own property, manage their husbands' estate, and delegate many domestic tasks to slaves. Women in ancient Sparta possessed the greatest agency and economic power, likely due to the prolonged absences of men during military campaigns. Dorian women wore the peplos, which was once common to all Hellenes. This tunic was pinned at the shoulders by brooches and had slit skirts which bared the thighs and permitted more freedom of movement than the voluminous Ionian chiton (costume).
Distinctions of language
The Doric dialect was spoken in northwest Greece, the Peloponnese, Crete, southwest Asia Minor, the southernmost islands of the Aegean Sea, and the various Dorian colonies of Magna Graecia in Southern Italy and Sicily. After the classical period, it was mainly replaced by the Attic dialect upon which the Koine or "common" Greek language of the Hellenistic period was based. The main characteristic of Doric was the preservation of Proto-Indo-European , long , which in Attic-Ionic became , . A famous example is the valedictory phrase uttered by Spartan mothers to their sons before sending them off to war: ἢ τὰν ἢ ἐπὶ τᾶς (ḕ tàn ḕ epì tâs, literally "either with it or on it": return alive with your shield
or dead upon it) would have been ἢ τὴν ἢ ἐπὶ τῆς (ḕ tḕn ḕ epì tês) in the Attic-Ionic dialect of an Athenian mother. Tsakonian, a descendant of Doric Greek, is still spoken in some parts of the southern Argolid coast of the Peloponnese, in the modern prefecture of Arcadia.Other cultural distinctions
of architecture with polychromy]]
Culturally, in addition to their Doric dialect of Greek, Doric colonies retained their characteristic Doric calendar that revolved round a cycle of festivals, the Hyacinthia and the Carneia being especially important.
Ancient traditions
In Greek historiography, the Dorians are mentioned by many authors. The chief classical authors to relate their origins are Herodotus, Thucydides and Pausanias. The most copious authors, however, lived in Hellenistic and Roman times, long after the main events. This apparent paradox does not necessarily discredit the later writers, who were relying on earlier works that did not survive. The customs of the Spartan state and its illustrious individuals are detailed at great length in such authors as Plutarch and Diodorus Siculus.
Homer
The Odyssey has one reference to the Dorians:<blockquote>There is a land called Crete, in the midst of the wine-dark sea, a fair, rich land, begirt with water, and therein are many men, past counting, and ninety cities. They have not all the same speech, but their tongues are mixed. There dwell Achaeans, there great-hearted native Cretans, there Cydonians, and Dorians of waving plumes, and goodly Pelasgians.</blockquote>
The reference is not compatible with a Dorian invasion that brought Dorians to Crete only after the fall of the Mycenaean states. In the Odyssey, Odysseus and his relatives visit those states. Two solutions are possible, either the Odyssey is anachronistic or Dorians were on Crete in Mycenaean times. The uncertain nature of the Dorian invasion defers a definitive answer until more is known about it. Also, the Messenian town of Dorium is mentioned in the Catalogue of Ships. If its name comes from Dorians, it would imply there were settlements of the latter in Messenia during that time as well.
Tyrtaeus
Tyrtaeus, a Spartan poet, became advisor of the Lacedaemonians in their mid-7th-century war to suppress a rebellion of the Messenians. The latter were a remnant of the Achaeans conquered "two generations before", which suggests a rise to supremacy at the end of the Dark Age rather than during and after the fall of Mycenae. The Messenian population was reduced to serfdom.
Only a few fragments of Tyrtaeus' five books of martial verse survive. His is the earliest mention of the three Dorian tribes: Pamphyli, Hylleis, Dymanes. He also says:
Erineus was a village of Doris. He helped to establish the Spartan constitution, giving the kings and elders, among other powers, the power to dismiss the assembly. He established a rigorous military training program for the young including songs and poems he wrote himself, such as the "Embateria or Songs of the Battle-Charge which are also called Enoplia or Songs-under-Arms". These were chants used to establish the timing of standard drills under arms. He stressed patriotism:
Herodotus
.]]
Herodotus was from Halicarnassus, a Dorian colony on the southwest coast of Asia Minor; following the literary tradition of the times he wrote in Ionic Greek, being one of the last authors to do so. He described the Persian Wars, giving a thumbnail account of the histories of the antagonists, Greeks and Persians.
. Sparta was in the valley of the lowermost bay.]]
Herodotus gives a general account of the events termed "the Dorian Invasion", presenting them as transfers of population. Their original home was in Thessaly, central Greece. He goes on to expand in mythological terms, giving some of the geographic details of the myth:<blockquote>1.56.2-3 And inquiring he found that the Lacedemonians and the Athenians had the pre-eminence, the first of the Dorian and the others of the Ionian race. For these were the most eminent races in ancient time, the second being a Pelasgian and the first a Hellenic race: and the one never migrated from its place in any direction, while the other was very exceedingly given to wanderings; for in the reign of Deucalion this race dwelt in Pthiotis, and in the time of Doros the son of Hellen in the land lying below Ossa and Olympos, which is called Histiaiotis; and when it was driven from Histiaiotis by the sons of Cadmos, it dwelt in Pindos and was called Makednian; and thence it moved afterwards to Dryopis, and from Dryopis it came finally to Peloponnesus, and began to be called Dorian.
1.57.1-3 What language however the Pelasgians used to speak I am not able with certainty to say. But if one must pronounce judging by those that still remain of the Pelasgians who dwelt in the city of Creston above the Tyrsenians, and who were once neighbours of the race now called Dorian, dwelling then in the land which is now called Thessaliotis, and also by those that remain of the Pelasgians who settled at Plakia and Skylake in the region of the Hellespont, who before that had been settlers with the Athenians, and of the natives of the various other towns which are really Pelasgian, though they have lost the name,—if one must pronounce judging by these, the Pelasgians used to speak a Barbarian language. If therefore all the Pelasgian race was such as these, then the Attic race, being Pelasgian, at the same time when it changed and became Hellenic, unlearnt also its language. For the people of Creston do not speak the same language with any of those who dwell about them, nor yet do the people of Phakia, but they speak the same language one as the other: and by this it is proved that they still keep unchanged the form of language which they brought with them when they migrated to these places.
1.58 As for the Hellenic race, it has used ever the same language, as I clearly perceive, since it first took its rise; but since the time when it parted off feeble at first from the Pelasgian race, setting forth from a small beginning it has increased to that great number of races which we see, and chiefly because many Barbarian races have been added to it besides. Moreover it is true, as I think, of the Pelasgian race also, that so far as it remained Barbarian it never made any great increase.
</blockquote>
Thus, according to Herodotus, the Dorians did not name themselves after Dorus until they had reached Peloponnesus. Herodotus does not explain the contradictions of the myth; for example, how Doris, located outside the Peloponnesus, acquired its name. However, his goal, as he relates in the beginning of the first book, is only to report what he had heard from his sources without judgement. In the myth, the Achaeans displaced from the Peloponnesus gathered at Athens under a leader Ion and became identified as "Ionians".
Herodotus' list of Dorian states is as follows. From northeastern Greece were Phthia, Histiaea and Macedon. In central Greece were Doris (the former Dryopia) and in the south Peloponnesus, specifically the states of Lacedaemon, Corinth, Sicyon, Epidaurus and Troezen. Hermione was not Dorian but had joined the Dorians. Overseas were the islands of Rhodes, Cos, Nisyrus and the Anatolian cities of Cnidus, Halicarnassus, Phaselis and Calydna. Dorians also colonised Crete including founding of such towns as Lato, Dreros and Olous. The Cynurians were originally Ionians but had become Dorian under the influence of their Argive masters.ThucydidesThucydides professes little of Greece before the Trojan War except to say that it was full of barbarians and that there was no distinction between barbarians and Greeks. The Hellenes came from Phthiotis. The whole country indulged in and suffered from piracy and was not settled. After the Trojan War, "Hellas was still engaged in removing and settling."
Some 60 years after the Trojan War the Boeotians were driven out of Arne by the Thessalians into Boeotia and 20 years later "the Dorians and the Heraclids became masters of the Peloponnese." Corcyra, Corinth and Epidamnus, Leucadia, Ambracia, Potidaea, Rhodes, Cythera, Argos, Syracuse, Gela, Acragas (later Agrigentum), Acrae, Casmenae.
He does explain with considerable dismay what happened to incite ethnic war after the unity between the Greek states during the Battle of Thermopylae. The Congress of Corinth, formed prior to it, "split into two sections." Athens headed one and Lacedaemon the other:<blockquote>For a short time the league held together, till the Lacedaemonians and Athenians quarreled, and made war upon each other with their allies, a duel into which all the Hellenes sooner or later were drawn.</blockquote>
He adds: "the real cause I consider to be ... the growth of the power of Athens and the alarm which this inspired in Lacedaemon...."
Plato
In the Platonic work Laws is mentioned that the Achaeans who fought in the Trojan War, on their return from Troy were driven out from their homes and cities by the young residents, so they migrated under a leader named Dorieus and hence they were renamed "Dorians".
<blockquote>Now during this period of ten years, while the siege lasted, the affairs of each of the besiegers at home suffered much owing to the seditious conduct of the young men. For when the soldiers returned to their own cities and homes, these young people did not receive them fittingly and justly, but in such a way that there ensued a vast number of cases of death, slaughter, and exile. So they, being again driven out, migrated by sea; and because Dorieus was the man who then banded together the exiles, they got the new name of "Dorians", instead of "Achaeans". But as to all the events that follow this, you Lacedaemonians relate them all fully in your traditions.</blockquote>
Pausanias
The Description of Greece by Pausanias relates that the Achaeans were driven from their lands by Dorians coming from Oeta, a mountainous region bordering on Thessaly. They were led by Hyllus, a son of Heracles, but were defeated by the Achaeans. Under other leadership they managed to be victorious over the Achaeans and remain in the Peloponnesus, a mythic theme called "the return of the Heracleidae." They had built ships at Naupactus in which to cross the Gulf of Corinth. This invasion is viewed by the tradition of Pausanias as a return of the Dorians to the Peloponnesus, apparently meaning a return of families ruling in Aetolia and northern Greece to a land in which they had once had a share. The return is described in detail: there were "disturbances" throughout the Peloponnesus except in Arcadia, and new Dorian settlers. Pausanias goes on to describe the conquest and resettlement of Laconia, Messenia, Argos and elsewhere, and the emigration from there to Crete and the coast of Asia Minor.
Diodorus Siculus
Diodorus is a rich source of traditional information concerning the mythology and history of the Dorians, especially the Library of History. He does not make any such distinction but the fantastic nature of the earliest material marks it as mythical or legendary. The myths do attempt to justify some Dorian operations, suggesting that they were in part political. BC, wrote forty books of world history, called Library of History, in three parts: mythical history of peoples, non-Greek and Greek, to the Trojan War; history to Alexander's death (323 BC); history to 54 BC. He was an uncritical compiler, but used good sources and reproduced them faithfully. He is valuable for details unrecorded elsewhere, and as evidence for works now lost, especially writings of Ephorus, Apollodorus, Agatharchides, Philistus, and Timaeus.
}}
Diodorus quoting from an earlier historian Hecataeus of Abdera details that during the Exodus many Israelites went into the islands of Greece and other places.
<blockquote>
All the foreigners were forthwith expelled, and the most valiant and noble among them, under some notable leaders, were brought to Greece and other places, as some relate; the most famous of their leaders were Danaus and Cadmus. But the majority of the people descended into a country not far from Egypt, which is now called Judaea and at that time was altogether uninhabited.
</blockquote>
Heracles was a Perseid, a member of the ruling family of Greece. His mother Alcmene had both Perseids and Pelopids in her ancestry. A princess of the realm, she received Zeus thinking he was Amphitryon. Zeus intended his son to rule Greece but according to the rules of succession Eurystheus, born slightly earlier, preempted the right. Attempts to kill Heracles as a child failed. On adulthood he was forced into the service of Eurystheus, who commanded him to perform 12 labors.
Heracles became a warrior without a home, wandering from place to place assisting the local rulers with various problems. He took a retinue of Arcadians with him acquiring also over time a family of grown sons, the Heraclidae. He continued this mode of life even after completing the 12 labors. The legend has it that he became involved with Achaean Sparta when the family of king Tyndareus was unseated and driven into exile by Hippocoön and his family, who in the process happened to kill the son of a friend of Heracles. The latter and his retinue assaulted Sparta, taking it back from Hippocoön. He recalled Tyndareus, set him up as a guardian regent, and instructed him to turn the kingdom over to any descendants of his that should claim it. Heracles went on with the way of life to which he had become accustomed, which was by today's standards that of a mercenary, as he was being paid for his assistance. Subsequently, he founded a colony in Aetolia, then in Trachis.
After displacing the Dryopes, he went to the assistance of the Dorians, who lived in a land called Hestiaeotis under king Aegimius and were campaigning against the numerically superior Lapithae. The Dorians promised him of Doris (which they did not yet possess). He asked Aegimius to keep his share of the land "in trust" until it should be claimed by a descendant. He went on to further adventures but was poisoned by his jealous wife, Deianeira. He immolated himself in full armor dressed for combat and "passed from among men into the company of the gods."
Strabo
Strabo, who depends on the books available to him, goes on to elaborate:
Beside this sole reference to Dorians in Crete, the mention of the Iliad of the Heraclid Tlepolemus, a warrior on the side of Achaeans and colonist of three important Dorian cities in Rhodes has been also regarded as a later interpolation.See also
Language
*Ancient Greek dialects
*Doric Greek
Mythology
*Dorus, the eponymous founder
*Dymas
*Heracleidae
History
*Dorian invasion
*Greek Dark Ages
*Sea Peoples
List of Dorian states
*Acragas
*Ambracia
*Argos
*Calydna
*Cameiros
*Cnidus
*Corinth
*Corcyra
*Crete various cities
*Cos
*Cythera
*Doris (Asia Minor)
*Doris (Greece)
*Epidaurus
*Gela
*Halicarnassus
*Histiaea
*Ialyssos
*Leucadia
*Lindos
*Macedon
*Megara
*Nisyros
*Phaselis
*Phthia
*Potidaea
*Rhodes
*Sparta
*Sicyon
*Syracuse
*Troezen
Footnotes
References
Bibliography
* Five editions between 1993 and 1995.
*
*
*
*Müller, Karl Otfried, Die Dorier (1824) was translated by Henry Tufnel and Sir George Cornewall Lewis and published as The History and Antiquities of the Doric Race, (London: John Murray), 1830, in two vols.
*
External links
* .
*
*
Category:Ancient tribes in Greece
Category:Ancient Greeks
Category:Mycenaean Greece
Category:Ancient tribes in Macedonia
Category:Ancient tribes in Epirus
Category:Ancient tribes in Crete
Category:Ancient tribes in Rhodes
Category:Ancient peoples of Anatolia
Category:Greek tribes
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8217
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Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
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The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (), set by France's National Constituent Assembly in 1789, is a human and civil rights document from the French Revolution; the French title can be translated in the modern era as "Declaration of Human and Civic Rights". Inspired by Enlightenment philosophers, the declaration was a core statement of the values of the French Revolution and had a significant impact on the development of popular conceptions of individual liberty and democracy in Europe and worldwide places.
The declaration was initially drafted by Marquis de Lafayette with assistance from Thomas Jefferson, but the majority of the final draft came from Abbé Sieyès. Influenced by the doctrine of natural right, human rights are held to be universal: valid at all times and in every place. It became the basis for a nation of free individuals protected equally by the law. It is included at the beginning of the constitutions of both the French Fourth Republic (1946) and French Fifth Republic (1958) and is considered valid as constitutional law.HistoryThe content of the document emerged largely from the ideals of the Enlightenment. Marquis de Lafayette prepared the principal drafts in consultation with his close friend Thomas Jefferson. In August 1789, Abbé Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès and Honoré Mirabeau played a central role in conceptualizing and drafting the final Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
The last article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen was adopted on 26 August 1789 by the National Constituent Assembly, during the period of the French Revolution, as the first step toward writing a constitution for France. Inspired by the Enlightenment, the original version of the declaration was discussed by the representatives based on a 24-article draft proposed by , led by The draft was later modified during the debates. A second and lengthier declaration, known as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1793, was written in 1793 but never formally adopted.Background
)]]
The concepts in the declaration come from the philosophical and political duties of the Enlightenment, such as individualism, the social contract as theorized by the Genevan philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and the separation of powers espoused by the Baron de Montesquieu. As can be seen in the texts, the French declaration was heavily influenced by the political philosophy of the Enlightenment and principles of human rights, as was the U.S. Declaration of Independence which preceded it (4 July 1776).
These principles were shared widely throughout European society, rather than being confined to a small elite as in the past. This took different forms, such as 'English coffeehouse culture', and extended to areas colonised by Europeans, particularly British North America. Contacts between diverse groups in Edinburgh, Geneva, Boston, Amsterdam, Paris, London, or Vienna were much greater than often appreciated.
Transnational elites who shared ideas and styles were not new; what changed was their extent and the numbers involved. Under Louis XIV, Versailles was the centre of French culture, fashion and political power. Improvements in education and literacy over the course of the 18th century meant larger audiences for newspapers and journals, with Masonic lodges, coffee houses and reading clubs providing areas where people could debate and discuss ideas. The emergence of this "public sphere" led to Paris replacing Versailles as the cultural and intellectual centre, leaving the Court isolated and less able to influence opinion.
Assisted by Jefferson, then American diplomat to France, Lafayette prepared a draft which echoed some of the provisions of the U.S. declaration. However, there was no consensus on the role of the Crown, and until this question was settled it was impossible to create political institutions. When presented to the legislative committee on 11 July 1789, it was rejected by pragmatists such as Jean Joseph Mounier, President of the Assembly, who feared creating expectations that could not be satisfied.
Conservatives like Gérard de Lally-Tollendal wanted a bicameral system, with an upper house appointed by the king who would have the right of veto. On 10 September, the majority led by Sieyès and Talleyrand rejected this in favour of a single assembly, while Louis XVI retained only a "suspensive veto"; this meant he could delay the implementation of a law but not block it. With these questions settled, a new committee was convened to agree on a constitution; the most controversial remaining issue was citizenship, itself linked to the debate on the balance between individual rights and obligations. Ultimately, the 1791 Constitution distinguished between active citizens and passive citizens. As a result, it was never fully accepted by radicals in the Jacobin club.
After editing by Mirabeau, it was published on 26 August as a statement of principle. The final draft contained provisions then considered radical in any European society, let alone France in 1789. French historian Georges Lefebvre argues that combined with the elimination of privilege and feudalism, it "highlighted equality in a way the (American Declaration of Independence) did not". More importantly, the two differed in intent; Jefferson saw the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights as fixing the political system at a specific point in time, claiming they 'contained no original thought...but expressed the American mind' at that stage. The 1791 French Constitution was viewed as a starting point, the declaration providing an aspirational vision, a key difference between the two revolutions. Attached as a preamble to the French Constitution of 1791, and that of the 1870 to 1940 French Third Republic, it was incorporated into the current Constitution of France in 1958.Summary of principles
The declaration defines a single set of individual and collective rights for all men. Influenced by the doctrine of natural rights, these rights are held to be universal and valid in all times and places. For example, "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good." They have certain natural rights to property, to liberty, and to life. According to this theory, the role of government is to recognize and secure these rights. Furthermore, the government should be carried on by elected representatives.
When it was written, the rights contained in the declaration were only awarded to men. Furthermore, the declaration was a statement of vision rather than reality. The declaration was not deeply rooted in either the practice of the West or even France at the time. The declaration emerged in the late 18th century out of war and revolution. It encountered opposition, as democracy and individual rights were frequently regarded as synonymous with anarchy and subversion. This declaration embodies ideals and aspirations towards which France pledged to struggle in the future.
Substance
The declaration is introduced by a preamble describing the fundamental characteristics of the rights, which are qualified as "natural, unalienable and sacred" and "simple and incontestable principles" on which citizens could base their demands. In the second article, "the natural and imprescriptible rights of man" are defined as "liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression". It called for the destruction of aristocratic privileges by proclaiming an end to feudalism and to exemptions from taxation, freedom, and equal rights for all "Men" and access to public office based on talent. The monarchy was restricted, and all citizens had the right to participate in the legislative process. Freedom of speech and press were declared, and arbitrary arrests were outlawed.
The declaration also asserts the principles of popular sovereignty, in contrast to the divine right of kings that characterized the French monarchy, and social equality among citizens, "All the citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, are equally admissible to all public dignities, places, and employments, according to their capacity and without distinction other than that of their virtues and of their talents," eliminating the special rights of the nobility and clergy.
Articles
Article I – Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good.
Article II – The goal of any political association is the conservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, safety and resistance against oppression.
Article III – The principle of any sovereignty resides essentially in the Nation. No body, no individual may exercise any authority which does not proceed directly from the nation.
Article IV – Liberty consists of doing anything which does not harm others: thus, the exercise of the natural rights of each man has only those borders which assure other members of the society the fruition of these same rights. These borders can be determined only by the law.
Article V – The law has the right to forbid only actions harmful to society. Anything which is not forbidden by the law cannot be impeded, and no one can be constrained to do what it does not order.
Article VI – The law is the expression of the general will. All the citizens have the right of contributing personally or through their representatives to its formation. It must be the same for all, either that it protects, or that it punishes. All the citizens, being equal in its eyes, are equally admissible to all public dignities, places, and employments, according to their capacity and without distinction other than that of their virtues and of their talents.
Article VII – No man can be accused, arrested nor detained but in the cases determined by the law, and according to the forms which it has prescribed. Those who solicit, dispatch, carry out or cause to be carried out arbitrary orders, must be punished; but any citizen called or seized under the terms of the law must obey at once; he renders himself culpable by resistance.
Article VIII – The law should establish only penalties that are strictly and evidently necessary, and no one can be punished but under a law established and promulgated before the offense and legally applied.
Article IX – Any man being presumed innocent until he is declared culpable if it is judged indispensable to arrest him, any rigor which would not be necessary for the securing of his person must be severely reprimanded by the law.
Article X – No one may be disquieted for his opinions, even religious ones, provided that their manifestation does not trouble the public order established by the law.
Article XI – The free communication of thoughts and of opinions is one of the most precious rights of man: any citizen thus may speak, write, print freely, except to respond to the abuse of this liberty, in the cases determined by the law.
Article XII – The guarantee of the rights of man and of the citizen necessitates a public force: this force is thus instituted for the advantage of all and not for the particular utility of those in whom it is trusted.
Article XIII – For the maintenance of the public force and for the expenditures of administration, a common contribution is indispensable; it must be equally distributed to all the citizens, according to their ability to pay.
Article XIV – Each citizen has the right to ascertain, by himself or through his representatives, the need for a public tax, to consent to it freely, to know the uses to which it is put, and of determining the proportion, basis, collection, and duration.
Article XV – The society has the right of requesting an account from any public agent of its administration.
Article XVI – Any society in which the guarantee of rights is not assured, nor the separation of powers determined, has no constitution.
Article XVII – Property being an inviolable and sacred right, no one can be deprived of private usage, if it is not when the public necessity, legally noted, evidently requires it, and under the condition of a just and prior indemnity.
Active and passive citizenship
from 1791 mocking the distinction between active and passive citizens.]]
While the French Revolution provided rights to a larger portion of the population, there remained a distinction between those who obtained the political rights in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and those who did not. Those who were deemed to hold these political rights were called active citizens. Active citizenship was granted to men who were French, at least 25 years old, paid taxes equal to three days work, and could not be defined as servants. This meant that at the time of the declaration, only male property owners held these rights. The deputies in the National Assembly believed that only those who held tangible interests in the nation could make informed political decisions. This distinction directly affects articles 6, 12, 14, and 15 of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, as each of these rights is related to the right to vote and to participate actively in the government. With the decree of 29 October 1789, the term active citizen became embedded in French politics.
The concept of passive citizens was created to encompass those populations excluded from political rights in the declaration. Because of the requirements set down for active citizens, the vote was granted to approximately 4.3 million Frenchmen out of a population of around 29 million. These omitted groups included women, the poor, domestic servants, enslaved people, children, and foreigners. As the General Assembly voted upon these measures, they limited the rights of certain groups of citizens while implementing the democratic process of the French First Republic. This legislation, passed in 1789, was amended by the creators of the Constitution of the Year III to eliminate the label of an active citizen. The power to vote was then, however, to be granted solely to substantial property owners.
Tensions arose between active and passive citizens throughout the revolution. This happened when passive citizens started to call for more rights or openly refused to listen to the ideals set forth by active citizens. Women in particular were strong passive citizens who played a significant role in the revolution. Olympe de Gouges penned her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen in 1791 and drew attention to the need for gender equality. By supporting the ideals of the French Revolution and wishing to expand them to women, she represented herself as a revolutionary citizen. Madame Roland also established herself as an influential figure throughout the revolution. She saw women of the French Revolution as holding three roles; "inciting revolutionary action, formulating policy, and informing others of revolutionary events." By working with men, as opposed to working apart from men, she may have been able to further the fight for revolutionary women. As players in the French Revolution, women occupied a significant role in the civic sphere by forming social movements and participating in popular clubs, allowing them societal influence, despite their lack of direct political power.
Women's rights
The declaration recognizes many rights as belonging to citizens (who could only be male). This was despite the fact that after the Women's March on Versailles on 5 October 1789, women presented the Women's Petition to the National Assembly in which they proposed a decree giving women equal rights. In 1790, Nicolas de Condorcet and Etta Palm d'Aelders unsuccessfully called on the National Assembly to extend civil and political rights to women. Condorcet declared "he who votes against the right of another, whatever the religion, color, or sex of that other, has henceforth abjured his own". The French Revolution did not lead to a recognition of women's rights, and this prompted de Gouges to publish her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen in September 1791, modeled after the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. It is ironic in the formulation and exposes the failure of the French Revolution, which had been devoted to equality. It states: "This revolution will only take effect when all women become fully aware of their deplorable condition, and of the rights, they have lost in society."
The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen follows the 17 articles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen point for point. Camille Naish has described it as "almost a parody... of the original document". The first article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen proclaims that "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be based only on common utility." The first article of the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen replies: "Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights. Social distinctions may only be based on common utility". De Gouges also draws attention to the fact that under French law, women were fully punishable yet denied equal rights, declaring, "Women have the right to mount the scaffold, they must also have the right to mount the speaker's rostrum".
Slavery
The declaration did not revoke the institution of slavery in the French colonies, as lobbied for by Jacques-Pierre Brissot's Les Amis des Noirs and opposed by the group of colonial planters called the Club Massiac, because they met at the Hôtel Massiac. Despite the lack of explicit mention of slavery in the declaration, it inspired the slave uprisings in Saint-Domingue in the Haitian Revolution, as discussed in C. L. R. James's history of the Haitian Revolution, The Black Jacobins. In Louisiana, the organizers of the Pointe Coupée Slave Conspiracy of 1795 also drew information from the declaration.
Deplorable conditions for the thousands of enslaved people in Saint-Domingue, the most profitable slave colony in the world, led to the uprisings known as the first successful slave revolt in the New World. Free persons of color were part of the first wave of revolt, but later formerly enslaved people took control. In 1794, the convention was dominated by the Jacobins and abolished slavery, including in the colonies of Saint-Domingue and Guadeloupe. However, Napoleon reinstated it in 1802 and attempted to regain control of Saint-Domingue by sending in thousands of troops. After suffering the losses of two-thirds of the men, many to yellow fever, the French withdrew from Saint-Domingue in 1803. Napoleon gave up on North America and agreed to the Louisiana Purchase by the United States. In 1804, the leaders of Saint-Domingue declared it an independent state, the Republic of Haiti, the second republic of the New World. Napoleon abolished the slave trade in 1815. Slavery in France was finally abolished in 1848.HomosexualityThe vast amount of personal freedom given to citizens by the document created a situation where homosexuality was decriminalized by the French Penal Code of 1791, which covered felonies; the law simply failed to mention sodomy as a crime, and thus no one could be prosecuted for it. The 1791 Code of Municipal Police did provide misdemeanor penalties for "gross public indecency," which the police could use to punish anyone having sex in public places or otherwise violating social norms. This approach to punishing homosexual conduct was reiterated in the French Penal Code of 1810.
See also
* Bill of rights
* Human rights in France
* Natural person in French law
* Rights of Man (1791) by Thomas Paine
* Universality
Other early declarations of rights
* The decreta of León
* Magna Carta
* Kouroukan Fouga )}}
* Statute of Kalisz
* Henrician Articles and Pacta conventa
* Petition of Right
* Bill of Rights
* Claim of Right
* Virginia Declaration of Rights
* Pennsylvania Declaration of Rights
* Bill of Rights
* Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of Franchimont
* "Belgian" Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
*
* "Batavian" Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
Citations
General and cited sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* <!-- Alphabetized under "Project History"-->
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Further reading
* Gérard Conac, Marc Debene, Gérard Teboul, eds, ''La Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen de 1789; histoire, analyse et commentaires'' , Economica, Paris, 1993, .
* McLean, Iain. [http://www.nuff.ox.ac.uk/Politics/papers/2002/w24/ddhc3.pdf "Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and the Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen"] in The Future of Liberal Democracy: Thomas Jefferson and the Contemporary World (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004)
External links
*
*
Category:1780s in Paris
Category:1789 documents
Category:1789 events of the French Revolution
Category:1789 in law
Category:Age of Enlightenment
Category:Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette
Category:Government of France
Category:History of human rights
Category:Human rights in France
Category:Human rights instruments
Category:Memory of the World Register
Category:Political charters
Category:Popular sovereignty
Category:Works by Thomas Jefferson
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Dennis Ritchie
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| birth_place = Bronxville, New York, U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = Berkeley Heights, New Jersey, U.S.
| alma_mater = Harvard University (BS)
| doctoral_advisor = Patrick C. Fischer
| doctoral_students | known_for ALTRAN<br/>B<br/>BCPL<br/>C<br/>Multics<br/>Unix
| footnotes | field Computer science
| workplaces = Lucent Technologies<br/>Bell Labs
| prizes IEEE Emanuel R. Piore Award (1982)<br/>Turing Award (1983)<br/>National Medal of Technology (1998)<br/>IEEE Richard W. Hamming Medal (1990)<br/>Computer Pioneer Award (1994)<br/>Computer History Museum Fellow (1997) on switching circuit theory. In 2020, the Computer History Museum worked with Ritchie's family and Fischer's family and found a copy of the lost dissertation.<!-- I will have more information about this (and another reference) when I buy the book "Go To: The Story of the Math Majors, ..." (OriumX) -->
During the 1960s, Ritchie and Ken Thompson worked on the Multics operating system at Bell Labs. Thompson then found an old PDP-7 machine and developed his own application programs and operating system from scratch, aided by Ritchie and others. In 1970, Brian Kernighan suggested the name "Unix", a pun on the name "Multics". To supplement assembly language with a system-level programming language, Thompson created B. Later, B was replaced by C, created by Ritchie, who continued to contribute to the development of Unix and C for many years.
During the 1970s, Ritchie collaborated with James Reeds and Robert Morris on a ciphertext-only attack on the M-209 US cipher machine that could solve messages of at least 2000–2500 letters. Ritchie relates that, after discussions with the National Security Agency, the authors decided not to publish it, as they were told that the principle applied to machines still in use by foreign governments. C and Unix
Ritchie created the C programming language and was one of the developers of the Unix operating system. With Brian Kernighan, he co-wrote the book The C Programming Language, which is often referred to as K&R after their initials. Ritchie worked together with Ken Thompson, who is credited with writing the original version of Unix; one of Ritchie's contributions to Unix was its porting to different machines and platforms. They were so influential on Research Unix that Doug McIlroy later wrote, "The names of Ritchie and Thompson may safely be assumed to be attached to almost everything not otherwise attributed."
Nowadays, the C language is widely used in application, operating system, and embedded system development, and its influence is seen in most modern programming languages. C is a low-level language with constructs closely translating to the hardware's instruction set. However, it is not tied to any given hardware, making it easy to write programs on any machine that supports C. Moreover, C is a high-level programming language with constructs mapping to data structures in application software.
C influenced several other languages and derivatives, such as C++, Objective-C used by Apple, C# used by Microsoft, and Java used in corporate environments extensively and by Android. Ritchie and Thompson used C to write Unix, which has been influential in establishing many computing concepts and principles that are adopted widely.
In an interview from 1999, Ritchie clarified that he saw Linux and Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) operating systems as a continuation of the basis of the Unix operating system, and as derivatives of Unix:
In the same interview, he stated that he viewed Unix and Linux as "the continuation of ideas that were started by Ken and me and many others, many years ago." Ritchie's Turing Award lecture was titled "Reflections on Software Research". In 1990, both Ritchie and Thompson received the IEEE Richard W. Hamming Medal from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), "for the origination of the UNIX operating system and the C programming language".
In 1997, both Ritchie and Thompson were made Fellows of the Computer History Museum, "for co-creation of the UNIX operating system, and for development of the C programming language."
On April 21, 1999, Thompson and Ritchie jointly received the National Medal of Technology of 1998 from President Bill Clinton for co-inventing the UNIX operating system and the C programming language which, according to the citation for the medal, "led to enormous advances in computer hardware, software, and networking systems and stimulated growth of an entire industry, thereby enhancing American leadership in the Information Age".
In 2005, the Industrial Research Institute awarded Ritchie its Achievement Award in recognition of his contribution to science and technology, and to society generally, with his development of the Unix operating system.
In 2011, Ritchie, along with Thompson, was awarded the Japan Prize for Information and Communications for his work in the development of the Unix operating system.
Death
(left) in May 2011]]
<!-- BEFORE CHANGING DEATH CIRCUMSTANCES OR DATE, FIRST DISCUSS ON TALK PAGE, AND PROVIDE RELIABLE SOURCE(S)! -->
Ritchie was found dead on October 12, 2011, at the age of 70 at his home in Berkeley Heights, New Jersey, where he lived alone. He had been in frail health for several years following treatment for prostate cancer and heart disease. News of Ritchie's death was largely overshadowed by the media coverage of the death of Apple co-founder Steve Jobs, which occurred the week before.
Legacy
Following Ritchie's death, computer historian Paul E. Ceruzzi stated:
In an interview shortly after Ritchie's death, long-time colleague Brian Kernighan said Ritchie never expected C to be so significant.
Kernighan told The New York Times "The tools that Dennis built—and their direct descendants—run pretty much everything today." Kernighan reminded readers of how important a role C and Unix had played in the development of later high-profile projects, such as the iPhone. Other testimonials to his influence followed.
Reflecting upon his death, a commentator compared the relative importance of Steve Jobs and Ritchie, concluding that "[Ritchie's] work played a key role in spawning the technological revolution of the last forty years—including technology on which Apple went on to build its fortune." Another commentator said, "Ritchie, on the other hand, invented and co-invented two key software technologies which make up the DNA of effectively every single computer software product we use directly or even indirectly in the modern age. It sounds like a wild claim, but it really is true." Another said, "many in computer science and related fields knew of Ritchie's importance to the growth and development of, well, everything to do with computing,..."
The Fedora 16 Linux distribution, which was released about a month after he died, was dedicated to his memory. FreeBSD 9.0, released January 12, 2012, was also dedicated in his memory.
Asteroid 294727 Dennisritchie, discovered by astronomers Tom Glinos and David H. Levy in 2008, was named in his memory.
Publications and academic papers
Ritchie has been the author or contributor to about 50 academic papers, books and textbooks and which have had over 15,000 citations.
Here are some of his most cited works:
* The C Programming Language, BW Kernighan, DM Ritchie, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey (1978)
* Programming languages, D Ritchie (1978)
*The UNIX time-sharing system, DM Ritchie, K Thompson, Classic operating systems, 195-220 (2001)
*Advanced Programming in the Unix Environment, WR Stevens, SA Rago, DM Ritchie, Addison-Wesley (1992, 2008)See also* List of pioneers in computer science References <!-- end of reflist -->
External links
* , Bell Labs
* [http://www.gotw.ca/publications/c_family_interview.htm "The C Family of Languages: Interview with Dennis Ritchie, Bjarne Stroustrup, and James Gosling" – article in Java Report, 5(7), July 2000 and C++ Report, 12(7), July/August 2000]
*
* [https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/video/unix-starting-point-personal-computer-13869282?tab9482931§ion1206840&playlist11496627&page1 Dennis Ritchie's video interview June 2011]
Category:1941 births
Category:2011 deaths
Category:American computer scientists
Category:American technology writers
Category:Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences alumni
Category:Turing Award laureates
Category:Multics people
Category:Unix people
Category:Plan 9 people
Category:Inferno (operating system) people
Category:C (programming language)
Category:Scientists at Bell Labs
Category:National Medal of Technology recipients
Category:Programming language designers
Category:People from Bronxville, New York
Category:People from Berkeley Heights, New Jersey
Category:People from Summit, New Jersey
Category:Summit High School (New Jersey) alumni
Category:20th-century American inventors
Category:Scientists from New York (state)
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8219
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December 16
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Events
Pre-1600
* 714 – Pepin of Herstal, mayor of the Merovingian palace, dies at Jupille (modern Belgium). He is succeeded by his infant grandson Theudoald, while his widow Plectrude holds actual power in the Frankish Kingdom.
* 755 – An Lushan revolts against Chancellor Yang Guozhong at Yanjing, initiating the An Lushan Rebellion during the Tang dynasty of China.
*1431 – Hundred Years' War: Henry VI of England is crowned King of France at Notre Dame in Paris.
*1497 – Vasco da Gama passes the Great Fish River at the southern tip of Africa, where Bartolomeu Dias had previously turned back to Portugal.
*1575 – An earthquake with an estimated magnitude of 8.5 strikes Valdivia, Chile.
*1598 – Seven-Year War: Battle of Noryang: The final battle of the Seven-Year War is fought between the China and the Korean allied forces and Japanese navies, resulting in a decisive allied forces victory.1601–1900
*1653 – English Interregnum: The Protectorate: Oliver Cromwell becomes Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland.
*1689 – Convention Parliament: The Declaration of Right is embodied in the Bill of Rights.
*1707 – Most Recent Eruption of Mount Fuji.
*1761 – Seven Years' War: After a four-month siege, the Russians under Pyotr Rumyantsev take the Prussian fortress of Kołobrzeg.
*1773 – American Revolution: Boston Tea Party: Members of the Sons of Liberty disguised as Mohawk Indians dump hundreds of crates of tea into Boston harbor as a protest against the Tea Act.
*1777 – Virginia becomes the first state to ratify the Articles of Confederation. [https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/ar/91719.htm]
*1782 – British East India Company: Muharram Rebellion: Hada and Mada Miah lead the first anti-British uprising in the subcontinent against Robert Lindsay and his contingents in Sylhet Shahi Eidgah.
*1811 – The first two in a series of four severe earthquakes occur in the vicinity of New Madrid, Missouri.
*1826 – Benjamin W. Edwards rides into Mexican-controlled Nacogdoches, Texas, and declares himself ruler of the Republic of Fredonia.
*1838 – Great Trek: Battle of Blood River: Voortrekkers led by Andries Pretorius and Sarel Cilliers defeat Zulu impis, led by Dambuza (Nzobo) and Ndlela kaSompisi in what is today KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.
*1850 – The Charlotte Jane and the Randolph bring the first of the Canterbury Pilgrims to Lyttelton, New Zealand.
*1863 – American Civil War: Confederate President Jefferson Davis appoints General Joseph E. Johnston to replace General Braxton Bragg as commander of the Army of Tennessee.
*1864 – American Civil War: The Battle of Nashville ends as the Union Army of the Cumberland under General George H. Thomas routs and destroys the Confederate Army of Tennessee under General John Bell Hood, ending its effectiveness as a combat unit.
*1880 – Outbreak of the First Boer War between the Boer South African Republic and the British Empire.
*1882 – Wales and England contest the first Home Nations (now Six Nations) rugby union match.
*1883 – Tonkin Campaign: French forces capture the Sơn Tây citadel.
1901–present
*1905 – In Rugby Union, The "Match of the Century" is played between Wales and New Zealand at Cardiff Arms Park.
*1912 – First Balkan War: The Royal Hellenic Navy defeats the Ottoman Navy at the Battle of Elli.
*1914 – World War I: Admiral Franz von Hipper commands a raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby.
*1920 – The Haiyuan earthquake of 8.5, rocks the Gansu province in China, killing an estimated 200,000.
*1942 – The Holocaust: Schutzstaffel chief Heinrich Himmler orders that Roma candidates for extermination be deported to Auschwitz.
*1944 – World War II: The Battle of the Bulge begins with the surprise offensive of three German armies through the Ardennes forest.
*1951 – A Miami Airlines Curtiss C-46 Commando crashes in Elizabeth, New Jersey, killing all 58 aboard including dancer Doris Ruby.
*1960 – A United Air Lines Douglas DC-8 and a TWA Lockheed Super Constellation collide over Staten Island, New York and crash, killing all 128 people aboard both aircraft and six more on the ground.
*1968 – Second Vatican Council: Official revocation of the Edict of Expulsion of Jews from Spain.
*1971 – Bangladesh Liberation War and Indo-Pakistani War of 1971: The surrender of the Pakistan Army brings an end to both conflicts. This is commemorated annually as Victory Day in Bangladesh and Vijay Diwas in India respectively.
* 1971 – The United Kingdom recognizes Bahrain's independence, which is commemorated annually as Bahrain's National Day.
* 1972 – The Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh was enacted.
* 1973 – Aeroflot Flight 2022 crashes in the Soviet Union's (now Russia) Volokolamsky District, killing all 51 aboard, including four Lithuanian doctors.
* 1986 – Jeltoqsan: Riots erupt in Alma-Ata, Kazakh SSR, in response to Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's dismissal of ethnic Kazakh Dinmukhamed Kunaev, the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan, and his replacement with Gennady Kolbin, an ethnic Russian from the Russian SFSR.
*1989 – Romanian Revolution: Protests break out in Timișoara, Romania, in response to an attempt by the government to evict dissident Hungarian pastor László Tőkés.
*2011 – Zhanaozen massacre: Violent protests by oil workers take place in Zhanaozen, Kazakhstan, leading to 16 people dead and 100 injured by the security forces.
*2013 – A bus falls from an elevated highway in the Philippines capital Manila killing at least 18 people with 20 injured.
*2014 – Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan militants attack an Army Public School in Peshawar, Pakistan, killing 150 people, 132 of them schoolchildren.
*2022 – A landslide occurs at a camp at an organic farm near the town of Batang Kali in Selangor, Malaysia, trapping 92 people and killing 31.
*2024 – A Abundant Life Christian School shooting: A mass shooting occurs at Abundant Life Christian School in Madison, Wisconsin, killing 3 people (including the shooter) and injuring several others.BirthsPre-1600
*1364 – Emperor Manuel III of Trebizond (d. 1417)
*1485 – Catherine of Aragon, Spanish princess, later queen consort of England (d. 1536)
*1534 – Hans Bol, Flemish artist (d. 1593)
*1582 – Robert Bertie, 1st Earl of Lindsey (d. 1642)
*1584 – John Selden, English jurist and scholar (d. 1654)
*1585 – Livia della Rovere, Italian noble (d. 1641)
1601–1900
*1605 – Jerome Weston, 2nd Earl of Portland, English diplomat (d. 1663)
*1614 – Eberhard III, Duke of Württemberg (d. 1674)
*1630 – Mary Somerset, Duchess of Beaufort, British botanist (d. 1715)
*1714 – George Whitefield, English Anglican priest (d. 1770)
*1716 – Louis Jules Mancini Mazarini, French poet and diplomat (d. 1798)
*1717 – Elizabeth Carter, English poet and scholar (d. 1806)
*1730 – Diego Silang, Filipino revolutionary leader (d. 1763)
*1742 – Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, German field marshal (d. 1819)
*1770 – Ludwig van Beethoven, composer (d. 1827)
*1775 – Jane Austen, English novelist (d. 1817)
* 1775 – François-Adrien Boieldieu, French pianist and composer (d. 1834)
*1776 – Johann Wilhelm Ritter, German chemist, physicist, and philosopher (d. 1810)
*1778 – John Ordronaux, French-American soldier (d. 1841)
*1787 – Mary Russell Mitford, English author and playwright (d. 1855)
*1790 – Leopold I of Belgium (d. 1865)
*1804 – Viktor Bunyakovsky, Russian mathematician and academic (d. 1889)
*1812 – Stuart Donaldson, English-Australian politician, 1st Premier of New South Wales (d. 1867)
*1834 – Léon Walras, French-Swiss economist and theorist (d. 1910)
*1836 – Ernst von Bergmann, Latvian-German surgeon and academic (d. 1907)
*1849 – Mary Hartwell Catherwood, American author and poet (d. 1902)
*1861 – Antonio de La Gándara, French painter and illustrator (d. 1917)
*1863 – George Santayana, Spanish philosopher, novelist, and poet (d. 1952)
*1865 – Olavo Bilac, Brazilian journalist and poet (d. 1918)
*1866 – Wassily Kandinsky, Russian-French painter and theorist (d. 1944)
*1867 – Amy Carmichael, Irish missionary and humanitarian (d. 1951)
*1869 – Hristo Tatarchev, Bulgarian physician and activist, co-founded the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (d. 1952)
* 1869 – Bertha Lamme Feicht, American electrical engineer (d. 1943)
*1872 – Anton Denikin, Russian general (d. 1947)
*1882 – Jack Hobbs, English cricketer and journalist (d. 1963)
* 1882 – Zoltán Kodály, Hungarian composer, conductor, and musicologist (d. 1967)
* 1882 – Walther Meissner, German physicist and engineer (d. 1974)
*1883 – Károly Kós, Hungarian-Romanian architect, ethnologist, and politician (d. 1977)
* 1883 – Max Linder, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1925)
*1884 – John Gunn, Australian politician, 29th Premier of South Australia (d. 1959)
* 1884 – Seibo Kitamura, Japanese sculptor (d. 1987)
*1888 – Alexander I of Yugoslavia (d. 1934)
* 1888 – Alphonse Juin, Algerian-French general (d. 1967)
*1889 – Kim Chwa-chin, South Korean guerrilla leader (d. 1930)
*1895 – Marie Hall Ets, American author and illustrator (d. 1984)
*1896 – Anna Anderson, an imposter who claimed to be Grand Duchess Anastasia of Russia (d. 1984)
*1899 – Noël Coward, English actor, playwright, and composer (d. 1973)
*1900 – Lucille Lortel, American actress and producer (d. 1999)
* 1900 – V. S. Pritchett, British writer and literary critic (d. 1997)
1901–present
*1901 – Margaret Mead, American anthropologist and author (d. 1978)
*1902 – Rafael Alberti, Spanish poet and playwright (d. 1999)
*1903 – Hardie Albright, American actor (d. 1975)
* 1903 – Harold Whitlock, English race walker and coach (d. 1985)
*1905 – Piet Hein, Danish mathematician, author, and poet (d. 1996)
* 1905 – Ruben Nirvi, Finnish linguist and professor (d. 1986)
*1907 – Barbara Kent, Canadian-born American film actress (d. 2011)
*1908 – Remedios Varo, Spanish-Mexican surrealist painter & anarchist (d. 1963)
*1910 – Freddie Brown, Peruvian-English cricketer and sportscaster (d. 1991)
*1913 – George Ignatieff, Russian-Canadian scholar and diplomat, 8th Canadian Ambassador to the United Nations (d. 1989)
*1914 – O. Winston Link, American photographer (d. 2001)
*1916 – Ruth Johnson Colvin, American author and educator, founded ProLiteracy Worldwide (d. 2024)
*1917 – Nabi Bux Khan Baloch, Pakistani author and scholar (d. 2011)
* 1917 – Pete T. Cenarrusa, American soldier, pilot, and politician, Secretary of State of Idaho (d. 2013)
* 1917 – Arthur C. Clarke, English science fiction writer (d. 2008)
*1920 – Frederick Rotimi Williams, Nigerian lawyer and politician (d. 2005)
*1921 – Eulalio González, Mexican singer-songwriter, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2003)
*1922 – Cy Leslie, American record producer, founded Pickwick Records (d. 2008)
*1923 – Menahem Pressler, German-American pianist (d. 2023)
* 1923 – Ernst Florian Winter, Austrian-American historian and political scientist (d. 2014)
*1924 – Nicolas Sidjakov, Latvian-American illustrator (d. 1993)
*1926 – James McCracken, American tenor and actor (d. 1988)
* 1926 – A. N. R. Robinson, Tobagonian lawyer and politician, 3rd President of Trinidad and Tobago (d. 2014)
* 1926 – Jeffrey Stone, American actor and screenwriter (d. 2012)
*1927 – Peter Dickinson, Rhodesian-English author and poet (d. 2015)
* 1927 – Randall Garrett, American author and poet (d. 1987)
*1928 – Terry Carter, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2024)
* 1928 – Philip K. Dick, American philosopher and author (d. 1982)
*1929 – Nicholas Courtney, Egyptian-English actor (d. 2011)
*1930 – Bill Brittain, American author (d. 2011)
* 1930 – Sam Most, American flute player and saxophonist (d. 2013)
* 1930 – Bill Young, American sergeant and politician (d. 2013)
*1932 – Grace Alele-Williams, Nigerian mathematician and academic (d. 2022)
* 1932 – Quentin Blake, English author and illustrator
* 1932 – Lin Zhao, Chinese dissident and Christian executed during the Cultural Revolution (d. 1968)
*1936 – Morris Dees, American lawyer and activist, co-founded the Southern Poverty Law Center
*1937 – Joyce Bulifant, American actress
* 1937 – Edward Ruscha, American painter and photographer
*1938 – Frank Deford, American journalist and author (d. 2017)
* 1938 – Liv Ullmann, Norwegian actress, director, and screenwriter
*1939 – Philip Langridge, English tenor (d. 2010)
* 1939 – Gordon Miller, English high jumper
*1941 – Lesley Stahl, American journalist and actress
* 1941 – Roger Neil Wheeler, English general
*1942 – Donald Carcieri, American educator and politician, 73rd Governor of Rhode Island
*1943 – Steven Bochco, American television writer and producer (d. 2018)
* 1943 – Patti Deutsch, American actress and comedian (d. 2017)
*1944 – Jeff Kanew, American director and screenwriter
* 1944 – Don Meyer, American basketball player and coach (d. 2014)
*1945 – Tony Hicks, English singer and guitarist
*1946 – Benny Andersson, Swedish singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer
* 1946 – Charles Dennis, Canadian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1946 – Trevor Pinnock, English harpsichord player and conductor
* 1946 – Tom Stern, American cinematographer
*1947 – Ben Cross, English actor (d. 2020)
* 1947 – Vincent Matthews, American sprinter
* 1947 – Martyn Poliakoff, English chemist and academic
* 1947 – Trevor Żahra, Maltese novelist, poet and illustrator
*1949 – Billy Gibbons, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
* 1949 – Heather Hallett, English lawyer and judge
*1950 – Claudia Cohen, American journalist (d. 2007)
* 1950 – Roy Schuiten, Dutch cyclist and manager (d. 2006)
*1951 – Aykut Barka, Turkish scientist (d. 2002)
* 1951 – Sally Emerson, English author and poet
* 1951 – Mike Flanagan, American baseball player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 2011)
* 1951 – Robben Ford, American guitarist and songwriter
* 1951 – Mark Heard, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 1992)
*1952 – Joel Garner, Barbadian cricketer and manager
* 1952 – Francesco Graziani, Italian footballer and manager
*1953 – Rebecca Forstadt, American voice actress and screenwriter
*1955 – Xander Berkeley, American actor and producer
* 1955 – Carol Browner, American lawyer and environmentalist, 8th Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency
* 1955 – Prince Lorenz of Belgium, Archduke of Austria-Este
* 1955 – Chiharu Matsuyama, Japanese singer-songwriter
*1956 – Lizzy Mercier Descloux, French musician, singer-songwriter, composer, actress, writer and painter (d. 2004)
*1957 – Antonio Vega, Spanish singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2009)
*1958 – Bart Oates, American football player and lawyer
* 1958 – Jeff Ruland, American basketball player
*1959 – H. D. Kumaraswamy, Indian social worker and politician, 18th Chief Minister of Karnataka
* 1959 – Alison La Placa, American actress
* 1959 – Alexander Lebedev, Russian businessman and politician
* 1959 – Steve Mattsson, American author and illustrator
*1960 – Pat Van Den Hauwe, Belgian footballer and manager
*1961 – André Andersen, Russian-Danish keyboard player, songwriter, and producer
* 1961 – Shane Black, American actor, director, and screenwriter
* 1961 – Bill Hicks, American comedian and musician (d. 1994)
* 1961 – LaChanze, American actress, singer, and dancer
* 1961 – Sam Robards, American actor
* 1961 – Jon Tenney, American actor and director
*1962 – Maruschka Detmers, Dutch-French actress
* 1962 – William Perry, American football player and wrestler
*1963 – Benjamin Bratt, American actor and producer
* 1963 – Cathy Johnston-Forbes, American golfer
* 1963 – James Mangold, American director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1963 – Nadia Moscufo, Belgian politician
*1964 – Heike Drechsler, German sprinter and long jumper
* 1964 – Todd Glass, American comedian
* 1964 – John Kirwan, New Zealand rugby player and coach
* 1964 – Georgie Parker, Australian actress
* 1964 – Billy Ripken, American baseball player and sportscaster
*1965 – Melanie Sloan, American lawyer and activist
* 1965 – J. B. Smoove, American comedian, writer, and actor
*1966 – Fatima Lamarti, Belgian politician
* 1966 – Paul McGinley, Irish golfer
* 1966 – Clifford Robinson, American basketball player (d. 2020)
* 1966 – Dennis Wise, English footballer and manager
*1967 – Donovan Bailey, Canadian sprinter and sportscaster
* 1967 – Indrek Kaseorg, Estonian decathlete
* 1967 – Miranda Otto, Australian actress
*1968 – Wendy Doolan, Australian golfer
* 1968 – Lalah Hathaway, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer
* 1968 – Greg Kovacs, Canadian bodybuilder (d. 2013)
*1969 – Simon Grayson, English footballer and manager
* 1969 – Kent Hehr, Canadian politician
* 1969 – Adam Riess, American astrophysicist, astronomer, and academic Nobel Prize laureate
* 1969 – Michelle Smith, Irish swimmer
* 1969 – Dmitri Tymoczko, American composer and theorist
* 1969 – Craig White, English cricketer and coach
*1970 – Valerie Chow, Canadian-Hong Kong actress and publicist
* 1970 – Daniel Cosgrove, American actor
*1971 – Seyhan Kurt, French-Turkish poet and sociologist
* 1971 – Paul van Dyk, German musician, producer and DJ
* 1971 – Michael McCary, American R&B singer
*1972 – Charles Gipson, American baseball player
* 1972 – Zeljko Kalac, Australian soccer player and manager
* 1972 – Paul Leyden, Australian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1972 – Travis Morrison, American singer-songwriter
*1973 – Themba Mnguni, South African footballer
* 1973 – Scott Storch, American songwriter and producer, founded Storch Music Company
*1975 – Valentin Bădoi, Romanian footballer and manager
* 1975 – Kaba Diawara, French-Guinean footballer
* 1975 – Benjamin Kowalewicz, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1975 – Paul Maynard, English politician
*1976 – Jen Golbeck, American computer scientist and academic
*1977 – Éric Bélanger, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1977 – Sylvain Distin, French footballer
*1978 – John Morris, Canadian curler and firefighter
* 1978 – Gunter Van Handenhoven, Belgian footballer and manager
*1979 – Trevor Immelman, South African golfer
* 1979 – Brodie Lee, American wrestler (d. 2020)
* 1979 – Daniel Narcisse, French handball player
* 1979 – Mihai Trăistariu, Romanian singer-songwriter
* 1979 – Jessie Ward, American wrestler and producer
*1980 – Danish Kaneria, Pakistani cricketer
*1981 – Krysten Ritter, American actress, musician, and model
* 1981 – Reanna Solomon, Nauruan weightlifter (d. 2022)
* 1981 – Gareth Williams, Scottish footballer
*1982 – Antrel Rolle, American football player
* 1982 – Anna Sedokova, Ukrainian singer, actress and television presenter
* 1982 – Stanislav Šesták, Slovak footballer
*1983 – Kelenna Azubuike, Nigerian-American basketball player
* 1983 – Frankie Ballard, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1983 – Joey Dorsey, American basketball player
*1984 – Theo James, English actor
*1985 – Stanislav Manolev, Bulgarian footballer
* 1985 – James Nash, English race car driver
* 1985 – Amanda Setton, American actress
*1986 – Alcides Escobar, Venezuelan baseball player
* 1986 – Zoltán Kovács, Hungarian footballer (d. 2013)
* 1986 – Pärt Uusberg, Estonian actor, composer, and conductor.
*1987 – Mame Biram Diouf, Senegalese footballer
* 1987 – Beau Dowler, Australian footballer
* 1987 – Hallee Hirsh, American actress
*1988 – Mats Hummels, German footballer
* 1988 – Anna Popplewell, English actress
* 1988 – Alexey Shved, Russian basketball player
*1989 – Mikkel Bødker, Danish ice hockey player
*1990 – Rebecca Marino, Canadian tennis player
*1991 – Craig Goodwin, Australian footballer
* 1991 – David Johnson, American football player
*1992 – Ulrikke Eikeri, Norwegian tennis player
* 1992 – Anamul Haque, Bangladeshi cricketer
* 1992 – Pietro Perdichizzi, Belgian footballer
* 1992 – Tom Rogic, Australian footballer
*1993 – Jyoti Amge, Indian actress
* 1993 – Stephan James, Canadian actor
*1994 – Nigel Hayes, American basketball player
* 1994 – Elliot Lee, English footballer
* 1994 – Nicola Murru, Italian footballer
* 1994 – José Rodríguez, Spanish footballer
*1996 – Wilfred Ndidi, Nigerian footballer
* 1996 – Sergio Reguilón, Spanish footballer
* 1996 – Henry Thornton, Australian cricketer
*1998 – Mira Antonitsch, Austrian tennis player
* 1998 – Zhou Jieqiong, Chinese singer and actress
*2001 – Kai Cenat, American streamer
<!--Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No food in the gym please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 604 – Houzhu, emperor of the Chen dynasty (b. 553)
* 705 – Wu Zetian, Empress of the Zhou dynasty (b. 624)
* 714 – Pepin of Herstal, Frankish statesman (b. 635)
* 867 – Eberhard of Friuli, Frankish duke (b. 815)
* 874 – Ado, archbishop of Vienne
* 882 – John VIII, pope of the Catholic Church
* 902 – Wei Yifan, chancellor of the Tang dynasty
*999 – Adelaide of Italy, Holy Roman Empress (b. 931)
*1153 – Ranulf de Gernon, 4th Earl of Chester, Norman nobleman
*1263 – Haakon IV, king of Norway (b. 1204)
*1316 – Öljaitü, Mongolian ruler (b. 1280)
*1325 – Charles, French nobleman (b. 1270)
*1378 – Secondotto, marquess of Montferrat (b. 1360)
*1379 – John FitzAlan, 1st Baron Arundel, English general and politician, Lord Marshall of England (b. 1348)
*1470 – John II, duke of Lorraine (b. 1424)
*1474 – Ali Qushji, Uzbek astronomer, mathematician, and physicist (b. 1403)
*1515 – Afonso de Albuquerque, Portuguese admiral and politician, 3rd Viceroy of Portuguese India (b. 1453)
*1558 – Thomas Cheney, English diplomat and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports
*1583 – Ivan Fyodorov, Russian printer
*1594 – Allison Balfour, Scottish witch
*1598 – Yi Sun-sin, Korean general (b. 1545)
1601–1900
*1669 – Nathaniel Fiennes, English soldier and politician (b. 1608)
*1687 – William Petty, English economist and philosopher (b. 1623)
*1751 – Leopold II, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau (b. 1700)
*1774 – François Quesnay, French economist, physician, and philosopher (b. 1694)
*1783 – Johann Adolph Hasse, German composer and educator (b. 1699)
* 1783 – Sir William James, 1st Baronet, Welsh-English commander and politician (b. 1720)
*1805 – Saverio Cassar, Gozitan priest and rebel leader (b. 1746)
*1809 – Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, French chemist and entomologist (b. 1755)
*1859 – Wilhelm Grimm, German anthropologist and author (b. 1786)
*1892 – Henry Yesler, American businessman and politician, 7th Mayor of Seattle (b. 1810)
*1897 – Alphonse Daudet, French author, poet, and playwright (b. 1840)
*1898 – Pavel Tretyakov, Russian businessman and art collector (b. 1832)
1901–present
*1908 – American Horse, American tribal leader and educator (b. 1840)
*1917 – Frank Gotch, American wrestler (b. 1878)
*1921 – Camille Saint-Saëns, French pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1835)
*1922 – Gabriel Narutowicz, Lithuanian–Polish engineer and politician, 1st President of the Republic of Poland (b. 1865)
*1928 – Elinor Wylie, American poet and author (b. 1885)
*1935 – Thelma Todd, American actress and comedian (b. 1905)
*1936 – Frank Eugene, American-German photographer and educator (b. 1865)
*1940 – Eugène Dubois, Dutch paleoanthropologist (b. 1858)
* 1940 – Billy Hamilton, American baseball player and manager (b. 1866)
*1943 – George Bambridge, English diplomat (b. 1892)
*1944 – Betsie ten Boom, Dutch Holocaust victim (b. 1885)
*1945 – Giovanni Agnelli, Italian businessman, founded Fiat (b. 1866)
* 1945 – Fumimaro Konoe, Japanese lawyer and politician, 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1891)
*1949 – Sidney Olcott, Canadian-American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1873)
*1952 – Robert Henry Best, American journalist (b. 1896)
*1956 – Nina Hamnett, Welsh painter and author (b. 1890)
*1961 – Hans Rebane, Estonian journalist and politician, 8th Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1882)
*1965 – W. Somerset Maugham, British playwright, novelist, and short story writer (b. 1874)
*1968 – Futabayama Sadaji, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 35th Yokozuna (b. 1912)
* 1968 – Muhammad Suheimat, Jordanian general and politician (b. 1916)
*1969 – Alphonse Castex, French rugby union player (b. 1899)
* 1969 – Soe Hok Gie, Indonesian activist and academic (b. 1942)
*1970 – Oscar Lewis, American anthropologist of Latin America (b. 1914)
*1974 – Kostas Varnalis, Greek poet and playwright (b. 1884)
*1976 – Réal Caouette, Canadian journalist and politician (b. 1917)
*1977 – Risto Jarva, Finnish director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1934)
*1980 – Colonel Sanders, American businessman, founded KFC (b. 1890)
* 1980 – Hellmuth Walter, German-American engineer (b. 1900)
*1982 – Colin Chapman, English engineer and businessman, founded Lotus Cars (b. 1928)
*1983 – Debs Garms, American baseball player (b. 1907)
*1984 – Karl Deichgräber, German philologist and academic (b. 1903)
*1985 – Thomas Bilotti, American mobster (b. 1940)
* 1985 – Paul Castellano, American mobster (b. 1915)
*1989 – Oscar Alfredo Gálvez, Argentinian race car driver (b. 1913)
* 1989 – Silvana Mangano, Italian actress (b. 1930)
* 1989 – Aileen Pringle, American actress (b. 1895)
* 1989 – Lee Van Cleef, American actor (b. 1925)
*1991 – Eszter Tamási, Hungarian actress and journalist (b. 1938)
*1993 – Moses Gunn, American actor (b. 1929)
* 1993 – Kakuei Tanaka, Japanese soldier and politician, 64th Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1918)
*1996 – Quentin Bell, English historian and author (b. 1910)
*1997 – Lillian Disney, American illustrator and philanthropist (b. 1899)
*1998 – William Gaddis, American author and academic (b. 1922)
*2001 – Stuart Adamson, English-Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1958)
* 2001 – Stefan Heym, German-American soldier and author (b. 1913)
*2003 – Robert Stanfield, Canadian economist, lawyer, and politician, 17th Premier of Nova Scotia (b. 1914)
* 2003 – Gary Stewart, American singer-songwriter (b. 1945)
*2004 – Ted Abernathy, American baseball player (b. 1933)
* 2004 – Deyda Hydara, Gambian journalist, co-founded The Point (b. 1946)
* 2004 – Agnes Martin, American painter and educator (b. 1912)
*2005 – Kenneth Bulmer, English author (b. 1921)
* 2005 – Ed Hansen, American director and screenwriter (b. 1937)
* 2005 – John Spencer, American actor (b. 1946)
*2006 – Don Jardine, Canadian wrestler and trainer (b. 1940)
* 2006 – Taliep Petersen, South African singer-songwriter and director (b. 1950)
* 2006 – Pnina Salzman, Israeli pianist and educator (b. 1922)
* 2006 – Stanford J. Shaw, American historian and academic (b. 1930)
*2007 – Dan Fogelberg, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1951)
*2009 – Roy E. Disney, American businessman (b. 1930)
* 2009 – Yegor Gaidar, Russian economist and politician, Prime Minister of Russia (b. 1956)
* 2009 – Manto Tshabalala-Msimang, South African physician and politician, 22nd South African Minister of Health (b. 1940)
*2010 – Melvin E. Biddle, American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1923)
* 2010 – Ayinde Barrister, Nigerian fuji musician (b. 1948)
*2011 – Robert Easton, American actor and screenwriter (b. 1930)
* 2011 – Nicol Williamson, Scottish actor (b. 1938)
*2012 – Elwood V. Jensen, American biologist and academic (b. 1920)
* 2012 – Jake Adam York, American poet and academic (b. 1972)
*2013 – James Flint, English commander (b. 1913)
* 2013 – Ray Price, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1926)
* 2013 – Marta Russell, American journalist, author, and activist (b. 1951)
*2014 – Martin Brasier, English paleontologist, biologist, and academic (b. 1947)
* 2014 – Tim Cochran, American mathematician and academic (b. 1955)
*2015 – Peter Dickinson, Rhodesian-English author and poet (b. 1927)
* 2015 – Lizmark, Mexican wrestler (b. 1950)
* 2015 – George Earl Ortman, American painter and sculptor (b. 1926)
*2017 – Keely Smith, American singer and actress (b. 1928)
*2024 – Dick Van Arsdale, American basketball player (b. 1943)
<!--Please do not add non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.-->
Holidays and observances
*Christian feast day:
**Adelaide of Italy
**Haggai
**Ralph Adams Cram, Richard Upjohn and John La Farge (Episcopal Church (USA))
**December 16 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Day of Reconciliation, formerly celebrated as Day of the Vow by the Afrikaners (South Africa)
*Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Kazakhstan from the Soviet Union in 1991.
*National Day, celebrates the withdrawal of United Kingdom from Bahrain, making Bahrain an independent emirate in 1971.
*National Sports Day (Thailand)
*The beginning of the nine-day celebration beginning December 16 and ending December 24, celebrating the trials which Mary and Joseph endured before finding a place to stay where Jesus could be born (Hispanidad):
**The first day of Las Posadas (Mexico, Latin America)
**The first day of the Simbang Gabi novena of masses (Philippines)
*Victory Day observances, celebration of the Indo-Bangla allied victory over Pakistan armed forces and the Liberation of Bangladesh. (Bangladesh and India)
Notes
References
External links
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/16 BBC: On This Day]
*
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/december/16 Historical Events on December 16]
Category:Days of December
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_16
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2025-04-05T18:28:30.675458
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Doctrine and Covenants
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The Doctrine and Covenants (sometimes abbreviated and cited as D&C or D. and C.) is a part of the open scriptural canon of several denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement. Originally published in 1835 as Doctrine and Covenants of the Church of the Latter Day Saints: Carefully Selected from the Revelations of God, editions of the book continue to be printed mainly by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) and the Community of Christ (formerly the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints [RLDS Church]).
The book originally contained two parts: a sequence of lectures setting forth basic church doctrine, followed by a compilation of revelations, or "covenants" of the church: thus the name "Doctrine and Covenants". The "doctrine" portion of the book, however, has been removed by both the LDS Church and Community of Christ. The remaining portion of the book contains revelations on numerous topics, most of which were dictated by the movement's founder Joseph Smith, supplemented by materials periodically added by each denomination.
Controversy has existed between the two largest denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement over some sections added to the 1876 LDS edition, attributed to founder Smith. Whereas the LDS Church believes these sections to have been revelations to Smith, the RLDS Church traditionally disputed their authenticity.History
The Doctrine and Covenants was first published in 1835 as a later version of the Book of Commandments, which had been partially printed in 1833. This earlier book contained 65 early revelations to church leaders, notably Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery. Before many copies of the book could be printed, the printing press and most of the printed copies were destroyed by a mob in Missouri.
On September 24, 1834, a committee was appointed by the general assembly of the church to organize a new volume containing the most significant revelations. This committee of Presiding Elders, consisting of Smith, Cowdery, Sidney Rigdon, and Frederick G. Williams, began to review and revise numerous revelations for inclusion in the new work. The committee eventually organized the book into two parts: a "Doctrine" part and a "Covenants" part.
The "Doctrine" part of the book consisted of a theological course now called the "Lectures on Faith". The lectures were a series of doctrinal courses used in the School of the Prophets which had recently been completed in Kirtland, Ohio. According to the committee, these lectures were included in the compilation "in consequence of their embracing the important doctrine of salvation."
The "Covenants" part of the book, labeled "Covenants and Commandments of the Lord, to his servants of the church of the Latter Day Saints", contained a total of 103 revelations. These 103 revelations were said to "contain items or principles for the regulation of the church, as taken from the revelations which have been given since its organization, as well as from former ones."
In 1835, the book was printed and published under the title Doctrine and Covenants of the Church of the Latter Day Saints: Carefully Selected from the Revelations of God.
A copy of the Doctrine and Covenants from NASA photographer M. Edward Thomas traveled to the moon and back in 1972 with astronaut John Young aboard Apollo 16.
LDS Church editions
In the LDS Church, The Doctrine and Covenants of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints stands alongside the Bible, the Book of Mormon, and the Pearl of Great Price as scripture. Together the LDS Church's scriptures are referred to as the "standard works". The LDS Church's version of the Doctrine and Covenants is described by the church as "containing revelations given to Joseph Smith, the Prophet, with some additions by his successors in the Presidency of the Church."Sections Included in LDS edition
The 138 sections and two official declarations in LDS Church's Doctrine and Covenants break down as follows:
*Sections 1–134, 137: From the presidency of Joseph Smith (1828–44)
*Sections 135–136: During the administration of the Quorum of the Twelve (1844–47)
*Official Declaration 1: From the presidency of Wilford Woodruff (1889–98)
*Section 138: From the presidency of Joseph F. Smith (1901–18)
*Official Declaration 2: From the presidency of Spencer W. Kimball (1973–85)
The following sections consist of letters, reports, statements, and other similar documents: 102, 123, 127–131, 134, 135, and Official Declarations 1 and 2.
1844 Edition
In 1844, the church added eight sections not included in the 1835 edition. In the current edition, these added sections are numbered 103, 105, 112, 119, 124, 127, 128, and 135.
1876 Edition
In 1876, a new LDS Church edition renumbered most of the sections in a roughly chronological order instead of the earlier topical order, and included 26 sections not included in previous editions, now numbered as sections 2, 13, 77, 85, 87, 108–111, 113–118, 120–123, 125, 126, 129–132, and 136. Previous editions had been divided into verses with the early versifications generally following the paragraph structure of the original text. It was with the 1876 edition that the currently used versification was first employed.
In 1876, section 101 from the 1835 edition (and subsequent printings) was removed. Section 101 was a "Statement on Marriage" as adopted by an 1835 conference of the church, and contained the following text:
This section was removed because it had been superseded by section 132 of the modern LDS edition, recorded in 1843, which contains a revelation received by Joseph Smith on eternal marriage and plural marriage, the origin of the principles of which the LDS Church traces to as early as 1831.
During the 1880s, five foreign editions contained two revelations to John Taylor that were received in 1882 and 1883; these revelations "set in order" the priesthood, gave more clarification about the roles of priesthood offices—especially the seventy—and required "men who ... preside over my priesthood" to live plural marriage in order to qualify to hold their church positions. Due to the LDS Church's change in attitude to polygamy in 1890, these sections were not included in future English editions of the Doctrine and Covenants.1921 EditionIn 1921, the LDS Church removed the "Lectures on Faith" portion of the book, with an explanation that the lectures "were never presented to nor accepted by the Church as being otherwise than theological lectures or lessons". The lectures contain theology concerning the Godhead and emphasize the importance of faith and works.Latter-day RevelationIn 1930, a small volume edited by apostle James E. Talmage titled Latter-day Revelation: Selections from the Book of Doctrine and Covenants was published, which was a highly edited selective version of the Doctrine and Covenants printed in paragraph format rather than verses. Talmage wrote that the book's purpose was "to make the strictly doctrinal parts of the Doctrine and Covenants of easy access and reduce its bulk" by including only "the sections comprising scriptures of general and enduring value". Ninety-five of the sections of the Doctrine and Covenants were completely omitted—most notably section 132 on plural and celestial marriage—along with parts of 21 others. As a result, church president Heber J. Grant ordered the withdrawal of the book from sale with the remaining copies shredded in order to "avoid further conflict with the fundamentalists". No new revelatory sections have been added since 1981.
The LDS Church's 1981 edition contains two "Official Declarations" at the book's conclusion. The 1890 Official Declaration 1 ended the church-authorized practice of plural marriage, and the 1978 Official Declaration 2 announces the opening of priesthood ordination to all worthy male members without regard to race or color. The two Official Declarations are not revelations, but they serve as the formal announcements that a revelation was received. In neither case is the revelation included in the Doctrine and Covenants. The text of Official Declaration 1 has been included in every LDS Church printing of the Doctrine and Covenants since 1908.
Until 1981, editions of the book used code names for certain people and places in those sections that dealt with the United Order. The 1981 LDS edition replaced these with the real names, relegating the code names to footnotes. The Community of Christ edition still uses the code names.
2013 Edition
A new edition was released in 2013. Changes included adjustments and corrections to the book's introduction and section introductions. The changes reflect the modern scholarship that came from The Joseph Smith Papers.Community of Christ editionsOfficials of the Community of Christ (formerly known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints [RLDS Church]) first published an edition of the Doctrine and Covenants in 1864, based on the previous 1844 edition. A general conference of the church in 1878 approved a resolution that declared that the revelations of the Prophet-President Joseph Smith III had equal standing to those previously included in the work. Since that time, the church has continued to add sections to its edition of the Doctrine and Covenants, containing the revelations of succeeding Prophet-Presidents. The most recent addition was formally authorized on April 14, 2010, after being presented to the church for informal consideration on January 17, 2010. The numbers of the sections and versification differ from the edition published by the LDS Church and both modern editions differ from the original 1835 edition numeration.Sections added to the Community of Christ edition
The 167 sections of the Community of Christ's Doctrine and Covenants break down as follows:
*Sections 1–113 (includes 108A): From the presidency of Joseph Smith (1828–44)
*Sections 114–131: From the presidency of Joseph Smith III (1860–1914)
*Sections 132–138: From the presidency of Frederick M. Smith (1914–46)
*Sections 139–144: From the presidency of Israel A. Smith (1946–58)
*Sections 145–152 (includes 149A): From the presidency of W. Wallace Smith (1958–78)
*Sections 153–160: From the presidency of Wallace B. Smith (1978–96)
*Sections 161–162: From the presidency of W. Grant McMurray (1996–2004)
*Sections 163–165: From the presidency of Stephen M. Veazey (2005–)
The following sections are not revelations, but letters, reports, statements, and other similar documents: 99, 108A, 109–113, and 123.
Based on the above, the number of revelations (accounting for sections that are not revelations) presented by each Community of Christ president, are as follows:
*Joseph Smith: 107
*Joseph Smith III: 17
*Frederick M. Smith: 7
*Israel A. Smith: 6
*W. Wallace Smith: 9
*Wallace B. Smith: 8
*W. Grant McMurray: 2
*Stephen M. Veazey: 3
Portions removed from the Community of Christ edition
The Community of Christ removed the "Lectures on Faith" in 1897. The 1970 World Conference concluded that several sections that had been added between the 1835 and 1844 editions—mainly dealing with the subjects of temple worship and baptism for the dead—had been published without proper approval of a church conference. As a result, the World Conference removed sections 107, 109, 110, 113, and 123 to a historical appendix, which also includes documents that were never published as sections. Of these, only section 107 was a revelation. The World Conference of 1990 subsequently removed the entire appendix from the Doctrine and Covenants. Section 108A contained the minutes of a business meeting, which, because of its historical nature, was moved to the Introduction in the 1970s. After 1990, the Introduction was updated, and what was section 108A was removed entirely.
Developments in 2023 and 2024
A proposal to decanonize section 116 and move it to historical records was debated at the 2023 World Conference, which voted to refer the issue to the First Presidency. Section 116 had been received by Joseph Smith III in 1865, shortly after the conclusion of the American Civil War, and stipulates that men of all ethnic backgrounds should be ordained (contrast the LDS Church policy at the time forbidding Black ordination), but hedges this with caution against taking a "hasty" or indiscriminate attitude in ordination of men of the "Negro race", noting that many of the existing priesthood holders had failed to adequately fulfill their responsibilities. After consulting with Black priesthood members, the First Presidency decided to retain it, so as not to appear to be sanitising the church's history.
The Diversity and Inclusion team and the Church History and Sacred Story team were opposed to removing the section, arguing that it represented an important historical step towards inclusivity. The Church History and Sacred Story team, moreover, opined that the removal of sections 107, 109, 110, 113, and 123 had been a "mistake" based on "naive misunderstandings" of scripture and revelation, arguing that many other scriptural texts contain sexist, racist and violent language as a result of the backgrounds and biases of the writers, and that responsible interpretation of scripture needs to take this into account when seeking to discern God's will. is contained in the Community of Christ version's section 156, presented by Prophet–President Wallace B. Smith and added in 1984, which called for the ordination of women to the priesthood and set out the primary purpose of temples to be "the pursuit of peace". A resulting schism over the legitimacy of these change led to the formation of the Restoration Branches movement, the Restoration Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints and the Remnant Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints.
While some of the prose in the new revelations seems designed to guide the denomination on matters of church governance and doctrine, others are seen as inspirational. One such example can be cited from section 161, presented as counsel to the church by W. Grant McMurray in 1996: "Become a people of the Temple—those who see violence but proclaim peace, who feel conflict yet extend the hand of reconciliation, who encounter broken spirits and find pathways for healing."
Editions used by other denominations
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite) uses the 1846 edition that was published in Nauvoo, Illinois; this version is virtually identical to the 1844 edition. Most recently a facsimile reprint was produced for the church at Voree, Wisconsin by Richard Drew in 1993.
The Church of Christ (Temple Lot) contends that the thousands of changes made to the original revelations as published in the Book of Commandments (including the change of the church's name) are not doctrinal and result from Joseph Smith's fall from his original calling. As a result, the Church of Christ (Temple Lot) prefers to use reprints of the Book of Commandments text.
The Church of Jesus Christ (Cutlerite) accepts the 1844 edition of the Doctrine and Covenants, including the Lectures on Faith, which it insists are as much inspired as the revelations themselves.
The Restoration Branches generally use the older RLDS Church Doctrine and Covenants, typically sections 1–144.
The Remnant Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints uses the older RLDS Church version of the Doctrine and Covenants up to section 144, and also 19 new revelations from their previous president, Frederick Niels Larsen.
"Remnant" movement, a spiritual movement in schism with the LDS Church, published an online "Restoration" edition of the Doctrine and Covenants in 2017. It includes any sections authored by Joseph Smith. It also: includes a new version of D&C 54, as revised by Denver Snuffer; excludes the Kirtland Temple visitation by Elijah and other angelic beings in D&C 110; excludes portions based on fragmentary teachings by Smith in D&C 129; includes Smith's Lectures on Faith; and includes a new appendix titled, "A Prophet’s Prerogative," by Jeff Savage.Chart comparison of editions
The following chart compares the current editions of the Doctrine and Covenants used by the LDS Church (LDS ed.) and Community of Christ (CofC ed.) with the 1833 Book of Commandments (BofC), the 1835 edition published in Kirtland, and the 1844 edition published in Nauvoo. Unless otherwise specified, the document is styled a "revelation" of the person delivering it.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="background:#dcdcff;"
! LDS ed.
! CofC ed.
! BofC<br />(1833)
! Kirtland ed.<br />(1835)
! Nauvoo ed.<br />(1844)
! Date
! Delivered by
! Description
|-
| 1
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Lord's "Preface"
|-
| 2
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith (angelic visitation)
| Moroni's visit to Joseph Smith
|-
| 3
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| lost 116 pages
|-
| 4
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Joseph Smith, Sr.
|-
| 5
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Martin Harris; golden plates
|-
| 6
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery
| To Oliver Cowdery
|-
| 7
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery
| To Joseph Smith, Oliver Cowdery; the Account of John
|-
| 8
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Oliver Cowdery; Book of Mormon translation
|-
| 9
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Oliver Cowdery; Book of Mormon translation
|-
| 10
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| lost 116 pages
|-
| 11
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Hyrum Smith
|-
| 12
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Joseph Knight, Sr.
|-
| 13
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery (angelic visitation)
| Conferral of Aaronic priesthood by John the Baptist
|-
| 14
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To David Whitmer
|-
| 15
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To John Whitmer
|-
| 16
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Peter Whitmer, Jr.
|-
| 17
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Three Witnesses
|-
| 18
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith, Oliver Cowdery, and David Whitmer
| selection of Twelve Apostles
|-
| 19
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Martin Harris
|-
| 20
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Church organization and government
|-
| 21
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Joseph Smith's calling
|-
| 22
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| baptism
|-
| 23
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Oliver Cowdery, Hyrum Smith, Samuel H. Smith, Joseph Smith, Sr., Joseph Knight, Sr.
|-
| 24
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery
| Callings of Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery
|-
| 25
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Emma Smith; compilation of a church hymnal
|-
| 26
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith, Oliver Cowdery, and John Whitmer
| Common consent
|-
| 27
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Sacrament and priesthood ordinations
|-
| 28
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Oliver Cowdery; Joseph Smith to receive revelations until another appointed
|-
| 29
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To six elders; Second Coming; origin of Satan; redemption of children
|-
| 30
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To David Whitmer, Peter Whitmer, Jr., John Whitmer
|-
| 31
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Thomas B. Marsh
|-
| 32
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Parley P. Pratt and Ziba Peterson
|-
| 33
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Ezra Thayre and Northrop Sweet
|-
| 34
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Orson Pratt
|-
| 35
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon
| Callings Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon; signs and miracles; the elect
|-
| 36
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Edward Partridge
|-
| 37
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon
| Saints to gather in Ohio
|-
| 38
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| equality; wars
|-
| 39
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To James Covel
|-
| 40
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon
| Concerning James Covel
|-
| 41
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To the church; Edward Partridge called as bishop
|-
| 42
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| "The Laws of the Church of Christ"; explanation of the United Order
|-
| 43
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Role of President of the Church; missionary work; forces of nature
|-
| 44
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon
| Church conference called
|-
| 45
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Matthew chapter 24 explained; missionary work; Christ as advocate
|-
| 46
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Sacrament meeting, gifts of the Spirit
|-
| 47
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| John Whitmer to keep history of church
|-
| 48
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Purchase of lands
|-
| 49
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Joseph Smith, Sidney Rigdon, Parley P. Pratt, and Leman Copley; Shaker beliefs
|-
| 50
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Recognizing the Spirit
|-
| 51
|
| –
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Property division
|-
| 52
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Sending elders to Missouri
|-
| 53
|
|
| |
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Algernon Sidney Gilbert
|-
| 54
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Newel Knight
|-
| 55
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To W. W. Phelps
|-
| 56
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| The rebellious; the rich and the poor
|-
| 57
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Location of Zion at Jackson County, Missouri
|-
| 58
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Tribulations; gather to Zion
|-
| 59
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| The sabbath; reward for the righteous
|-
| 60
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Elders to travel to Cincinnati, Ohio; missionary work
|-
| 61
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| "Destruction upon the waters"
|-
| 62
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Missionary work
|-
| 63
|
|
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Signs; mysteries; impending war and woe; gather to Zion; authority to use Lord's name
|-
| 64
|
| |
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Forgiveness; financial debt; tithing; Zion to flourish
|-
| 65
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith (prayer)
| Prayer of Joseph Smith; keys of the kingdom
|-
| 66
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To William E. McLellin
|-
| 67
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Testimony of the Book of Commandments
|-
| 68
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Orson Hyde, Luke S. Johnson, Lyman E. Johnson, and William E. McLellin; bishops; parents
|-
| 69
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Assignments for John Whitmer
|-
| 70
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Stewardship; equality
|-
| 71
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon
| Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon called to preach
|-
| 72
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Bishops
|-
| 73
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon
| Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible
|-
| 74
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Explanation of 1 Corinthians 7:14; salvation of children
|-
| 75
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Missionary work; families of missionaries
|-
| 76
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon (vision)
| Jesus Christ; resurrection; degrees of glory; origin of Satan; called "The Vision"
|-
| 77
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith
| Explanation of certain verses in Revelation
|-
| 78
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| United Order; equality
|-
| 79
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Jared Carter
|-
| 80
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Stephen Burnett and Eden Smith
|-
| 81
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Jesse Gause; on 18 Mar 1833 its application was transferred to Frederick G. Williams
|-
| 82
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Obedience; United Order; equality
|-
| 83
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Husbands and fathers; widows and orphans
|-
| 84 nor in the original 1835 edition.}}
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Priesthood
|-
| 85
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith (letter)
| Letter from Joseph Smith to W. W. Phelps; United Order; One Mighty and Strong; equality
|-
| 86
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Parable of the Tares explained
|-
| 87
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith
| Prophecy of war and calamity
|-
| 88
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| The "olive leaf"; "Lord's message of peace"
|-
| 89
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| A "Word of Wisdom"
|-
| 90
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Keys of the kingdom; First Presidency
|-
| 91
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| The Apocrypha
|-
| 92
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Frederick G. Williams
|-
| 93
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| John's record of Christ; intelligence; innocence of children
|-
| 94
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Hyrum Smith, Reynolds Cahoon, and Jared Carter; construction of various buildings commanded
|-
| 95
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Kirtland Temple to be built; purpose of temples
|-
| 96
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Division of property
|-
| 97
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Saints in Jackson County, Missouri; temple to be built in Jackson County
|-
| 98
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Promises and warnings; martyrs; when war is justified; forgiving enemies
|-
| 99
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| To John Murdock
|-
| 100
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon
| Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon to preach gospel; Rigdon to be Smith's spokesman; welfare of Orson Hyde and John Gould
|-
| 101
|
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| Redemption of Zion; parables; United States and the U.S. Constitution; Saints to seek redress
|-
| 102
|
|–
|
|
|
| Oliver Cowdery and Orson Hyde (minutes of meeting)
| Minutes for first high council meeting
|-
| 103
| 100
|–
|–
| 101
|
| Joseph Smith
| Redemption of Zion; organization of Zion's Camp
|-
| 104
| 101
|–
|
|
|
| Joseph Smith
| United Order
|-
| 105
| 102
|–
|–
| 102
|
| Joseph Smith
| Redemption of Zion; purpose of Kirtland Temple; peace
|-
| 106
| 103
|–
|
| 100
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Warren A. Cowdery; Second Coming
|-
| 107
| 104
|–
|
|
| (completed); some portions received 11 Nov 1831
| Joseph Smith
| Priesthood; quorums
|-
| 108
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Lyman Sherman
|-
| 109
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith (prayer)
| Dedicatory prayer for Kirtland Temple
|-
| 110
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery (vision and angelic visitations)
| Visitation of Jesus Christ to accept Kirtland Temple; conferral of priesthood keys; coming of Moses, Elias, and Elijah
|-
| 111
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith
| temporal needs of the church
|-
| 112
| 105
|–
|–
| 104
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Thomas B. Marsh; Quorum of the Twelve Apostles; First Presidency
|-
| 113
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith (answers to questions)
| Answers to questions on the Book of Isaiah
|-
| 114
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith
| Concerning David W. Patten
|-
| 115
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith
| Name of the church; stakes; temple to be built at Far West, Missouri
|-
| 116
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith
| Adam-ondi-Ahman
|-
| 117
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith
| Concerning William Marks, Newel K. Whitney, and Oliver Granger; property; sacrifice
|-
| 118
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith
| Vacancies in the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles filled
|-
| 119
| 106
|–
|–
| 107
|
| Joseph Smith
| Tithing
|-
| 120
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith
| Council on the Disposition of the Tithes
|-
| 121
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith (prayer and prophecies)
| Prayer and prophecies of Joseph Smith; why many are called but few chosen
|-
| 122
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith
| Destiny of Joseph Smith
|-
| 123
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith (letter)
| Letter to church; duty in relation to their persecutors
|-
| 124
| 107
|–
|–
| 103
|
| Joseph Smith
| Nauvoo Temple and Nauvoo House to be built; baptism for the dead
|-
| 125
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith
| Saints in Iowa
|-
| 126
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith
| To Brigham Young
|-
| 127
| 109
|–
|–
| 105
|
| Joseph Smith (letter)
| Letter to church; baptism for the dead
|-
| 128
| 110
|–
|–
| 106
|
| Joseph Smith (letter)
| Letter to church; baptism for the dead
|-
| 129
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith (instructions)
| Distinguishing the nature of angels and disembodied spirits
|-
| 130
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith (instruction)
| Various items of instruction; corporeal nature of God and Jesus Christ; intelligence; seer stones
|-
| 131
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith (instruction)
| Various items of instruction; celestial marriage; eternal life
|-
| 132
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith
| Plural marriage; celestial marriage; sealing power; exaltation—see 1843 polygamy revelation
|-
| 133
| 108
|–
| 100
| 108
|
| Joseph Smith
| Original "Appendix"; Second Coming; missionary work
|-
| 134
| 112
|–
| 102
| 110
|
| Church (declaration)
| secular governments and laws in general
|-
| 135
| 113
|–
|–
| 111
|
| John Taylor (eulogy)
| Martyrdom of Joseph Smith and Hyrum Smith
|-
| 136
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Brigham Young
| Organization of Mormon pioneer westward journey
|-
| 137}} Moved to the Doctrine and Covenants in 1979.}}
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith (vision)
| Salvation for the dead; salvation of little children
|-
| 138 Moved to the Doctrine and Covenants in 1979.}}
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph F. Smith (vision)
| Jesus Christ preached to spirits in prison; salvation for the dead
|-
| OD 1
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Wilford Woodruff (declaration)
| Cessation of plural marriage
|-
| [https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/od/2 OD 2]
|–
|–
|–
|–
|
| Spencer W. Kimball, N. Eldon Tanner, Marion G. Romney (declaration)
| 1978 Revelation on Priesthood: cessation of priesthood restrictions based on race
|-
|– One example:
}}
|
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith
| God's words to Moses (article)
|-
|–
|
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith
| Prophecy of Enoch (article)
|-
|–
| 108A
|–
|103
|–
|
|Thomas Burdick, Warren Parrish, and Sylvester Smith (minutes of meeting)
|General meeting of the quorums of the church to consider the labors of the committee charged with organizing publication of the revelations into a book
|-
|–
| 111
|–
| 101
| 109
|
| Church (declaration)
| Declaration on marriage; one spouse only
|-
|–
| 114
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith III (letter)
| Tithing
|-
|–
| 115
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith III
| Calling of William Marks
|-
|–
| 116
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith III
| Priesthood ordination of other races
|-
|–
| 117
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith III
| Changes in leadership positions
|-
|–
| 118
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith III
| Foreign missions
|-
|–
| 119
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith III
| Instructions to the elders
|-
|–
| 120
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith III
| Branch and district presidents
|-
|–
| 121
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith III
| Changes in leadership positions
|-
|–
| 122
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith III
| Duties of quorums
|-
|–
| 123
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joint council of the First Presidency, Council of Twelve Apostles, and Presiding Bishopric (report)
| Lamoni College; use of ancient and modern church history; church publications; opposing the LDS Church; doctrinal tracts; interpretation of various scriptures; gospel boat for the Society Islands; segregated branch in Detroit
|-
|–
| 124
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith III
| Changes in leadership positions
|-
|–
| 125
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith III
| Patriarchs; foreign missions
|-
|–
| 126
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith III (vision)
| Quorums
|-
|–
| 127
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith III
| Sanitarium
|-
|–
| 128
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith III
| Organization and colonization
|-
|–
| 129
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith III
| Changes in leadership positions
|-
|–
| 130
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith III
| Changes in leadership positions
|-
|–
| 131
|–
|–
|–
|
| Joseph Smith III
| Presiding Bishopric
|-
|–
| 132
|–
|–
|–
|
| Frederick M. Smith
| Presiding Bishop
|-
|–
| 133
|–
|–
|–
|
| Frederick M. Smith
| Missionary work
|-
|–
| [https://scripturetoolbox.com/html/d_c/Section/134.html 134]
|–
|–
|–
|
| Frederick M. Smith
| Changes in leadership positions
|-
|–
| [https://scripturetoolbox.com/html/d_c/Section/135.html 135]
|–
|–
|–
|
| Frederick M. Smith
| Changes in leadership positions
|-
|–
| [https://scripturetoolbox.com/html/d_c/Section/136.html 136]
|–
|–
|–
|
| Frederick M. Smith
| Changes in leadership positions; unity
|-
|–
| [https://scripturetoolbox.com/html/d_c/Section/137.html 137]
|–
|–
|–
|
| Frederick M. Smith
| Changes in leadership positions
|-
|–
| [https://scripturetoolbox.com/html/d_c/Section/138.html 138]
|–
|–
|–
|
| Frederick M. Smith
| Changes in leadership positions; work toward Zion
|-
|–
| [https://scripturetoolbox.com/html/d_c/Section/139.html 139]
|–
|–
|–
|
| Israel A. Smith
| Changes in leadership positions
|-
|–
| [https://scripturetoolbox.com/html/d_c/Section/140.html 140]
|–
|–
|–
|
| Israel A. Smith
| Changes in leadership positions; Zion
|-
|–
| [https://scripturetoolbox.com/html/d_c/Section/141.html 141]
|–
|–
|–
|
| Israel A. Smith
| Changes in leadership positions; counsel
|-
|–
| [https://scripturetoolbox.com/html/d_c/Section/142.html 142]
|–
|–
|–
|
| Israel A. Smith
| Commendation; urge to work
|-
|–
| [https://scripturetoolbox.com/html/d_c/Section/143.html 143]
|–
|–
|–
|
| Israel A. Smith
| Changes in leadership positions; counsel
|-
|–
| [https://scripturetoolbox.com/html/d_c/Section/144.html 144]
|–
|–
|–
|
| Israel A. Smith (letter)
| New President of the Church named
|-
|–
| [https://www.centerplace.org/library/study/dc/rdc-145.htm 145]
|–
|–
|–
|
| W. Wallace Smith
| Changes in leadership positions
|-
|–
| [https://www.centerplace.org/library/study/dc/rdc-146.htm 146]
|–
|–
|–
|
| W. Wallace Smith
| Changes in leadership positions; unity commended
|-
|–
| [https://www.centerplace.org/library/study/dc/rdc-147.htm 147]
|–
|–
|–
|
| W. Wallace Smith
| Changes in leadership positions; stewardship
|-
|–
| [https://www.centerplace.org/library/study/dc/rdc-148.htm 148]
|–
|–
|–
|
| W. Wallace Smith
| Changes in leadership positions; counsel
|-
|–
| [https://www.centerplace.org/library/study/dc/rdc-149.htm 149]
|–
|–
|–
|
| W. Wallace Smith
| Changes in leadership positions; relationship between ministerial programs; prepare to build temple at Independence
|-
|–
| [https://www.centerplace.org/library/study/dc/rdc-149a.htm 149A]
|–
|–
|–
|
| W. Wallace Smith
| Clarification of 149
|-
|–
| [https://www.centerplace.org/library/study/dc/rdc-150.htm 150]
|–
|–
|–
|
| W. Wallace Smith
| Changes in leadership positions; counsel on culture; Independence Temple preparation; ecology
|-
|–
| [https://www.centerplace.org/library/study/dc/rdc-151.htm 151]
|–
|–
|–
|
| W. Wallace Smith
| Changes in leadership positions; reconciliation
|-
|–
| [https://www.centerplace.org/library/study/dc/rdc-152.htm 152]
|–
|–
|–
|
| W. Wallace Smith
| New precedent on presidential succession; presidential successor named; changes in leadership positions; reconciliation
|-
|–
| [http://www.centerplace.org/library/study/dc/rdc-153.htm 153]
|–
|–
|–
|
| Wallace B. Smith
| New President of the Church; changes in leadership positions; counsel on outreach
|-
|–
| [https://www.centerplace.org/library/study/dc/rdc-154.htm 154]
|–
|–
|–
|
| Wallace B. Smith
| Changes in leadership positions; counsel on outreach
|-
|–
| [https://www.centerplace.org/library/study/dc/rdc-155.htm 155]
|–
|–
|–
|
| Wallace B. Smith
| Changes in leadership positions; counsel on witness
|-
|–
| [http://www.centerplace.org/library/study/dc/rdc-156.htm 156]
|–
|–
|–
|
| Wallace B. Smith
| Purpose of Independence Temple; priesthood opened to women; changes in leadership positions
|-
|–
| [https://www.centerplace.org/library/study/dc/rdc-157.htm 157]
|–
|–
|–
|
| Wallace B. Smith
| Changes in leadership positions; unity; humility
|-
|–
| [https://www.centerplace.org/library/study/dc/rdc-158.htm 158]
|–
|–
|–
|
| Wallace B. Smith
| Changes in leadership positions; the spiritual life
|-
|–
| [https://www.centerplace.org/library/study/dc/rdc-159.htm 159]
|–
|–
|–
|
| Wallace B. Smith
| Changes in leadership positions; trusting the Spirit; Independence Temple accepted
|-
|–
| [https://web.archive.org/web/20210803173640/https://www.cofchrist.org/doctrine-and-covenants-section-160 160]
|–
|–
|–
|
| Wallace B. Smith
| New President of the Church named
|-
|–
| [https://web.archive.org/web/20191202171314/https://www.cofchrist.org/doctrine-and-covenants-section-161 161]
|–
|–
|–
|
| W. Grant McMurray
| Proclaim peace; reach out; patience; embrace differences; respect tradition
|-
|–
| [https://web.archive.org/web/20210803174411/https://www.cofchrist.org/doctrine-and-covenants-section-162 162]
|–
|–
|–
|
| W. Grant McMurray
| Be a prophetic people; diversity; tithing
|-
|–
| [https://web.archive.org/web/20210701012726/https://www.cofchrist.org/doctrine-and-covenants-section-163 163]
|–
|–
|–
|
| Stephen M. Veazey
| Strive for peace; missionary work; use and misuse of scripture; equality; generosity
|-
|–
| [https://web.archive.org/web/20210209170831/https://www.cofchrist.org/doctrine-and-covenants-section-164 164]
|–
|–
|–
|
|Stephen M. Veazey
| Effects of baptism, confirmation, and sacrament of the Lord's Supper; cultural awareness and sensitivity; flexibility in number of quorums of seventy; accelerate evangelism
|-
|–
| [https://web.archive.org/web/20201223023500/https://www.cofchrist.org/doctrine-and-covenants-section-165 165]
|–
|–
|–
|
|Stephen M. Veazey
| Expand community, promote peace, and end poverty; tithing; unity in diversity; act in accordance to beliefs
|}
See also
*Outline of the Doctrine and Covenants
*List of non-canonical revelations in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
*Proclamations of the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles
*Urim and Thummim (Latter Day Saints)
Footnotes
References
Bibliography
*The Doctrine and Covenants of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Containing Revelations Given to Joseph Smith, the Prophet, with Some Additions by his Successors in the Presidency of the Church, Intellectual Reserve: Salt Lake City, UT, 1981.
*Book of Doctrine and Covenants: Carefully Selected from the Revelations of God and Given in the Order of their Dates, Herald Publishing House: Independence, MO, 2000.
*Joseph Smith, The Doctrine and Covenants of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints: Carefully Selected from the Revelations of God, photo enlarged and reprinted from the 1846 Nauvoo edition by Richard Drew, Burlington (Voree), Wisconsin, 1993, for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite).
*Peter Judd, Journey in Trust: A Study Resource for D&C 161, Herald House, 2004.
*Book of Commandments: Herald Heritage Reprint, Herald House, 1833 (reprint).
*F. Henry Edwards, The Edwards Commentary on the Doctrine & Covenants, Herald House, 1986.
* Further reading
*
*
*External links*[https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/title-page?langeng Doctrine and Covenants] – 2013 LDS Church edition
*[https://cofchrist.org/doctrine-and-covenants/ Book of Doctrine and Covenants] – 2017 Community of Christ edition
*[http://josephsmithpapers.org/paperSummary/book-of-commandments-1833 1833 Book of Commandments], [http://josephsmithpapers.org/paperSummary/doctrine-and-covenants-1835 1835 Doctrine and Covenants] (with "Lectures on Faith"), and [http://josephsmithpapers.org/paperSummary/doctrine-and-covenants-1844 1844 Doctrine and Covenants], scanned and annotated in The Joseph Smith Papers
Category:Community of Christ
Category:Works by Joseph Smith
Category:1835 books
Category:1835 in Christianity
Category:Works in the style of the King James Version
Category:Standard works
Category:Revelation in Mormonism
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctrine_and_Covenants
|
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Death
|
is used universally as a symbol of death.]]
Death is the end of life; the irreversible cessation of all biological functions that sustain a living organism. Death eventually and inevitably occurs in all organisms. The remains of a former organism normally begin to decompose shortly after death. Some organisms, such as Turritopsis dohrnii, are biologically immortal; however, they can still die from means other than aging. Death is generally applied to whole organisms; the equivalent for individual components of an organism, such as cells or tissues, is necrosis. Something that is not considered an organism, such as a virus, can be physically destroyed but is not said to die, as a virus is not considered alive in the first place.
As of the early 21st century, 56 million people die per year. The most common reason is aging, followed by cardiovascular disease, which is a disease that affects the heart or blood vessels. As of 2022, an estimated total of almost 110 billion humans have died, or roughly 94% of all humans to have ever lived. A substudy of gerontology known as biogerontology seeks to eliminate death by natural aging in humans, often through the application of natural processes found in certain organisms. For all organisms with a brain, death can instead be focused on this organ. The cause of death is usually considered important, and an autopsy can be done to determine it. There are many causes, from accidents to diseases.
Many cultures and religions have a concept of an afterlife. There are also different customs for honoring the body, such as a funeral, cremation, or sky burial.
Defining life to define death
One of the challenges in defining death is in distinguishing it from life. As a point in time, death seems to refer to the moment when life ends. Determining when death has occurred is difficult, as cessation of life functions is often not simultaneous across organ systems. Such determination, therefore, requires drawing precise conceptual boundaries between life and death. This is difficult due to there being little consensus on how to define life.
.]]
It is possible to define life in terms of consciousness. When consciousness ceases, an organism can be said to have died. One of the flaws in this approach is that there are many organisms that are alive but probably not conscious. Another problem is in defining consciousness, which has many different definitions given by modern scientists, psychologists and philosophers. Additionally, many religious traditions, including Abrahamic and Dharmic traditions, hold that death does not (or may not) entail the end of consciousness. In certain cultures, death is more of a process than a single event. It implies a slow shift from one spiritual state to another.
Other definitions for death focus on the character of cessation of organismic functioning and human death, which refers to irreversible loss of personhood. More specifically, death occurs when a living entity experiences irreversible cessation of all functioning.
Definition of death by heartbeat and breath
Historically, attempts to define the exact moment of a human's death have been subjective or imprecise. Death was defined as the cessation of heartbeat (cardiac arrest) and breathing, but the development of CPR and prompt defibrillation have rendered that definition inadequate because breathing and heartbeat can sometimes be restarted. This type of death where circulatory and respiratory arrest happens is known as the circulatory definition of death (CDD). Proponents of the CDD believe this definition is reasonable because a person with permanent loss of circulatory and respiratory function should be considered dead. Critics of this definition state that while cessation of these functions may be permanent, it does not mean the situation is irreversible because if CPR is applied fast enough, the person could be revived. people are considered dead when the electrical activity in their brain ceases. It is presumed that an end of electrical activity indicates the end of consciousness. Suspension of consciousness must be permanent and not transient, as occurs during certain sleep stages, and especially a coma. In the case of sleep, electroencephalograms (EEGs) are used to tell the difference.
The category of "brain death" is seen as problematic by some scholars. For instance, Dr. Franklin Miller, a senior faculty member at the Department of Bioethics, National Institutes of Health, notes: "By the late 1990s... the equation of brain death with death of the human being was increasingly challenged by scholars, based on evidence regarding the array of biological functioning displayed by patients correctly diagnosed as having this condition who were maintained on mechanical ventilation for substantial periods of time. These patients maintained the ability to sustain circulation and respiration, control temperature, excrete wastes, heal wounds, fight infections and, most dramatically, to gestate fetuses (in the case of pregnant "brain-dead" women)."
)]]
While "brain death" is viewed as problematic by some scholars, there are proponents of it that believe this definition of death is the most reasonable for distinguishing life from death. The reasoning behind the support for this definition is that brain death has a set of criteria that is reliable and reproducible. Also, the brain is crucial in determining our identity or who we are as human beings. The distinction should be made that "brain death" cannot be equated with one in a vegetative state or coma, in that the former situation describes a state that is beyond recovery.
EEGs can detect spurious electrical impulses, while certain drugs, hypoglycemia, hypoxia, or hypothermia can suppress or even stop brain activity temporarily; because of this, hospitals have protocols for determining brain death involving EEGs at widely separated intervals under defined conditions. Neocortical brain death One view is that the neocortex of the brain is necessary for consciousness, and that therefore only electrical activity of the neocortex should be considered when defining death. Eventually, the criterion for death may be the permanent and irreversible loss of cognitive function, as evidenced by the death of the cerebral cortex. All hope of recovering human thought and personality is then gone, given current and foreseeable medical technology. Even by whole-brain criteria, the determination of brain death can be complicated.
Total brain death
At present, in most places, the more conservative definition of death (irreversible cessation of electrical activity in the whole brain, as opposed to just in the neo-cortex) has been adopted. One example is the Uniform Determination Of Death Act in the United States. In the past, the adoption of this whole-brain definition was a conclusion of the President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research in 1980. They concluded that this approach to defining death sufficed in reaching a uniform definition nationwide. A multitude of reasons was presented to support this definition, including uniformity of standards in law for establishing death, consumption of a family's fiscal resources for artificial life support, and legal establishment for equating brain death with death to proceed with organ donation. Problems in medical practice Aside from the issue of support of or dispute against brain death, there is another inherent problem in this categorical definition: the variability of its application in medical practice. In 1995, the American Academy of Neurology (AAN) established the criteria that became the medical standard for diagnosing neurologic death. At that time, three clinical features had to be satisfied to determine "irreversible cessation" of the total brain, including coma with clear etiology, cessation of breathing, and lack of brainstem reflexes. These criteria were updated again, most recently in 2010, but substantial discrepancies remain across hospitals and medical specialties.
* Respiratory arrest (no breathing)
* Cardiac arrest (no pulse)
* Brain death (no neuronal activity)
The stages that follow after death are:
* , paleness which happens in 15–120 minutes after death
* , the reduction in body temperature following death. This is generally a steady decline until matching ambient temperature
* , the limbs of the corpse become stiff (Latin rigor) and difficult to move or manipulate
* , a settling of the blood in the lower (dependent) portion of the body
* Putrefaction, the beginning signs of decomposition
* Decomposition, the reduction into simpler forms of matter, accompanied by a strong, unpleasant odor.
* Skeletonization, the end of decomposition, where all soft tissues have decomposed, leaving only the skeleton.
* Fossilization, the natural preservation of the skeletal remains formed over a very long period
Legal
The death of a person has legal consequences that may vary between jurisdictions. Most countries follow the whole-brain death criteria, where all functions of the brain must have completely ceased. However, in other jurisdictions, some follow the brainstem version of brain death.
Misdiagnosis
, 1854]]
There are many anecdotal references to people being declared dead by physicians and then "coming back to life," sometimes days later in their coffin or when embalming procedures are about to begin. From the mid-18th century onwards, there was an upsurge in the public's fear of being mistakenly buried alive and much debate about the uncertainty of the signs of death. Various suggestions were made to test for signs of life before burial, ranging from pouring vinegar and pepper into the corpse's mouth to applying red hot pokers to the feet or into the rectum. Writing in 1895, the physician J.C. Ouseley claimed that as many as 2,700 people were buried prematurely each year in England and Wales, although some estimates peg the figure to be closer to 800.
In cases of electric shock, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) for an hour or longer can allow stunned nerves to recover, allowing an apparently dead person to survive. People found unconscious under icy water may survive if their faces are kept continuously cold until they arrive at an emergency room.<!--original citation:Limmer, D. et al. (2006). Emergency care (AHA update, Ed. 10e). Prentice Hall.--><!--guessed it was this:https://www.amazon.com/Brady-Emergency-Care-Updated-Edition/dp/0131593900/ --> This "diving response," in which metabolic activity and oxygen requirements are minimal, is something humans share with cetaceans called the mammalian diving reflex. Causes
The leading cause of human death in developing countries is infectious disease. The leading causes in developed countries are atherosclerosis (heart disease and stroke), cancer, and other diseases related to obesity and aging. By an extremely wide margin, the largest unifying cause of death in the developed world is biological aging, In 2004, malaria caused about 2.7 million deaths annually. The AIDS death toll in Africa may reach 90–100 million by 2025.
According to Jean Ziegler, the United Nations Special Reporter on the Right to Food, 2000 – Mar 2008, mortality due to malnutrition accounted for 58% of the total mortality rate in 2006. Ziegler says worldwide, approximately 62 million people died from all causes and of those deaths, more than 36 million died of hunger or diseases due to deficiencies in micronutrients.
caused an estimated 100 million deaths in the 20th century.
Many leading developed world causes of death can be postponed by diet and physical activity, but the accelerating incidence of disease with age still imposes limits on human longevity. The evolutionary cause of aging is, at best, only beginning to be understood. It has been suggested that direct intervention in the aging process may now be the most effective intervention against major causes of death.
Selye proposed a unified non-specific approach to many causes of death. He demonstrated that stress decreases the adaptability of an organism and proposed to describe adaptability as a special resource, adaptation energy. The animal dies when this resource is exhausted. Selye assumed that adaptability is a finite supply presented at birth. Later, Goldstone proposed the concept of production or income of adaptation energy which may be stored (up to a limit) as a capital reserve of adaptation. In recent works, adaptation energy is considered an internal coordinate on the "dominant path" in the model of adaptation. It is demonstrated that oscillations of well-being appear when the reserve of adaptability is almost exhausted.
]]
In 2012, suicide overtook car crashes as the leading cause of human injury deaths in the U.S., followed by poisoning, falls, and murder.
Accidents and disasters, from nuclear disasters to structural collapses, also claim lives. One of the deadliest incidents of all time is the 1975 Banqiao Dam Failure, with varying estimates, up to 240,000 dead. Other incidents with high death tolls are the Wanggongchang explosion (when a gunpowder factory ended up with 20,000 deaths), a collapse of a wall of Circus Maximus that killed 13,000 people, and the Chernobyl disaster that killed between 95 and 4,000 people.
Natural disasters kill around 45,000 people annually, although this number can vary from thousands to millions on a per-decade basis. Some of the deadliest natural disasters are the 1931 China floods, which killed an estimated 4 million people, although estimates widely vary; the 1887 Yellow River flood, which killed an estimated 2 million people in China; and the 1970 Bhola cyclone, which killed as many as 500,000 people in East Pakistan (present-day Bangladesh). If naturally occurring famines are considered natural disasters, the Chinese famine of 1906–1907, which killed 15–20 million people, can be considered the deadliest natural disaster in recorded history.
In animals, predation can be a common cause of death. Livestock have a 6% death rate from predation. However, younger animals are more susceptible to predation. For example, 50% of young foxes die to birds, bobcats, coyotes, and other foxes as well. Young bear cubs in the Yellowstone National Park only have a 40% chance to survive to adulthood from other bears and predators. Autopsy
by Rembrandt <!-- I'm pretty sure this depicts an anatomy lesson (per the title) and not an autopsy -->]]
An autopsy, also known as a postmortem examination or an obduction, is a medical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a human corpse to determine the cause and manner of a person's death and to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present. It is usually performed by a specialized medical doctor called a pathologist.
Autopsies are either performed for legal or medical purposes. Autopsies can be further classified into cases where external examination suffices, and those where the body is dissected and an internal examination is conducted. Permission from next of kin may be required for internal autopsy in some cases. Once an internal autopsy is complete the body is generally reconstituted by sewing it back together.
Death before birth
Death before birth can happen in several ways: stillbirth, when the fetus dies before or during the delivery process; miscarriage, when the embryo dies before independent survival; and abortion, the artificial termination of the pregnancy. Stillbirth and miscarriage can happen for various reasons, while abortion is carried out purposely.
Stillbirth
Stillbirth can happen right before or after the delivery of a fetus. It can result from defects of the fetus or risk factors present in the mother. Reductions of these factors, caesarean sections when risks are present, and early detection of birth defects have lowered the rate of stillbirth. However, 1% of births in the United States end in a stillbirth. Miscarriage
A miscarriage is defined by the World Health Organization as, "The expulsion or extraction from its mother of an embryo or fetus weighing 500g or less." Miscarriage is one of the most frequent problems in pregnancy, and is reported in around 12–15% of all clinical pregnancies; however, by including pregnancy losses during menstruation, it could be up to 17–22% of all pregnancies. There are many risk-factors involved in miscarriage; consumption of caffeine, tobacco, alcohol, drugs, having a previous miscarriage, and the use of abortion can increase the chances of having a miscarriage. Abortion
An abortion may be performed for many reasons, such as pregnancy from rape, financial constraints of having a child, teenage pregnancy, and the lack of support from a significant other. There are two forms of abortion: a medical abortion and an in-clinic abortion or sometimes referred to as a surgical abortion. A medical abortion involves taking a pill that will terminate the pregnancy no more than 11 weeks past the last period, and an in-clinic abortion involves a medical procedure using suction to empty the uterus; this is possible after 12 weeks, but it may be more difficult to find an operating doctor who will go through with the procedure.
Senescence
within Sossusvlei]]
Senescence refers to a scenario when a living being can survive all calamities but eventually dies due to causes relating to old age. Conversely, premature death can refer to a death that occurs before old age arrives, for example, human death before a person reaches the age of 75. Animal and plant cells normally reproduce and function during the whole period of natural existence, but the aging process derives from the deterioration of cellular activity and the ruination of regular functioning. The aptitude of cells for gradual deterioration and mortality means that cells are naturally sentenced to stable and long-term loss of living capacities, even despite continuing metabolic reactions and viability. In the United Kingdom, for example, nine out of ten of all the deaths that occur daily relates to senescence, while around the world, it accounts for two-thirds of 150,000 deaths that take place daily.
Almost all animals who survive external hazards to their biological functioning eventually die from biological aging, known in life sciences as "senescence." Some organisms experience negligible senescence, even exhibiting biological immortality. These include the jellyfish Turritopsis dohrnii, the hydra, and the planarian. Unnatural causes of death include suicide and predation. Of all causes, roughly 150,000 people die around the world each day. Of these, two-thirds die directly or indirectly due to senescence, but in industrialized countries – such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany – the rate approaches 90% (i.e., nearly nine out of ten of all deaths are related to senescence). Where in the process, a dividing line is drawn between life and death depends on factors beyond the presence or absence of vital signs. In general, clinical death is neither necessary nor sufficient for a determination of legal death. A patient with working heart and lungs determined to be brain dead can be pronounced legally dead without clinical death occurring.
Life extension
Life extension refers to an increase in maximum or average lifespan, especially in humans, by slowing or reversing aging processes through anti-aging measures. Aging is the most common cause of death worldwide. Aging is seen as inevitable, so according to Aubrey de Grey little is spent on research into anti-aging therapies, a phenomenon known as pro-aging trance. Theoretically, the extension of the maximum lifespan can be achieved by reducing the rate of aging damage, by periodic replacement of damaged tissues, molecular repair, or rejuvenation of deteriorated cells and tissues.
A United States poll found religious and irreligious people, as well as men and women and people of different economic classes, have similar rates of support for life extension, while Africans and Hispanics have higher rates of support than white people. 38% said they would desire to have their aging process cured.
Researchers of life extension can be known as "biomedical gerontologists." They try to understand aging, and develop treatments to reverse aging processes, or at least slow them for the improvement of health and maintenance of youthfulness. Those who use life extension findings and apply them to themselves are called "life extensionists" or "longevists." The primary life extension strategy currently is to apply anti-aging methods to attempt to live long enough to benefit from a cure for aging.
Cryonics
Cryonics (from Greek κρύος 'kryos-' meaning 'icy cold') is the low-temperature preservation of animals, including humans, who cannot be sustained by contemporary medicine, with the hope that healing and resuscitation may be possible in the future.
Cryopreservation of people and other large animals is not reversible with current technology. The stated rationale for cryonics is that people who are considered dead by current legal or medical definitions, may not necessarily be dead according to the more stringent 'information-theoretic' definition of death.
Some scientific literature is claimed to support the feasibility of cryonics. Medical science and cryobiologists generally regard cryonics with skepticism. Location (middle), the fourth President of the Republic of Finland, had a fatal heart attack a few seconds after this photograph was taken by Hugo Sundström on 19 December 1940, at Helsinki railway station in Helsinki, Finland.]]
Around 1930, most people in Western countries died in their own homes, surrounded by family, and comforted by clergy, neighbors, and doctors making house calls. By the mid-20th century, half of all Americans died in a hospital. By the start of the 21st century, only about 20 to 25% of people in developed countries died outside of a medical institution. The shift from dying at home towards dying in a professional medical environment has been termed the "Invisible Death."
Psychology
Death studies is a field within psychology. To varying degrees people inherently fear death, both the process and the eventuality; it is hard wired and part of the 'survival instinct' of all animals. Discussing, thinking about, or planning for their deaths causes them discomfort. This fear may cause them to put off financial planning, preparing a will and testament, or requesting help from a hospice organization.
Mortality salience is the awareness that death is inevitable. However, self-esteem and culture are ways to reduce the anxiety this effect can cause. The awareness of someone's own death can cause a deepened bond in their in-group as a defense mechanism. This can also cause the person to become very judging. In a study, two groups were formed; one group was asked to reflect upon their mortality, the other was not, afterwards, the groups were told to set a bond for a prostitute. The group that did not reflect on death had an average of $50, the group who was reminded about their death had an average of $455.
Different people have different responses to the idea of their deaths. Philosopher Galen Strawson writes that the death that many people wish for is an instant, painless, unexperienced annihilation. In this unlikely scenario, the person dies without realizing it and without being able to fear it. One moment the person is walking, eating, or sleeping, and the next moment, the person is dead. Strawson reasons that this type of death would not take anything away from the person, as he believes a person cannot have a legitimate claim to ownership in the future. Society and culture
) insulting the corpse of Klaus Fleming. Albert Edelfelt, 1878]]
either naturally, as this one from Guanajuato, or by intention, as those in ancient Egypt.]]
In society, the nature of death and humanity's awareness of its mortality has, for millennia, been a concern of the world's religious traditions and philosophical inquiry. Including belief in resurrection or an afterlife (associated with Abrahamic religions), reincarnation or rebirth (associated with Dharmic religions), or that consciousness permanently ceases to exist, known as eternal oblivion (associated with secular humanism).
Commemoration ceremonies after death may include various mourning, funeral practices, and ceremonies of honoring the deceased. The physical remains of a person, commonly known as a corpse or body, are usually interred whole or cremated, though among the world's cultures, there are a variety of other methods of mortuary disposal. In the English language, blessings directed towards a dead person include rest in peace (originally the Latin, requiescat in pace) or its initialism RIP.
Death is the center of many traditions and organizations; customs relating to death are a feature of every culture around the world. Much of this revolves around the care of the dead, as well as the afterlife and the disposal of bodies upon the onset of death. The disposal of human corpses does, in general, begin with the last offices before significant time has passed, and ritualistic ceremonies often occur, most commonly interment or cremation. This is not a unified practice; in Tibet, for instance, the body is given a sky burial and left on a mountain top. Proper preparation for death and techniques and ceremonies for producing the ability to transfer one's spiritual attainments into another body (reincarnation) are subjects of detailed study in Tibet. Mummification or embalming is also prevalent in some cultures to retard the rate of decay. The rise of secularism resulted in material mementos of death declining.
Some parts of death in culture are legally based, having laws for when death occurs, such as the receiving of a death certificate, the settlement of the deceased estate, and the issues of inheritance and, in some countries, inheritance taxation.
Capital punishment is also a culturally divisive aspect of death. In most jurisdictions where capital punishment is carried out today, the death penalty is reserved for premeditated murder, espionage, treason, or as part of military justice. In some countries, sexual crimes, such as adultery and sodomy, carry the death penalty, as do religious crimes, such as apostasy, the formal renunciation of one's religion. In many retentionist countries, drug trafficking is also a capital offense. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are also punished by the death penalty. In militaries around the world, courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offenses such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. Mutiny is punishable by death in the United States. Additionally, grieving relatives of dead soldiers and death notification are embedded in many cultures. Recently in the Western world—with the increase in terrorism following the September 11 attacks but also further back in time with suicide bombings, kamikaze missions in World War II, and suicide missions in a host of other conflicts in history—death for a cause by way of suicide attack, including martyrdom, have had significant cultural impacts.
Suicide, in general, and particularly euthanasia, are also points of cultural debate. Both acts are understood very differently in different cultures. In Japan, for example, ending a life with honor by seppuku was considered a desirable death, whereas according to traditional Christian and Islamic cultures, suicide is viewed as a sin.
, the personification of death in Mexican tradition]]
Death is personified in many cultures, with such symbolic representations as the Grim Reaper, Azrael, the Hindu god Yama, and Father Time. In the west, the Grim Reaper, or figures similar to it, is the most popular depiction of death in western cultures.
In Brazil, death is counted officially when it is registered by existing family members at a cartório, a government-authorized registry. Before being able to file for an official death, the deceased must have been registered for an official birth at the cartório. Though a Public Registry Law guarantees all Brazilian citizens the right to register deaths, regardless of their financial means of their family members (often children), the Brazilian government has not taken away the burden, the hidden costs, and fees of filing for a death. For many impoverished families, the indirect costs and burden of filing for a death lead to a more appealing, unofficial, local, and cultural burial, which, in turn, raises the debate about inaccurate mortality rates.
Talking about death and witnessing it is a difficult issue in most cultures. Western societies may like to treat the dead with the utmost material respect, with an official embalmer and associated rites.
Origins of death
The origin of death is a theme or myth of how death came to be. It is present in nearly all cultures across the world, as death is a universal happening. This makes it an origin myth, a myth that describes how a feature of the natural or social world appeared. There can be some similarities between myths and cultures. In North American mythology, the theme of a man who wants to be immortal and a man who wants to die can be seen across many Indigenous people. In Christianity, death is the result of the fall of man after eating the fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Consciousness
Much interest and debate surround the question of what happens to one's consciousness as one's body dies. The belief in the permanent loss of consciousness after death is often called eternal oblivion. The belief that the stream of consciousness is preserved after physical death is described by the term afterlife.
Near-death experiences (NDEs) describe the subjective experiences associated with impending death. Some survivors of such experiences report it as "seeing the afterlife while they were dying". Seeing a being of light and talking with it, life flashing before the eyes, and the confirmation of cultural beliefs of the afterlife are common themes in NDEs.
In biology
s are soil-dwelling detritivores.]]
After death, the remains of a former organism become part of the biogeochemical cycle, during which animals may be consumed by a predator or a scavenger. Organic material may then be further decomposed by detritivores, organisms that recycle detritus, returning it to the environment for reuse in the food chain, where these chemicals may eventually end up being consumed and assimilated into the cells of an organism. Examples of detritivores include earthworms, woodlice, and millipedes.
Microorganisms also play a vital role, raising the temperature of the decomposing matter as they break it down into yet simpler molecules. Not all materials need to be fully decomposed. Coal, a fossil fuel formed over vast tracts of time in swamp ecosystems, is one example.
Natural selection
in Lima, Perú]]
The contemporary evolutionary theory sees death as an important part of the process of natural selection. It is considered that organisms less adapted to their environment are more likely to die, having produced fewer offspring, thereby reducing their contribution to the gene pool. Their genes are thus eventually bred out of a population, leading at worst to extinction and, more positively, making the process possible, referred to as speciation. Frequency of reproduction plays an equally important role in determining species survival: an organism that dies young but leaves numerous offspring displays, according to Darwinian criteria, much greater fitness than a long-lived organism leaving only one.
Death also has a role in competition, where if a species out-competes another, there is a risk of death for the population, especially in the case where they are directly fighting over resources. Extinction
, the bird that became a byword in the English language for the extinction of a species]]
Death plays a role in extinction, the cessation of existence of a species or group of taxa, reducing biodiversity, due to extinction being generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that species (although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point). Because a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively.
Evolution of aging and mortality
Inquiry into the evolution of aging aims to explain why so many living things and the vast majority of animals weaken and die with age. However, there are exceptions, such as Hydra and the jellyfish Turritopsis dohrnii, which research shows to be biologically immortal.
Organisms showing only asexual reproduction, such as bacteria, some protists, like the euglenoids and many amoebozoans, and unicellular organisms with sexual reproduction, colonial or not, like the volvocine algae Pandorina and Chlamydomonas, are "immortal" at some extent, dying only due to external hazards, like being eaten or meeting with a fatal accident. In multicellular organisms and also in multinucleate ciliates with a Weismannist development, that is, with a division of labor between mortal somatic (body) cells and "immortal" germ (reproductive) cells, death becomes an essential part of life, at least for the somatic line.
The Volvox algae are among the simplest organisms to exhibit that division of labor between two completely different cell types, and as a consequence, include the death of somatic line as a regular, genetically regulated part of its life history.
Grief in animals
Animals have sometimes shown grief for their partners or "friends". When two chimpanzees form a bond together, sexual or not, and one of them dies, the surviving chimpanzee will show signs of grief, ripping out their hair in anger and starting to cry; if the body is removed, they will resist, they will eventually go quiet when the body is gone, but upon seeing the body again, the chimp will return to a violent state.
Furthermore, anthropologist Barbara J. King has suggested that one way to evaluate the expression of grief in animals is to look for altered behaviors such as social withdrawal, disrupted eating or sleeping, expression of affect, or increased stress reactions in response to the death of a family member, mate, or friend. These criteria do not assume the ability to anticipate death, understand its finality, or experience emotions equivalent to those of humans, but at the same time do not rule out the possibility of those abilities existing in some animals or that different kinds of emotional experiences might constitute grief. Based on these criteria, King gives examples of observed potential mourning behaviors in animals such as cetaceans, apes and monkeys, elephants, domesticated animals (including dogs, cats, rabbits, horses, and farmed animals), giraffes, peccaries, donkeys, prairie voles, and some species of birds. Death of abiotic factors
Some non-living things can be considered dead. For example, a volcano, batteries, electrical components, and stars are all nonliving things that can "die," whether from destruction or cessation of function.
A volcano, a break in the earth's crust that allows lava, ash, and gases to escape, has three states that it may be in, active, dormant, and extinct. An active volcano has recently or is currently erupting; in a dormant volcano, it has not erupted for a significant amount of time, but it may erupt again; in an extinct volcano, it may be cut off from the supply of its lava and will never be expected to erupt again, so the volcano can be considered to be dead.
A battery can be considered dead after the charge is fully used up. Electrical components are similar in this fashion, in the case that it may not be able to be used again, such as after a spill of water on the components, the component can be considered dead.
, after the death of what could have been a white dwarf]]
Stars also have a life-span and, therefore, can die. After it starts to run out of fuel, it starts to expand, this can be analogous to the star aging. After it exhausts all fuel, it may explode in a supernova, collapse into a black hole, or turn into a neutron star. Religious views Buddhism
In Buddhist doctrine and practice, death plays an important role. Awareness of death motivated Prince Siddhartha to strive to find the "deathless" and finally attain enlightenment. In Buddhist doctrine, death functions as a reminder of the value of having been born as a human being. Rebirth as a human being is considered the only state in which one can attain enlightenment. Therefore, death helps remind oneself that one should not take life for granted. The belief in rebirth among Buddhists does not necessarily remove death anxiety since all existence in the cycle of rebirth is considered filled with suffering, and being reborn many times does not necessarily mean that one progresses.
Death is part of several key Buddhist tenets, such as the Four Noble Truths and dependent origination. Representing the same transformation Jesus Christ embodied after his body was placed in the tomb for three days, each person's body will be resurrected, reuniting the spirit and body in a perfect form. This process allows the individual's soul to withstand death and transform into life after death.
Hinduism
]]
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In Hindu texts, death is described as the individual eternal spiritual jiva-atma (soul or conscious self) exiting the current temporary material body. The soul exits this body when the body can no longer sustain the conscious self (life), which may be due to mental or physical reasons or, more accurately, the inability to act on one's kama (material desires). During conception, the soul enters a compatible new body based on the remaining merits and demerits of one's karma (good/bad material activities based on dharma) and the state of one's mind (impressions or last thoughts) at the time of death.
Usually, the process of reincarnation makes one forget all memories of one's previous life. Because nothing really dies and the temporary material body is always changing, both in this life and the next, death means forgetfulness of one's previous experiences.Islam
The Islamic view is that death is the separation of the soul from the body as well as the beginning of the afterlife. The afterlife, or akhirah, is one of the six main beliefs in Islam. Rather than seeing death as the end of life, Muslims consider death as a continuation of life in another form. In Islam, life on earth right now is a short, temporary life and a testing period for every soul. True life begins with the Day of Judgement when all people will be divided into two groups. The righteous believers will be welcomed to janna (heaven), and the disbelievers and evildoers will be punished in jahannam (hellfire).
Muslims believe death to be wholly natural and predetermined by God. Only God knows the exact time of a person's death. The Quran emphasizes that death is inevitable, no matter how much people try to escape death, it will reach everyone. (Q50:16) Life on earth is the one and only chance for people to prepare themselves for the life to come and choose to either believe or not believe in God, and death is the end of that learning opportunity.
Judaism
There are a variety of beliefs about the afterlife within Judaism, but none of them contradict the preference for life over death. This is partially because death puts a cessation to the possibility of fulfilling any commandments. Language The word "death" comes from Old English dēaþ, which in turn comes from Proto-Germanic *dauþuz (reconstructed by etymological analysis). This comes from the Proto-Indo-European stem *dheu- meaning the "process, act, condition of dying."
The concept and symptoms of death, and varying degrees of delicacy used in discussion in public forums, have generated numerous scientific, legal, and socially acceptable terms or euphemisms. When a person has died, it is also said they have "passed away", "passed on", "expired", or "gone", among other socially accepted, religiously specific, slang, and irreverent terms.
As a formal reference to a dead person, it has become common practice to use the participle form of "decease", as in "the deceased"; another noun form is "decedent".
Bereft of life, the dead person is a "corpse", "cadaver", "body", "set of remains", or when all flesh is gone, a "skeleton". The terms "carrion" and "carcass" are also used, usually for dead non-human animals. The ashes left after a cremation are lately called "cremains".
See also
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* Deathbed
* Death drive
* Death row
* Death trajectory
* Dying declaration
* End-of-life care
* Eschatology
* Faked death
* Karōshi
* Last rites
* List of expressions related to death
* Spiritual death
* Survivalism (life after death)
* Taboo on the dead
* Thanatology
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References
Bibliography
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Further reading
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External links
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* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/death/#2 "Death"] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
*
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* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iiTUvqjTqDk "Death" (video; 10:18)] by Timothy Ferris, producer of the Voyager Golden Record for NASA. 2021
* A biologist explains life and death in different kinds of organisms, in relation to evolution.
* How the medical profession categorized causes of death.
* Interviews with people dying in hospices, and portraits of them before and shortly after, death.
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Deseret alphabet
|
| speakers1 | states
| type = Alphabet
| time = Mainly 1854–1869; some use in modern era
| languages = English
| creator = George D. Watt, under the direction of the Board of Regents, led by Brigham Young
| sample = Deseret_Alphabet.svg
| imagesize = 200px
| unicode = [https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U10400.pdf U+10400–U+1044F]
| iso15924 = Dsrt
| fam1 = Egyptian hieroglyphs
| fam2 = Proto-Sinaitic script
| fam3 = Phoenician alphabet
| fam4 = Greek alphabet
| fam5 = Old Italic
| fam6 = Latin alphabet
| fam7 = Isaac Pitman phonotypy
| fam8 = English Phonotypic Alphabet
| published = 1854
}}
The Deseret alphabet (; Deseret: or ) is a phonemic English-language spelling reform developed between 1847 and 1854 by the board of regents of the University of Deseret under the leadership of Brigham Young, the second president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). which were used to replace those of Isaac Pitman's English phonotypic alphabet. He was also the "New Alphabet's" first serious user.
The Deseret alphabet was an outgrowth of the Restorationist idealism and utopianism of Young and the early LDS Church. Young and the Mormon pioneers believed "all aspects of life" were in need of reform for the imminent millennium, and the Deseret alphabet was just one of many ways in which they sought to bring about a complete "transformation in society," Young wrote of the reform that "it would represent every sound used in the construction of any known language; and, in fact, a step and partial return to a pure language which has been promised unto us in the latter days", which meant the pure Adamic language spoken before the Tower of Babel.
In public statements, Young claimed the alphabet would replace the traditional Latin alphabet with an alternative, more phonetically accurate alphabet for the English language. This would offer immigrants an opportunity to learn to read and write English, the orthography of which, he said, is often less phonetically consistent than those of many other languages.
Between 1854 and 1869, the alphabet was used in scriptural newspaper passages, selected church records, a few diaries, and some correspondence. Occasional street signs and posters used the new letters. In 1860 a $5 gold coin was embossed 𐐐𐐬𐑊𐐨𐑌𐐮𐑅 𐐻𐐭 𐑄 𐐢𐐫𐑉𐐼 (Holiness to the Lord). In 1868–9, after much difficulty creating suitable fonts,
Despite repeated and costly promotion by the early LDS Church, the alphabet never enjoyed widespread use, and it has been regarded by historians as a failure. However, in recent years, aided by digital typography, the Deseret alphabet has been revived as a cultural heirloom.
Similar neographies have been attempted, the most well-known of which for English is the Shavian alphabet.
History
Creation (1847–1854)
The Deseret alphabet was a project of the Mormon pioneers, a group of early followers of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) who, motivated by revelations of a unique premillennial eschatology, had set about building a unique theocracy in the Utah desert, which was then still claimed by Mexico, after the death of the church's founder, the prophet Joseph Smith. They were to build a "city of Zion" where converts would gather in preparation for the Second Coming of Christ. As part of that Gathering, in 1848, Church leaders urged converts in Europe to "emigrate as speedily as possible" to the Great Basin. There, in the "Kingdom of God," under fused theo-democratic leadership, they would be safe from the fall of the apostate world of so-called "Babylon."
March 6, 1849, Church authorities organized the "free and independent government" called the State of Deseret, while retaining the Council of Fifty. In that historical context, which has been called "The Forgotten Kingdom," there was a "compete identity of religious and temporal purpose throughout the history of the Alphabet." This theo-linguistic fusion has been noted by multiple historians.
The "New Alphabet" was intended to correct "the corruptions and perversions of language which was originally pure", and to meet the urgent need for a language to "answer the demands of a constant intercommunication between several thousand languages". One "fitted to meet the great emergency of the great gathering and great work of teaching the law of the Lord to all people." This reformation of English orthography was a first step to the ultimate restoration of Adamic language for use in the anticipated millennial dispensation of the fulness of times. Brigham Young, Church President and Prophet, the "driving force" for the reform, looked forward to the time "when a man is full of light of eternity", and stated, "I shall yet see the time that I can converse with this people without opening my mouth."
The Deseret alphabet was developed primarily by a committee made up of the board of regents of the University of Deseret, members of which included LDS Church leaders Brigham Young, Parley P. Pratt, Heber C. Kimball, and several of the other Apostles. According to Brigham Young University professor Richard G. Moore, most scholars believe that George D. Watt's contribution to the actual form the alphabet took, its unique glyphs, was the greatest; along with Pratt.
After several months' practice writing with the new alphabet, Watt wrote to Brigham Young that he was unhappy with it, and proposed a complete overhaul, which was never followed up on.
Word of the new alphabet soon spread outside Utah, and most press reports in non-Mormon papers were critical. to praise. some coinage, letters, diaries, and meeting minutes. One of the more curious items found in the Deseret alphabet is an English-Hopi dictionary prepared by two Mormon missionaries. The handwritten document sat in the LDS Church Archives, largely ignored until 2014 when writing system researcher and computer scientist Kenneth R. Beesley re-discovered it and transcribed it into standard written English.
Decline (1869–1877)
Despite years of heavy promotion, the Deseret alphabet was never widely adopted. This reluctance was partly due to prohibitive costs; the project had already cost the early church $20,000, with $6,000 going to Pratt as remuneration for his transcription effort and most of the rest going to cutting metal type featuring the new alphabet and printing costs. Pratt had also prepared an apparent sequel to the primers, the Deseret Phonetic Speller. After the sales failure, however, none of these books were ever published and were thought lost until being rediscovered in a storage area of the LDS Church Archives in Salt Lake City in May 1967. In a retrospective piece, historian A. J. Simmonds claims that the new railroad doomed the alphabet. According to him, easy access to "the whole literature of the English speaking world" rendered the alphabet useless. Freely licensed Deseret alphabet fonts can be used at no additional cost.
Film director Trent Harris used the Deseret alphabet in his 1994 satire of Mormon theology, Plan 10 from Outer Space, where it features as an alien language used on a mysterious "Plaque of Kolob".
Also in 1996, Buffalo River Press published a reprint of the Deseret First Book, of which only 10,000 were originally printed. The entire Book of Mormon in the Deseret alphabet has been likewise reprinted, as only 500 copies from the original print run exist, and they can sell on eBay for ≈$7,500 (as of 2004).
John Jenkins has gone on to publish many classic pieces of English literature in the Deseret alphabet, such as Alice in Wonderland, Pride and Prejudice, and The Wonderful Wizard of Oz.
Owing to the character set's inclusion in Unicode, most of the original books and many of the original manuscripts have been transcribed into plain text,
All computers running Microsoft's Windows 7 operating system or newer can display the entire Deseret alphabet Unicode range as the glyphs are included in the Segoe UI Symbol font.
Besides maintaining a Deseret input method for Windows, Joshua Erickson, a UCLA alumnus, also maintains a large collection of freeware Unicode fonts for the alphabet, which he collectively terms the "Bee Fonts."
There also exist free software fonts for the Deseret alphabet. Google, through its Noto Sans project, the aim of which is "to support all languages with a harmonious look and feel", has also released a Deseret font under the name "Noto Sans Deseret". George Douros maintains a public domain font called "Analecta" as part of his Unicode Fonts for Ancient Scripts project, which supports the Coptic, Gothic, and Deseret scripts. Deseret glyphs are also available in the popular pan-Unicode fonts Code2001 and Everson Mono (as of version 5.1.5). Alphabet
Although the Deseret alphabet has letter case, usually the only difference between the minuscule and majuscule forms is that the majuscule forms are larger.
{| class"wikitable" style"margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
! Glyph !! Name !! IPAc-en|
|rowspan="11"|
! Glyph !! Name !! IPAc-en|
|rowspan="11"|
! Glyph !! Name !! IPAc-en|
|rowspan="11"|
! Glyph !! Name !! IPAc-en|
|-
| <span lang="en-Dsrt>𐐀 𐐨</span> || Long I || || 𐐁 𐐩 || Long E || || 𐐂 𐐪 || Long A || || 𐐃 𐐫 || Long Ah ||
|-
| <span lang="en-Dsrt>𐐄 𐐬</span> || Long O || || 𐐅 𐐭 || Long Oo || || 𐐆 𐐮 || Short I || || 𐐇 𐐯 || Short E ||
|-
| 𐐈 𐐰 || Short A || || 𐐉 𐐱 || Short Ah || || 𐐊 𐐲 || Short O || || 𐐋 𐐳 || Short Oo ||
|-
| 𐐌 𐐴 || Ay || || 𐐍 𐐵 || Ow || || 𐐎 𐐶 || Wu || || 𐐏 𐐷 || Yee ||
|-
| 𐐐 𐐸 || H || || 𐐑 𐐹 || Pee || || 𐐒 𐐺 || Bee || || 𐐓 𐐻 || Tee ||
|-
| 𐐔 𐐼 || Dee || || 𐐕 𐐽 || Chee || || 𐐖 𐐾 || Jee || || 𐐗 𐐿 || Kay ||
|-
| 𐐘 𐑀 || Gay || || 𐐙 𐑁 || Ef || || 𐐚 𐑂 || Vee || || 𐐛 𐑃 || Eth ||
|-
| 𐐜 𐑄 || Thee || || 𐐝 𐑅 || Es || || 𐐞 𐑆 || Zee || || 𐐟 𐑇 || Esh ||
|-
| 𐐠 𐑈 || Zhee || || 𐐡 𐑉 || Er || || 𐐢 𐑊 || El || || 𐐣 𐑋 || Em ||
|-
| 𐐤 𐑌 || En ||
|| <span lang="en-Dsrt>𐐥 𐑍</span> || Eng ||
|style"background-color:#CCCCCC"| <span lang"en-Dsrt>𐐦 𐑎</span> ||style"background-color:#CCCCCC"| Oi* ||style"background-color:#CCCCCC"|
|style"background-color:#CCCCCC"| <span lang"en-Dsrt>𐐧 𐑏</span> ||style"background-color:#CCCCCC"| Ew* ||style"background-color:#CCCCCC"|
|-
|colspan15| *Not part of original alphabet; see § Versions below
|}
A degree of free spelling is allowed to accommodate dialectal differences in English. For example, in the Deseret edition of The Book of Mormon, the word "wherefore" is written as <span lang"en-Dsrt>𐐸𐐶𐐩𐑉𐑁𐐬𐑉</span> (), which means that the translator of the book did not exhibit the wine–whine merger. Those who do exhibit the merger might instead prefer the spelling <span lang"en-Dsrt>𐐶𐐯𐑉𐑁𐐬𐑉</span> to match the pronunciation (), or, depending on dialect, perhaps <span lang"en-Dsrt>𐐶𐐯𐑉𐑁𐐫𐑉</span> (). Versions There have been several published versions of the alphabet. Most versions (including the versions used in The Deseret First Book, The Deseret Second Book, The Deseret News and The Book of Mormon) had only 38 letters, but some versions contained two ligatures, <span lang"en-Dsrt>𐐧</span> (ew) and <span lang"en-Dsrt>𐐦</span> (oi). In place of 𐐮𐐭 or <span lang"en-Dsrt>𐐷𐐭</span>,
In the 23 February 1859 edition of the Deseret News, the editors announced their approval of the two new letters and eventual intention to use them in the newsletter. However, due to the hot metal typesetting technology in use at the time, casting the new letters for use would have been a considerable expense, so it was never realized. an early Mormon missionary, proposed the addition of a new glyph to represent the schwa, a simple vertical line of the same height as other Deseret characters with a similar appearance to the Turkish dotless i (ı). The addition of this glyph did not catch on among his contemporaries, however, and no document outside of ones penned by Shelton makes use of it.
Syllabic values
Each letter in the Deseret alphabet has a name, and when a letter is written on its own it has the value of that name. This allows some short words to be written with a single letter, and is called a letter's "syllabic value". The most common word in English, the, is written simply <span lang"en-Dsrt>𐑄</span>, as the letter's name is and that is the stressed pronunciation of the word. The consonants with syllabic values are <span lang"en-Dsrt>𐐶</span> (woo), <span lang"en-Dsrt>𐐷</span> (yee), <span lang"en-Dsrt>𐐸</span> (ha), <span lang"en-Dsrt>𐐹</span> (pee), <span lang"en-Dsrt>𐐺</span> (be/bee), <span lang"en-Dsrt>𐐻</span> (tee/tea), <span lang"en-Dsrt>𐐽</span> (qi), <span lang"en-Dsrt>𐐾</span> (jee), <span lang"en-Dsrt>𐑀</span> (gay), and <span lang"en-Dsrt>𐑄</span> (the/thee). Cursive The cursive form of the Deseret alphabet was mainly used by two people: George D. Watt, and James Henry Martineau.
His new alphabet closely resembled an 1853 publication of Isaac Pitman, containing only 33 letters. However, at this point, Young was still enamored with the original Deseret alphabet, and so he rejected the proposal and Watt continued to publicly promote the alphabet as part of his job despite his reservations. that makes type look "monotonous" On 4 March 1872, The New York Times called the alphabet "rude, awkward and cumbersome".
Other motives
Officially, the Deseret alphabet was created to simplify the spelling of English words for the benefit of children and English as a second language learners. Some of the alphabet's contemporaries, however, posited an alternative motivation for its development: increasing the isolation of the early Mormons.
To keep outsiders from reading Mormon secrets (largely dismissed)
The charge that the Deseret alphabet's main purpose was to keep outsiders ("gentiles" in LDS terminology) in the dark was brought almost immediately, as evidenced by the following 1858 Lyttelton Times reprint of an unnamed "New York newspaper":
Modern historians, however, doubt the veracity of this theory.Its Advantages", 19 August 1868, Deseret News}}
In another article, the Deseret News cited an example of the kind of literature Mormons would benefit from not being able to read: The Police Gazette.
According to Kenneth R. Beesley, who submitted the proposal to expand the encoding, This is because the Unicode Consortium chose to use glyphs from 1855 as the reference glyphs, while by 1859 those glyphs were already outmoded and replaced with newer glyphs. Beesley thus recommends using LaTeX along with his Metafont font to typeset Deseret text, The table can be used to display approximations of titles in non-Latin scripts using the Latin alphabet for use in library catalogs that do not support non-Latin alphabets. See also
* International Phonetic Alphabet
References
}}}}}}
Further reading
* Bigler, David. 1998. Forgotten kingdom: the Mormon theocracy in the American West, 1847–1896. Spokane: Arthur Clark
* Ivins, Stanley S. 1947. The Deseret Alphabet. Utah Humanities Review 1:223–239.
* Lynott, Patricia A. 1999. "Communicating Insularity: The Deseret Alphabet of Nineteenth-Century Mormon Education." American Educational History Journal 26 (1):20–26.
* McMurrin, Sterling M. 2000. The Theological Foundations of the Mormon Religion, Signature Books, Salt Lake City,
* Thompson, Roger. 1982. "Language planning in frontier America: The case of the Deseret Alphabet". Language Problems and Language Planning 6:45–62.
*
* Wintersteen, Larry Ray. 1970. [https://search.lib.byu.edu/byu/record/sa.etd-6219?holdingpmpr99qht2qo6o1m A History of the Deseret Alphabet] . MA thesis, Brigham Young University.
* .
External links
* [https://blog.nyhistory.org/mormon-alphabet-experiment/ The Mormon Alphabet Experiment | "From the Stacks" at New-York Historical Society]
* [https://www.deseretalphabet.org/ M. Scott Reynolds' Deseret alphabet portal]
* [http://copper.chem.ucla.edu/~jericks/index.html Joshua Erickson's Deseret alphabet pages]
* [https://www.omniglot.com/writing/deseret.htm The Deseret Alphabet at Omniglot]
* [https://2deseret.com/ Deseret Alphabet Translator] — . Converts standard orthography to Deseret alphabet and vice versa
* [https://zaphod.neocities.org/deseretipa.html Deseret to IPA converter] — Converts Deseret input to the International Phonetic Alphabet
Category:1854 establishments in Utah Territory
Category:1854 introductions
Category:Alphabets
Category:Auxiliary and educational artificial scripts
Category:English orthography
Category:English spelling reform
Category:History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Category:Phonetic alphabets
Category:University of Utah
Category:Writing systems introduced in the 19th century
Category:Writing systems of the Americas
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Danish
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Danish may refer to:
Something of, from, or related to the country of Denmark
People
A Danish person, also called a "Dane", can be a national or citizen of Denmark (see Demographics of Denmark)
Culture of Denmark
Danish people or Danes, people with a Danish ancestral or ethnic identity
A member of the Danes, a Germanic tribe
Danish (name), a male given name and surname
Language
Danish language, a North Germanic language used mostly in Denmark and Northern Germany
Danish tongue or Old Norse, the parent language of all North Germanic languages
Food
Danish cuisine
Danish pastry, often simply called a "Danish"
See also
Dane (disambiguation)
Gdańsk
List of Danes
Languages of Denmark
Category:Language and nationality disambiguation pages
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Danish language
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| pronunciation
| states = }}
| region = Denmark, Schleswig-Holstein (Germany);<br/>Additionally in the Faroe Islands and Greenland
| image = Codex Holmiensis CE 1350.jpg
| imagecaption = The first page of the Jutlandic Law originally from 1241 in Codex Holmiensis, copied in 1350. <br />The first sentence is: "" <br />Modern orthography: "" <br />English translation: "With law shall a country be built"
| speakers = million
| ethnicity =
| date = 2019
| ref = e18
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = Germanic
| fam3 Northwest Germanic
| fam4 = North Germanic
| fam5 = East Scandinavian
| ancestor = Old Norse
| ancestor2 = Old East Norse
| ancestor3 = Early Old Danish
| ancestor4 = Late Old Danish
| dia1 = Jutlandic
| dia2 = Insular
| dia3 = Dano-Faroese
| dia4 = Southern Schleswig
| dia5 = Perkerdansk
| dia6 = Dano-Norwegian
| dia7 = Angel
| dia8 = East Danish
| dia9 = South Jutlandic
| script =
| nation = Kingdom of Denmark
* Denmark
* Faroe Islands
Nordic Council
European Union
| minority =
| agency =
| iso1 = da
| iso2 = dan
| lc1 = dan
| ld1 = Insular Danish
| lc2 = jut
| ld2 = Jutlandic
| lingua = 5 2-AAA-bf & -ca to -cj
| glotto = dani1285
| glottoname = Danish
| glotto2 = juti1236
| glottoname2 = Jutish
| notice = IPA
| map = Idioma danés.PNG
| mapcaption = Dark Blue: Spoken by a majority
Light Blue: Spoken by a minority
| map2 | mapcaption2
}}
Danish (, ; , ) In the 17th and 18th centuries, standard German and French superseded Low German influence, and in the 20th century, English became the main supplier of loanwords, especially after World War II. Although many old Nordic words remain, some were replaced with borrowed synonyms, for example (to eat) was mostly supplanted by the Low German . As well as loanwords, new words can be freely formed by compounding existing words. In standard texts of contemporary Danish, Middle Low German loans account for about 16–17% of the vocabulary, Graeco-Latin loans 4–8%, French 2–4% and English about 1%.
}}
By the eighth century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, had undergone some changes and evolved into Old Norse.
This language was generally called the "Danish tongue" (), or "Norse language" (). Norse was written in the runic alphabet, first with the elder futhark and from the 9th century with the younger futhark.
Possibly as far back as the seventh century, the common Norse language began to undergo changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, resulting in the appearance of two dialect areas, Old West Norse (Norway and Iceland) and Old East Norse (Denmark and Sweden). Most of the changes separating East Norse from West Norse started as innovations in Denmark, that spread through Scania into Sweden and by maritime contact to southern Norway. A change that separated Old East Norse (Runic Swedish/Danish) from Old West Norse was the change of the diphthong æi (Old West Norse ei) to the monophthong e, as in to . This is reflected in runic inscriptions where the older read and the later . Also, a change of au as in into ø as in occurred. This change is shown in runic inscriptions as a change from into . Moreover, the (Old West Norse ) diphthong changed into , as well, as in the Old Norse word for "island". This monophthongization started in Jutland and spread eastward, having spread throughout Denmark and most of Sweden by 1100.
Through Danish conquest, Old East Norse was once widely spoken in the northeast counties of England. Many words derived from Norse, such as "gate" () for street, still survive in Yorkshire, the East Midlands and East Anglia, and parts of eastern England colonized by Danish Vikings. The city of York was once the Viking settlement of Jorvik. Several other English words derive from Old East Norse, for example "knife" (), "husband" (), and "egg" (). The suffix "-by" for 'town' is common in place names in Yorkshire and the east Midlands, for example Selby, Whitby, Derby, and Grimsby. The word "dale" meaning valley is common in Yorkshire and Derbyshire placenames.
Old and Middle dialects
.<br /> "If one catches someone in the whore-bed with another man's wife and he comes away alive..."
|sourceJutlandic Law, 1241
}}
In the medieval period, Danish emerged as a separate language from Swedish. The main written language was Latin, and the few Danish-language texts preserved from this period are written in the Latin alphabet, although the runic alphabet seems to have lingered in popular usage in some areas. The main text types written in this period are laws, which were formulated in the vernacular language to be accessible also to those who were not Latinate. The Jutlandic Law and Scanian Law were written in vernacular Danish in the early 13th century. Beginning in 1350, Danish began to be used as a language of administration, and new types of literature began to be written in the language, such as royal letters and testaments. The orthography in this period was not standardized nor was the spoken language, and the regional laws demonstrate the dialectal differences between the regions in which they were written.
Throughout this period, Danish was in contact with Low German, and many Low German loan words were introduced in this period. With the Protestant Reformation in 1536, Danish also became the language of religion, which sparked a new interest in using Danish as a literary language. Also in this period, Danish began to take on the linguistic traits that differentiate it from Swedish and Norwegian, such as the , the voicing of many stop consonants, and the weakening of many final vowels to /e/.
The first printed book in Danish dates from 1495, the (Rhyming Chronicle), a history book told in rhymed verses. The first complete translation of the Bible in Danish, the Bible of Christian II translated by Christiern Pedersen, was published in 1550. Pedersen's orthographic choices set the de facto standard for subsequent writing in Danish. From around 1500, several printing presses were in operation in Denmark publishing in Danish and other languages. In the period after 1550, presses in Copenhagen dominated the publication of material in the Danish language.
Early Modern
.<br /> "Lords and jesters have free speech."
|source= Peder Syv, proverbs
}}
Following the first Bible translation, the development of Danish as a written language, as a language of religion, administration, and public discourse accelerated. In the second half of the 17th century, grammarians elaborated grammars of Danish, first among them Rasmus Bartholin's 1657 Latin grammar ; then Laurids Olufsen Kock's 1660 grammar of the Zealand dialect ; and in 1685 the first Danish grammar written in Danish, ("The Art of the Danish Language") by Peder Syv. Major authors from this period are Thomas Kingo, poet and psalmist, and Leonora Christina Ulfeldt, whose novel (Remembered Woes) is considered a literary masterpiece by scholars. Orthography was still not standardized and the principles for doing so were vigorously discussed among Danish philologists. The grammar of Jens Pedersen Høysgaard was the first to give a detailed analysis of Danish phonology and prosody, including a description of the . In this period, scholars were also discussing whether it was best to "write as one speaks" or to "speak as one writes", including whether archaic grammatical forms that had fallen out of use in the vernacular, such as the plural form of verbs, should be conserved in writing (i.e. "he is" vs. "they are").
The East Danish provinces were lost to Sweden after the Second Treaty of Brömsebro (1645) after which they were gradually Swedified; just as Norway was politically severed from Denmark, beginning also a gradual end of Danish influence on Norwegian (influence through the shared written standard language remained). With the introduction of absolutism in 1660, the Danish state was further integrated, and the language of the Danish chancellery, a Zealandic variety with German and French influence, became the de facto official standard language, especially in writing—this was the original so-called ("Danish of the Realm"). Also, beginning in the mid-18th century, the , the uvular R sound (), began spreading through Denmark, likely through influence from Parisian French and German. It affected all of the areas where Danish had been influential, including all of Denmark, Southern Sweden, and coastal southern Norway.
In the 18th century, Danish philology was advanced by Rasmus Rask, who pioneered the disciplines of comparative and historical linguistics, and wrote the first English-language grammar of Danish. Literary Danish continued to develop with the works of Ludvig Holberg, whose plays and historical and scientific works laid the foundation for the Danish literary canon. With the Danish colonization of Greenland by Hans Egede, Danish became the administrative and religious language there, while Iceland and the Faroe Islands had the status of Danish colonies with Danish as an official language until the mid-20th century.
Standardized national language
<br /> "Mother's name is our hearts' tongue,<br /> only idle is all foreign speech<br /> It alone, in mouth or in book,<br /> can rouse a people from sleep."
|source= N.F.S. Grundtvig, "Modersmaalet"
}}
Following the loss of Schleswig to Germany, a sharp influx of German speakers moved into the area, eventually outnumbering the Danish speakers. The political loss of territory sparked a period of intense nationalism in Denmark, coinciding with the so-called "Golden Age" of Danish culture. Authors such as N.F.S. Grundtvig emphasized the role of language in creating national belonging. Some of the most cherished Danish-language authors of this period are existential philosopher Søren Kierkegaard and prolific fairy tale author Hans Christian Andersen. The influence of popular literary role models, together with increased requirements of education did much to strengthen the Danish language, and also started a period of homogenization, whereby the Copenhagen standard language gradually displaced the regional vernacular languages. Throughout the 19th century, Danes emigrated, establishing small expatriate communities in the Americas, particularly in the United States, Canada, and Argentina, where memory and some use of Danish remains today.
in the 19th century in southern Schleswig]]
After the Schleswig referendum in 1920, a number of Danes remained as a minority within German territories.
After the occupation of Denmark by Germany in World War II, the 1948 orthography reform dropped the German-influenced rule of capitalizing nouns, and introduced the letter . Three 20th-century Danish authors have become Nobel Prize laureates in Literature: Karl Gjellerup and Henrik Pontoppidan (joint recipients in 1917) and Johannes V. Jensen (awarded 1944).
With the exclusive use of , the High Copenhagen Standard, in national broadcasting, the traditional dialects came under increased pressure. In the 20th century, they have all but disappeared, and the standard language has extended throughout the country. Minor regional pronunciation variation of the standard language, sometimes called ("regional languages") remain, and are in some cases vital. Today, the major varieties of Standard Danish are High Copenhagen Standard, associated with elderly, well to-do, and well educated people of the capital, and low Copenhagen speech traditionally associated with the working class, but today adopted as the prestige variety of the younger generations. Also, in the 21st century, the influence of immigration has had linguistic consequences, such as the emergence of a so-called multiethnolect in the urban areas, an immigrant Danish variety (also known as ), combining elements of different immigrant languages such as Arabic, Turkish, and Kurdish, as well as English and Danish.
Geographic distribution and status
Danish Realm
Within the Danish Realm, Danish is the national language of Denmark and one of two official languages of the Faroe Islands (alongside Faroese). There is a Faroese variant of Danish known as Gøtudanskt. Until 2009, Danish was also one of two official languages of Greenland (alongside Greenlandic). Danish now acts as a lingua franca in Greenland, with a large percentage of native Greenlanders able to speak Danish as a second language (it was introduced into the education system as a compulsory language in 1928). About 10% of the population speaks Danish as their first language, due to immigration.
Iceland was a territory ruled by Denmark–Norway, one of whose official languages was Danish. Though Danish ceased to be an official language in Iceland in 1944, it is still widely used and is a mandatory subject in school, taught as a second foreign language after English.
No law stipulates an official language for Denmark, making Danish the de facto official language only. The Code of Civil Procedure does, however, lay down Danish as the language of the courts. Since 1997, public authorities have been obliged to follow the official spelling system laid out in the Orthography Law. In the 21st century, discussions have been held with a view to create a law that would make Danish the official language of Denmark.Surrounding countries
, Germany, where it is an officially recognized regional language]]
In addition, a noticeable community of Danish speakers is in Southern Schleswig, the portion of Germany bordering Denmark, and a variant of Standard Danish, Southern Schleswig Danish, is spoken in the area. Since 2015, Schleswig-Holstein has officially recognized Danish as a regional language, just as German is north of the border. Furthermore, Danish is one of the official languages of the European Union and one of the working languages of the Nordic Council. Under the Nordic Language Convention, Danish-speaking citizens of the Nordic countries have the opportunity to use their native language when interacting with official bodies in other Nordic countries without being liable for any interpretation or translation costs. and Gutnish (Gutamål) were influenced by Danish.
Other locations
There are also Danish emigrant communities in other places of the world who still use the language in some form. In the Americas, Danish-speaking communities can be found in the US, Canada, Argentina and Brazil.
Dialects
Standard Danish () is the language based on dialects spoken in and around the capital, Copenhagen. Unlike Swedish and Norwegian, Danish does not have more than one regional speech norm. More than 25% of all Danish speakers live in the metropolitan area of the capital, and most government agencies, institutions, and major businesses keep their main offices in Copenhagen, which has resulted in a very homogeneous national speech norm.
Danish dialects can be divided into the traditional dialects, which differ from modern Standard Danish in both phonology and grammar, and the Danish accents or regional languages, which are local varieties of the Standard language distinguished mostly by pronunciation and local vocabulary colored by traditional dialects. Traditional dialects are now mostly extinct in Denmark, with only the oldest generations still speaking them.
Danish traditional dialects are divided into three main dialect areas:
* Insular Danish (), including dialects of the Danish islands of Zealand, Funen, Lolland, Falster, and Møn
* Jutlandic (), further divided in North, East, West, and South Jutlandic
* East Danish (), including dialects of Bornholm (), Scania, Halland and Blekinge
Jutlandic is further divided into Southern Jutlandic and Northern Jutlandic, with Northern Jutlandic subdivided into North Jutlandic and West Jutlandic. Insular Danish is divided into Zealand, Funen, Møn, and Lolland-Falster dialect areas―each with additional internal variation. Bornholmian is the only Eastern Danish dialect spoken in Denmark. Since the Swedish conquest of the Eastern Danish provinces Skåne, Halland and Blekinge in 1645/1658, the Eastern Danish dialects there have come under heavy Swedish influence. Many residents now speak regional variants of Standard Swedish. However, many researchers still consider the dialects in Scania, Halland () and Blekinge () as part of the East Danish dialect group. The Swedish National Encyclopedia from 1995 classifies Scanian as an Eastern Danish dialect with South Swedish elements.
Traditional dialects differ in phonology, grammar, and vocabulary from standard Danish. Phonologically, one of the most diagnostic differences is the presence or absence of . Four main regional variants for the realization of stød are known: In Southeastern Jutlandic, Southernmost Funen, Southern Langeland, and Ærø, no is used, but instead a pitch accent (like in Norwegian, Swedish and Gutnish). South of a line (, 'the stød border') going through central South Jutland, crossing Southern Funen and central Langeland and north of Lolland-Falster, Møn, Southern Zealand and Bornholm neither nor pitch accent exists. Most of Jutland and on Zealand use , and in Zealandic traditional dialects and regional language, occurs more often than in the standard language. In Zealand, the line divides Southern Zealand (without ), an area which used to be directly under the Crown, from the rest of the Island that used to be the property of various noble estates.
Grammatically, a dialectally significant feature is the number of grammatical genders. Standard Danish has two genders and the definite form of nouns is formed by the use of suffixes, while Western Jutlandic has only one gender and the definite form of nouns uses an article before the noun itself, in the same fashion as West Germanic languages. The Bornholmian dialect has maintained to this day many archaic features, such as a distinction between three grammatical genders. Insular Danish traditional dialects also conserved three grammatical genders. By 1900, Zealand insular dialects had been reduced to two genders under influence from the standard language, but other Insular varieties, such as Funen dialect had not. Besides using three genders, the old Insular or Funen dialect, could also use personal pronouns (like he and she) in certain cases, particularly referring to animals. A classic example in traditional Funen dialect is the sentence: "Katti, han får unger", literally The cat, he is having kittens, because cat is a masculine noun, thus is referred to as (he), even if it is a female cat.
Phonology
.]]
The sound system of Danish is unusual, particularly in its large vowel inventory. In informal or rapid speech, the language is prone to considerable reduction of unstressed syllables, creating many vowel-less syllables with syllabic consonants, as well as reduction of final consonants. Furthermore, the language's prosody does not include many clues about the sentence structure, unlike many other languages, making it relatively more difficult to perceive the different sounds of the speech flow. These factors taken together make Danish pronunciation difficult to master for learners, and research shows Danish children take slightly longer in learning to segment speech in early childhood.
Vowels
Although somewhat depending on analysis, most modern variants of Danish distinguish 12 long vowels, 13 short vowels, and two central vowels, and , which only occur in unstressed syllables. This gives a total of 27 different vowel phonemes – a very large number among the world's languages. At least 19 different diphthongs also occur, all with a short first vowel and the second segment being either , , or . The table below shows the approximate distribution of the vowels as given by in Modern Standard Danish, with the symbols used in IPA/Danish. Questions of analysis may give a slightly different inventory, for example based on whether r-colored vowels are considered distinct phonemes. gives 25 "full vowels", not counting the two unstressed "schwa" vowels.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;"
|+ Vowel phonemes
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="4" | Front
! colspan"2" rowspan"2" | Central
! colspan"2" rowspan"2" | Back
|-
! colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |
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Consonants
The consonant inventory is comparatively simple. distinguishes 17 non-syllabic consonant phonemes in Danish.
{|class"wikitable" style"text-align: center"
!
! Labial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Uvular/<br />Pharyngeal
! Glottal
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! Nasal
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! Stop
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! Fricative
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! Approximant
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Many of these phonemes have quite different allophones in onset and coda where intervocalic consonants followed by a full vowel are treated as in onset, otherwise as in coda. Phonetically there is no voicing distinction among the stops, rather the distinction is one of aspiration. are aspirated in onset realized as , but not in coda. The pronunciation of t, , is in between a simple aspirated and a fully affricated (as has happened in German with the second High German consonant shift from t to z). There is dialectal variation, and some Jutlandic dialects may be less affricated than other varieties, with Northern and Western Jutlandic traditional dialects having an almost unaspirated dry t.
is pronounced as a in syllable coda, so e.g. () is pronounced .
often have slight frication, but are usually pronounced as approximants. Danish differs from the English sound that is conventionally transcribed with the same IPA symbol, in that it is not a dental fricative but an alveolar approximant which is frequently heard as by second language learners.
The sound is found for example in the word /sjovˀ/ "fun" pronounced and "marijuana" pronounced . Some analyses have posited it as a phoneme, but since it occurs only after or and does not occur after these phonemes, it can be analyzed as an allophone of , which is devoiced after voiceless alveolar frication. This makes it unnecessary to postulate a -phoneme in Danish. Jutlandic dialects often lack the sound and pronounce the sj cluster as or .
In onset, is realized as a uvular-pharyngeal approximant, , but in coda it is either realized as a non-syllabic low central vowel, or simply coalesces with the preceding vowel. The phenomenon is comparable to the r in German or in non-rhotic pronunciations of English. The Danish realization of as guttural – the so-called skarre-r – distinguishes the language from those varieties of Norwegian and Swedish that use trilled . Only very few, middle-aged or elderly, speakers of Jutlandic retain a frontal which is then usually realised as a flapped or approximant .
Prosody
Danish is characterized by a prosodic feature called (). This is a form of laryngealization or creaky voice. Some sources have described it as a glottal stop, but this is a very infrequent realization, and today phoneticians consider it a phonation type or a prosodic phenomenon. The occurrence is also dependent on stress, and some varieties also realize it primarily as a tone. The has phonemic status, since it serves as the sole distinguishing feature of words with different meanings in minimal pairs such as ("peasants") with , versus ("beans") without . The distribution of in the vocabulary is related to the distribution of the common Scandinavian pitch accents found in most dialects of Norwegian and Swedish.
Stress is phonemic and distinguishes words such as "cheapest" and "car driver".
Intonation reflects the stress group, sentence type and prosodic phrase. In Copenhagen Standard Danish, the pitch pattern reaches its lowest peak within the stress group on the stressed syllable followed by its highest peak on the following unstressed syllable, after which it declines gradually until the next stress group.
In interaction, pitch can mark e.g. the end of a story and turn-taking.
Grammar
Similarly to the case of English, modern Danish grammar is the result of a gradual change from a typical Indo-European dependent-marking pattern with a rich inflectional morphology and relatively free word order, to a mostly analytic pattern with little inflection, a fairly fixed SVO word order and a complex syntax. Some traits typical of Germanic languages persist in Danish, such as the distinction between irregularly inflected strong stems inflected through ablaut or umlaut (i.e. changing the vowel of the stem, as in the pairs ("takes/took") and ("foot/feet")) and weak stems inflected through affixation (such as "love/loved", "car/cars"). Vestiges of the Germanic case and gender system are found in the pronoun system. Typical for an Indo-European language, Danish follows accusative morphosyntactic alignment. Danish distinguishes at least seven major word classes: verbs, nouns, numerals, adjectives, adverbs, articles, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections and onomatopoeia. Nouns Nouns are inflected for number (singular vs. plural) and definiteness, and are classified into two grammatical genders. Only pronouns inflect for case, and the previous genitive case has become an enclitic. A distinctive feature of the Nordic languages, including Danish, is that the definite articles, which also mark noun gender, have developed into suffixes. Typical of Germanic languages plurals are either irregular or "strong" stems inflected through umlaut (i.e. changing the vowel of the stem) (e.g. "foot/feet", "man/men") or "weak" stems inflected through affixation (e.g. "ship/ships", "woman/women").
Gender
Standard Danish has two nominal genders: common and neuter; the common gender arose as the historical feminine and masculine genders conflated into a single category. Some traditional dialects retain a three-way gender distinction, between masculine, feminine and neuter, and some dialects of Jutland have a masculine/feminine contrast. While the majority of Danish nouns (ca. 75%) have the common gender, and neuter is often used for inanimate objects, the genders of nouns are not generally predictable and must in most cases be memorized. The gender of a noun determines the form of adjectives that modify it, and the form of the definite suffixes. Definiteness {| class"wikitable floatright"
|-
|+ Danish regular plural patterns
|-
! colspan="3" | Class 1
! colspan="3"|Class 2
! colspan="3" | Class 3
|-
! style="font-size: smaller" | Sg.
! style="font-size: smaller" | Pl.
! style="font-size: smaller" | Pl. definite.
! style="font-size: smaller" | Sg.
! style="font-size: smaller" | Pl.
! style="font-size: smaller" | Pl. definite.
! style="font-size: smaller" | Sg.
! style="font-size: smaller" | Pl.
! style="font-size: smaller" | Pl. definite.
|-
|<br />month||<br />months||<br />the months||<br />day||<br /> days||<br />"the days"|| <br />year||<br />years || <br /> the years
|-
|<br />car||<br />cars||<br />the cars||<br />dog||<br />dogs||<br />the dogs||<br />fish||<br />fish (pl.)||<br />the fishes
|-
|}
Definiteness is marked by two mutually exclusive articles: either a postposed enclitic or a preposed article which is the obligatory way to mark definiteness when nouns are modified by an adjective. Neuter nouns take the clitic , and common gender nouns take . Indefinite nouns take the articles (common gender) or (neuter). Hence, the common gender noun "a man" (indefinite) has the definite form "the man", whereas the neuter noun "a house" (indefinite) has the definite form, "the house" (definite) .
Indefinite:
*Jeg så et hus: "I saw a house"
Definite with enclitic article:
*Jeg så huset: "I saw the house"
Definite with preposed demonstrative article:
*Jeg så det store hus: "I saw the big house"
The plural definite ending is (e.g. "boys > "the boys" and "girls" > "the girls"), and nouns ending in lose the last before adding the -ne suffix (e.g. "Danes" > "the Danes"). When the noun is modified by an adjective, the definiteness is marked by the definite article (common) or (neuter) and the definite/plural form of the adjective: "the big man", "the big house".
Number {| class"wikitable floatright"
|-
|+ Danish irregular plurals
|-
! Sg.
! Pl.
! Pl. definite
|-
|<br />man||<br />men||<br />the men
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|<br />cow||<br />cows||<br />the cows
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|<br />eye||<br /> eyes || <br /> the eyes
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|<br />account||<br /> accounts|| <br /> the accounts
|-
|}
There are three different types of regular plurals: Class 1 forms the plural with the suffix (indefinite) and (definite), Class 2 with the suffix (indefinite) and (definite), and Class 3 takes no suffix for the plural indefinite form and for the plural definite.
Most irregular nouns have an ablaut plural (i.e. with a change in the stem vowel), or combine ablaut stem-change with the suffix, and some have unique plural forms. Unique forms may be inherited (e.g. the plural of "eye", which is the old dual form ), or for loan words they may be borrowed from the donor language (e.g. the word "account" which is borrowed from Italian and uses the Italian masculine plural form "accounts").
Possession
Possessive phrases are formed with the enclitic -s, for example "my father's house" where the noun carries the possessive enclitic. This is however not an example of genitive case marking, because in the case of longer noun phrases the -s attaches to the last word in the phrase, which need not be the head-noun or even a noun at all. For example, the phrases "the king of Denmark's candy factory", where the factory is owned by the king of Denmark, or "that is the daughter of the girl that Uffe lives with", where the enclitic attaches to a stranded preposition.
Nominal compounds
Like all Germanic languages, Danish forms compound nouns. These are represented in Danish orthography as one word, as in , "the female national handball team". In some cases, nouns are joined with s as a linking element, originally possessive in function, like (from , "country", and , "man", meaning "compatriot"), but (from same roots, meaning "farmer"). Some words are joined with the linking element instead, like (from and , meaning "guest book"). There are also irregular linking elements.
Pronouns
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|-
|+ Danish personal pronouns
|-
! scope="col" | Person
! scope="col" | Nominative case
! scope="col" | Oblique case
! scope="col" | Possessive case/adjective
|-
! scope="row" | 1st sg.
| <br /> I || <br /> me || <br /> my, mine
|-
! scope="row" | 2nd sg.
| <br /> You || <br /> you|| <br /> your(s)
|-
! scope="row" | 3rd sg.
| <br /> he/she/it|| <br /> him/her/it|| <br /> his/her(s)/its
|-
! scope="row" | 1st pl.
| <br />we || <br /> us || <br />our(s)
|-
! scope="row" | 2nd pl.
| <br /> you (pl.) || <br /> you (pl.) || <br /> your(s) (pl.)
|-
! scope="row" | 3rd pl.
| <br /> they|| <br /> them || <br /> their(s)
|-
!3rd refl.
|N/A
|<br /> him/her/itself, themself/selves
| <br /> his/her(s)/its (own)
|}
As does English, the Danish pronominal system retains a distinction between nominative and oblique case. The nominative form of pronouns is used when pronouns occur as grammatical subject of a sentence (and only when non-coordinated and without a following modifier), and oblique forms are used for all non-subject functions including direct and indirect object, predicative, comparative and other types of constructions. The third person singular pronouns also distinguish between animate masculine ( "he"), animate feminine ( "she") forms, as well as inanimate neuter ( "it") and inanimate common gender ( "it").
*: "I sleep"
*: "you sleep"
*: "I kiss you"
*: "you kiss me"
Possessive pronouns have independent and adjectival uses, but the same form. The form is used both adjectivally preceding a possessed noun ( "it is my horse"), and independently in place of the possessed noun ( "it is mine"). In the third person singular, is used when the possessor is also the subject of the sentence, whereas ("his"), (her) and "its" is used when the possessor is different from the grammatical subject.
*Han tog sin hat: He took his (own) hat
* Han tog hans hat: He took his hat (someone else's hat)
Verbs
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|-
|+ Danish verbal forms|-
! infinitive
! Present
! Past
|-
|<br />to be||<br />is/are/am||<br />was/were
|-
|<br />to see||<br />sees||<br />saw
|-
|<br />to know||<br />knows||<br />knew
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|<br />to remember||<br /> remembers|| <br />remembered
|-
|<br />to forget||<br /> forgets|| <br /> forgot
|-
|}
Danish verbs are morphologically simple, marking very few grammatical categories. They do not mark person or number of subject, although the marking of plural subjects was still used in writing as late as the 19th century. Verbs have a past, non-past and infinitive form, past and present participle forms, and a passive, and an imperative.
Tense, aspect, mood, and voice
Verbs can be divided into two main classes, the strong/irregular verbs and the regular/weak verbs. The regular verbs are also divided into two classes, those that take the past suffix and those that take the suffix .
The infinitive always ends in a vowel, usually -e (pronounced ), infinitive forms are preceded by the article (pronounced ) in some syntactic functions. The non-past or present tense takes the suffix , except for a few strong verbs that have irregular non-past forms. The past form does not necessarily mark past tense, but also counterfactuality or conditionality, and the non-past has many uses besides present tense time reference.
The present participle ends in (e.g. "running"), and the past participle ends in (e.g. "run"), (e.g. købt "bought"). The Perfect is constructed with ("to have") and participial forms, like in English. But some intransitive verbs form the perfect using ("to be") instead, and some may use both with a difference in meaning.
* . : She has walked. The plane has flown
* . : She has left. The plane has taken off
* . : She had walked. The plane had flown
* . : She had left. The plane had taken off
The passive form takes the suffix -s: ("the newspaper is read every day"). Another passive construction uses the auxiliary verb "to become": .
The imperative form is the infinitive without the final schwa-vowel, with potentially being applied depending on syllable structure.:
*: "run!"
Numerals
Certain numerals are formed on the basis of a vigesimal system with various rules. In the word forms of numbers above 20, the units are stated before the tens, so 21 is rendered , literally "one and twenty".
The numeral means (literally "half second", implying "one plus half of the second one"). The numerals (), () and () are obsolete, but still implicitly used in the vigesimal system described below. Similarly, the temporal designation () halv tre, literally "half three (o'clock)", is half past two.
One peculiar feature of the Danish language is that the numerals 50, 60, 70, 80 and 90 are (as are the French numerals from 80 through 99) based on a vigesimal system, meaning that the score (20) is used as a base unit in counting. (short for , "three times twenty") means 60, while 50 is (short for , "half third times twenty", implying two score plus half of the third score). The ending meaning "times twenty" is no longer included in cardinal numbers, but may still be used in ordinal numbers. Thus, in modern Danish fifty-two is usually rendered as from the now obsolete , whereas 52nd is either or . Twenty is (derived from Old Danish , Old Norse form , meaning 'two tens'), while thirty is (Old Danish , "three tens"), and forty is (Old Danish , "four tens", still used today as the archaism ). Thus, the suffix should be understood as a plural of (10), though to modern Danes means 20, making it hard to explain why is 40 (four tens) and not 80 (four twenties).
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Cardinal numeral || Danish || Literal translation || Ordinal numeral || Danish || Literal translation
|-
| 1 || / || one || 1st || || first
|-
| 12 || || twelve || 12th || || twelfth
|-
| 23 || || three and twenty || 23rd || || three and 20th
|-
| 34 || || four and thirty || 34th || || four and 30th
|-
| 45 || || five and forty (four tens) || 45th || || five and four tens-th
|-
| 56 || || six and [two score plus] half [of the] third (score) || 56th || || six and [two score plus] half [of the] third score-th
|-
| 67 || || seven and three (score) || 67th || || seven and three score-th
|-
| 78 || || eight and [three score plus] half [of the] fourth (score) || 78th || || eight and [three score plus] half [of the] fourth score-th
|-
| 89 || || nine and four (score) || 89th || || nine and four score-th
|-
| 90 || || [four score plus] half [of the] fifth (score) || 90th || || [four score plus] half [of the] fifth score-th
|}
For large numbers (one billion or larger), Danish uses the long scale, so that the short-scale billion (1,000,000,000) is called , and the short-scale trillion (1,000,000,000,000) is .
Syntax
Danish basic constituent order in simple sentences with both a subject and an object is Subject–Verb–Object. However, Danish is also a V2 language, which means that the verb must always be the second constituent of the sentence. Following the Danish grammarian Paul Diderichsen Danish grammar tends to be analyzed as consisting of slots or fields, and in which certain types of sentence material can be moved to the pre-verbal (or foundation) field to achieve different pragmatic effects. Usually the sentence material occupying the preverbal slot has to be pragmatically marked, usually either new information or topics. There is no rule that subjects must occur in the preverbal slot, but since subject and topic often coincide, they often do. Therefore, whenever any sentence material that is not the subject occurs in the preverbal position the subject is demoted to postverbal position and the sentence order becomes VSO.
*: "Peter saw Jytte"
but
*: "Yesterday, Peter saw Jytte"
When there is no pragmatically marked constituents in the sentence to take the preverbal slot (for example when all the information is new), the slot has to take a dummy subject "der".
*: there came a girl in through the door, "A girl came in the door"
Main clauses
describes the basic order of sentence constituents in main clauses as comprising the following 8 positions:
{| style="text-align: center;"
|-
|||||||||||||||
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|And||him||had||Per||not||given||a thought||for years
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|0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7
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|colspan="8" | "And him Per hadn't given a thought in years"
|}
Position 0 is not part of the sentence and can only contain sentential connectors (such as conjunctions or interjections). Position 1 can contain any sentence constituent. Position 2 can only contain the finite verb. Position 3 is the subject position, unless the subject is fronted to occur in position 1. Position 4 can only contain light adverbs and the negation. Position 5 is for non-finite verbs, such as auxiliaries. Position 6 is the position of direct and indirect objects, and position 7 is for heavy adverbial constituents.
Questions with wh-words are formed differently from yes/no questions. In wh-questions the question word occupies the preverbal field, regardless of whether its grammatical role is subject or object or adverbial. In yes/no questions the preverbal field is empty, so that the sentence begins with the verb.
Wh-question:
*: whom saw she, "whom did she see?"
*: saw she him?, "did she see him?"
Subordinate clauses
In subordinate clauses, the word order differs from that of main clauses. In the subordinate clause structure the verb is preceded by the subject and any light adverbial material (e.g. negation). Complement clauses begin with the particle in the "connector field".
*Han sagde, at han ikke ville gå: he said that he not would go, "He said that he did not want to go"
Relative clauses are marked by the relative pronouns or which occupy the preverbal slot:
*Jeg kender en mand, som bor i Helsingør: "I know a man who lives in Elsinore" Writing system and alphabet <!-- This section is linked from Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger -->
The oldest preserved examples of written Danish (from the Iron and Viking Ages) are in the Runic alphabet. The introduction of Christianity also brought the Latin script to Denmark. And at the end of the High Middle Ages, runes had more or less been replaced by Latin letters.
Danish orthography is conservative, using most of the conventions established in the 16th century. The spoken language however has changed a lot since then, creating a gap between the spoken and written languages. Since 1955, Dansk Sprognævn has been the official language council in Denmark.
The modern Danish alphabet is similar to the English one, with three additional letters: , , and , which come at the end of the alphabet, in that order. The letters , , , and are only used in loan words. A spelling reform in 1948 introduced the letter , already in use in Norwegian and Swedish, into the Danish alphabet to replace the digraph . The old usage continues to occur in some personal and geographical names; for example, the name of the city of is spelled with following a decision by the City Council in the 1970s and decided to go back to in 2011. When representing the same sound , is treated like in alphabetical sorting, though it appears to be two letters. When the letters are not available due to technical limitations, they are often replaced by (for ), or (for ), and (for ), respectively.
The same spelling reform changed the spelling of a few common words, such as the past tense (would), (could) and (should), to their current forms of , and (making them identical to the infinitives in writing, as they are in speech). Modern Danish and Norwegian use the same alphabet, though spelling differs slightly, particularly with the phonetic spelling of loanwords; for example the spelling of and in Danish remains identical to other languages, whereas in Norwegian, they are transliterated as and . Example text
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Danish:
:
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:
:All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.'' See also
Realm languages:
* Faroese
* Greenlandic
Nordic languages:
* Icelandic
* Norwegian
* Swedish
References
Bibliography
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External links
* [http://sproget.dk/ "Sproget.dk"] (a website where you can find guidance, information and answers to questions about the Danish language and language matters in Denmark (in Danish))
* [https://samtalegrammatik.dk/en/ "Samtalegrammatik.dk"] (parts of a grammar of spoken Danish)
Category:Fusional languages
Category:Languages of Denmark
Category:Languages of Norway
Category:Languages of Sweden
Category:Languages of Iceland
Category:Languages of the Faroe Islands
Category:Languages of Germany
Category:Languages of Greenland
Category:East Scandinavian languages
Category:North Germanic languages
Category:Scandinavian culture
Category:Subject–verb–object languages
Category:Verb-second languages
Category:Stress-timed languages
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_language
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Decade (Neil Young album)
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Decade is a compilation album by Canadian–American musician Neil Young, originally released in 1977 as a triple album and later issued on two compact discs. It contains 35 of Young's songs recorded between 1966 and 1976, among them five tracks that had been unreleased up to that point. It peaked at No. 43 on the Billboard Top Pop Albums chart, and was certified platinum by the RIAA in 1986.History
Compiled by Young himself, with his hand-written liner notes about each track, Decade represents almost every album from his career and various affiliations through 1977 with the exception of 4 Way Street and Time Fades Away. Of the previously unreleased songs, "Down to the Wire" features the New Orleans pianist Dr. John with Buffalo Springfield on an item from their shelved Stampede album; "Love Is a Rose" was a minor hit for Linda Ronstadt in 1975; "Winterlong" received a cover by Pixies on the Neil Young tribute album from 1989, The Bridge; and "Campaigner" is a Young song critical of Richard Nixon. The track "Long May You Run" is a different mix to that found on the album of the same name, featuring the harmonies of the full Crosby Stills & Nash before David Crosby and Graham Nash left the recording sessions.
For many years, Decade was the only Neil Young compilation album available. A 1993 compilation called Lucky Thirteen was released, but it only covered Young's 1982–1988 output. It was not until 2004 that Reprise Records released a single-disc retrospective of his best-known tracks, titled Greatest Hits. Throughout the 1980s and '90s, Young promised fans a follow-up to the original Decade collection, provisionally titled Decade II; eventually, this idea was scrapped in favor of a much more comprehensive anthology to be titled Archives, spanning his entire career and ranging in size from a box set to an entire series of audio and/or video releases. The first release of archival material since Decade and Lucky Thirteen would appear in 2006, Live at the Fillmore East, a recording from a 1970 concert featuring Crazy Horse with Danny Whitten. Several other archival live releases followed, and in 2009 the first of several planned multi-disc box sets, The Archives Vol. 1 1963–1972, was issued. In April 2017 Decade was reissued on vinyl as a limited-edition Record Store Day release, with remastered vinyl and CD editions planned for general release in June 2017.Alternate early versionInitially, Decade was to be released in 1976, but was pulled at the last minute by Young. It was shelved until the following year, where it appeared with two songs removed from the original track list (a live version of "Don't Cry No Tears" recorded in Japan in 1976, and a live version of "Pushed It Over the End" recorded in 1974). Also removed were the following comments on those two songs and Time Fades Away, from Young's handwritten liner notes:
Reception
| rev2 = ''Christgau's Record Guide
| rev2Score A
| rev3 = Encyclopedia of Popular Music
| rev3Score
}}
The album has been lauded in many quarters as one of the best examples of a career retrospective for a rock artist, and as a template for the box set collections that would follow in the 1980s and beyond. However, in the original article on Young from the first edition of the Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock and Roll and a subsequent article in the 1983 Rolling Stone Record Guide, critic Dave Marsh used this album to accuse Young of deliberately manufacturing a self-mythology, arguing that while his highlights could be seen to place him on a level with other artists from his generation like Bob Dylan or The Beatles, the particulars of his catalogue did not bear this out. The magazine has since excised the article from subsequent editions of the Illustrated History book.
Track listing
All songs written by Neil Young.
Side one
#"Down to the Wire" – 2:25
#*Previously unreleased (1967); performed with Buffalo Springfield members Stephen Stills and Richie Furay along with Dr. John; planned for inclusion on the unreleased album Stampede
#* Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Stephen Stills – guitar, vocal; Richie Furay – vocal; Mac Rebennack – piano; Bobby West – bass; Jesse Hill – drums, timpani
#* Recorded at Gold Star Studios & Columbia Recording Studio, Hollywood, 3/28/1967, 3/30-4/18/1967.
#"Burned" – 2:14
#*Performed by Buffalo Springfield; appears on the album Buffalo Springfield (1966)
#* Neil Young – guitar, piano, vocal; Stephen Stills – guitar, vocal; Richie Furay – guitar, vocal; Bruce Palmer – bass; Dewey Martin – drums
#* Recorded at Gold Star Recording Studios, Hollywood, 8/15/1966.
#"Mr. Soul" – 2:41
#*Performed by Buffalo Springfield; recorded live in the studio in New York City, with guitar overdubs added subsequently; appears on the album Buffalo Springfield Again (1967)
#* Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Stephen Stills – guitar, vocal; Richie Furay – guitar, vocal; Bruce Palmer – bass; Dewey Martin – drums
#* Recorded at Atlantic Studios, New York City, 1/9/1967.
#"Broken Arrow" – 6:13
#*Performed by Buffalo Springfield; appears on the album Buffalo Springfield Again
#* Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Richie Furay – guitar, vocal; Stephen Stills – guitar; Chris Sarns – guitar; Don Randi – piano, organ; Bruce Palmer – bass; Dewey Martin – Drums, vocal; Also – strings. Jazz theme: Don Randi – piano; Jim Horn – clarinet; Hal Blaine – drums; Also – bass
#* Recorded at Columbia Recording Studio & Sunset Sound, Hollywood, 8/25/1967, 9/5-18/1967.
#"Expecting to Fly" – 3:44
#*Appears on the album Buffalo Springfield Again but no band member other than Neil Young appears on the track.
#* Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Jack Nitzsche – electric piano; Don Randi – piano, harpsichord; Russ Titelman – guitar; Carol Kaye – bass; Jim Gordon – drums; Choir – Merry Clayton, Brenda Holloway, Patrice Holloway, Gloria Jones, Sherlie Matthews, Gracia Nitzsche; Also – English horn, vibes, timpani, strings
#* Recorded at Sunset Sound, Hollywood, 5/6/1967.
#"Sugar Mountain" – 5:43
#*Released as the B-side to "The Loner", February 21, 1969
#* Neil Young – guitar, vocal
#* Recorded live in concert at the Canterbury House, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 11/10/1968.
Side two
#"I Am a Child" – 2:17
#*Appears on the Buffalo Springfield album Last Time Around (1968) but features no members of the band other than Neil Young and drummer Dewey Martin
#* Neil Young – guitar, harmonica, vocal; Gary Marker – bass; Dewey Martin – drums
#* Recorded at Sunset Sound, Hollywood, 2/5/1968.
#"The Loner" – 3:50
#*Appears on the album Neil Young (1968)
#* Neil Young – guitar, pipe organ, vocal; Jim Messina – bass; George Grantham – drums; Also – strings and celli
#* Recorded at TTG Recording Studios, Los Angeles, 9/28/1968.
#"The Old Laughing Lady" – 5:59/5:35**
#*Appears on the album Neil Young (** – Edited version on 1988 CD reissue)
#* Neil Young – vocal; Ry Cooder – guitar; Jack Nitzsche – electric piano; Carol Kaye – bass; Earl Palmer – drums; Choir: Merry Clayton, Brenda Holloway, Patrice Holloway, Gloria Jones, Sherlie Matthews, and Gracia Nitzsche; Also – trumpet, trombone, tenor sax, French horn, clarinet, strings and timpani
#* Recorded at Sunwest Recording Studios, Hollywood, 10/17/1968.
#"Cinnamon Girl" – 2:59
#*Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; appears on the album Everybody Knows This Is Nowhere (1969)
#* Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Danny Whitten – guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal
#* Recorded at Wally Heider Recording Studios, Hollywood, 3/20/1969.
#"Down by the River" – 9:16/9:00**
#*Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; appears on the album Everybody Knows This Is Nowhere
#* Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Danny Whitten – guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal
#* Recorded at Wally Heider Recording Studios, Hollywood, 1/17/1969.
Side three
#"Cowgirl in the Sand" – 10:01
#*Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; appears on the album Everybody Knows This Is Nowhere
#* Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Danny Whitten – guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal
#* Recorded at Wally Heider Recording Studios, Hollywood, 1/18/1969.
#"I Believe in You" – 3:27
#*Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; appears on the album After the Gold Rush (1970)
#* Neil Young – guitar, piano, vibes, vocal; Danny Whitten – guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal
#* Recorded at Sunset Sound, Hollywood, 8/5/1969.
#"After the Gold Rush" – 3:45
#*Appears on the album After the Gold Rush
#* Neil Young – piano, vocal; Bill Peterson – flugelhorn
#* Recorded at Home Studio, Topanga, CA, 3/12/1970.
#"Southern Man" – 5:31
#*Appears on the album After the Gold Rush
#* Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Nils Lofgren – piano, vocal; Greg Reeves – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal; Danny Whitten – vocal
#* Recorded at Home Studio, Topanga, CA, 3/19/1970.
#"Helpless" – 3:34
#*Performed by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young; appears on the album Déjà Vu (1970)
#* Neil Young – acoustic guitar, harmonica, vocal; Stephen Stills – lead guitar, piano, vocal; David Crosby – vocal; Graham Nash – guitar, vocal; Greg Reeves – bass; Dallas Taylor – drums
#* Recorded at Wally Heider Studios, San Francisco, 11/7/1969.
Side four
#"Ohio" – 2:56
#*Performed by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young; released as a non-album single in June, 1970 and later appeared on So Far, 1974
#* Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Stephen Stills – guitar, vocal; David Crosby – guitar, vocal; Graham Nash – vocal; Calvin "Fuzzy" Samuels – bass; Johnny Barbata – drums
#* Recorded at The Record Plant, Hollywood, 5/21/1970.
#"Soldier" – 2:28
#*Edited version originally from the album Journey Through the Past (1972)
#* Neil Young – piano, vocal
#* Recorded at Sawdust Burner, Kings Mountain, CA, 11/15/1971.
#"Old Man" – 3:21
#*Appears on the album Harvest (1972)
#* Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Ben Keith – pedal steel guitar; James McMahon – piano; Tim Drummond – bass; Kenny Buttrey – drums; Linda Ronstadt – vocal; James Taylor – banjo, vocal
#* Recorded at Quadrafonic Sound Studios, Nashville, 2/6/1971.
#"A Man Needs a Maid" – 3:58
#*Appears on the album Harvest
#* Neil Young – piano, vocal; with the London Symphony Orchestra
#* Recorded at Barking Town Hall, London, 3/1/1971.
#"Harvest" – 3:08
#*Appears on the album Harvest
#* Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Ben Keith – pedal steel guitar; John Harris – piano; Tim Drummond – bass; Kenny Buttrey – drums
#* Recorded at Quadrafonic Sound Studios, Nashville, 4/4/1971.
#"Heart of Gold" – 3:06
#*Appears on the album Harvest
#* Neil Young – guitar, harmonica, vocal; Teddy Irwin – guitar; Ben Keith – pedal steel guitar; Tim Drummond – bass; Kenny Buttrey – drums; Linda Ronstadt – vocal; James Taylor – vocal
#* Recorded at Quadrafonic Sound Studios, Nashville, 2/8/1971.
#"Star of Bethlehem" – 2:46
#*Appears on the album American Stars 'n Bars (1977); originally recorded in November 1974
#* Neil Young – guitar, vocal, harmonica; Ben Keith – dobro, vocal; Tim Drummond – bass; Karl T. Himmel – drums; Emmylou Harris – vocal
#* Recorded at Quadrafonic Sound Studios, Nashville, 12/13/1974.
Side five
#"The Needle and the Damage Done" – 2:02
#*Appears on the album Harvest
#* Neil Young – guitar, vocal
#* Recorded live in concert at the Royce Hall, University of California, Westwood, Los Angeles, 1/30/1971.''
#"Tonight's the Night" (Part 1) – 4:41
#*Appears on the album ''Tonight's the Night (1975); originally recorded in 1973
#* Neil Young – piano, vocal; Nils Lofgren – guitar; Ben Keith – pedal steel guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal
#* Recorded at S.I.R., Hollywood, 8/26/1973.
#"Tired Eyes" – 4:33
#*Appears on the album Tonight's the Night
#* Neil Young – guitar, harmonica, vocal; Nils Lofgren – piano, vocal; Ben Keith – pedal steel guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass, vocal; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal
#* Recorded at S.I.R., Hollywood, 8/26/1973.
#"Walk On" – 2:40
#*Appears on the album On the Beach (1974)
#* Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Ben Keith – slide guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal
#* Recorded at Studio, Broken Arrow Ranch, 11/30/1973.
#"For the Turnstiles" – 3:01
#*Appears on the album On the Beach
#* Neil Young – banjo guitar, vocal; Ben Keith – dobro, vocal
#* Recorded at Studio, Broken Arrow Ranch, 12/14/1973.
#"Winterlong" – 3:05
#*Previously unreleased; appeared on certain acetate pressings of Tonight's the Night
#* Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Ben Keith – pedal steel guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal
#* Recorded at Studio, Broken Arrow Ranch, 11/28/1973.
#"Deep Forbidden Lake" – 3:39
#*Previously unreleased
#* Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Ben Keith – pedal steel guitar; Tim Drummond – bass; Karl T. Himmel – drums
#* Recorded at Quadrafonic Sound Studios, Nashville, 12/13/1974.
Side six
#"Like a Hurricane" – 8:16
#*Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; previously unreleased; different lead vocal dub from version on American Stars 'n Bars (Regular version on 1988 reissue CD)
#* Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Frank "Poncho" Sampedro – Stringman, vocals; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal
#* Recorded at Studio, Broken Arrow Ranch, 11/29/1975.
#"Love Is a Rose" – 2:16
#*Previously unreleased; later released on Homegrown (2020)
#* Neil Young – guitar, vocal, harmonica; Tim Drummond – bass
#* Recorded at Studio, Broken Arrow Ranch, Woodside, CA, 6/16/1974.
#"Cortez the Killer" – 7:29
#*Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; appears on the album Zuma (1975)
#* Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Frank "Poncho" Sampedro – guitar; Billy Talbot – bass, vocal; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal
#* Recorded at House, Point Dume, CA, 5/22/1975.
#"Campaigner" – 3:30 / 4:19 [US LP test pressings and first LP pressings in Germany included an unedited 4:19 version with an extra verse]
#*Previously unreleased; unedited version later released on Hitchhiker (2017)
#* Neil Young – guitar, vocal
#* Recorded at Indigo Ranch Recording Studio, Malibu, 8/11/1976.''
#"Long May You Run" – 3:48
#*Performed by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young; previously unreleased; original mix (without Crosby and Nash's vocals) appears on the Stills-Young Band album Long May You Run (1976)
#* Neil Young – guitar, harmonica, vocal; Stephen Stills – guitar, vocal; Joe Lala – percussion, vocal; Joe Vitale – drums, vocal; George "Chocolate" Perry – bass, vocal; Jerry Aiello – organ; David Crosby – vocal; Graham Nash – vocal
#* Recorded at Criteria Studios, Miami, 2/5/1976.
Personnel
*Neil Young – guitar, harmonica, piano, vibes, banjo, pipe organ, vocals
*Billy Talbot – bass, vocals
*Bobby West, Bruce Palmer, Calvin "Fuzzy" Samuels, Carol Kaye, Donald "Duck" Dunn, Gary Marker, George "Chocolate" Perry, Greg Reeves, Jim Fielder, Jim Messina, Tim Drummond – bass
*Jim Horn – clarinet
*Dallas Taylor, Dewey Martin, Earl Palmer, George Grantham, Hal Blaine, Jim Keltner, Joe Vitale, John Barbata, Karl T. Himmel, Kenny Buttrey – drums
*Ralph Molina – drums, vocals
*Jesse Hill – drums, timpani
*Jack Nitzsche – electric piano
*Bill Peterson – flugelhorn
*Chris Sarns, Ry Cooder, Teddy Irwin – guitar
*Danny Whitten – guitar, vocals
*Jerry Aiello – organ
*Joe Lala – percussion
*James McMahon, John Harris, Mac Rebennack, Spooner Oldham – piano
*Nils Lofgren – piano, guitar, vocals
*Ben Keith – slide/pedal steel guitars, Dobro, vocals
*James Taylor – banjo-guitar, vocals
*David Crosby, Graham Nash, Richie Furay – guitar, vocals
*Stephen Stills – guitar, piano, vocals
*Merry Clayton, Brenda Holloway, Patrice Holloway, Gloria Richetta Jones, Sherlie Matthews, Gracia Nitzsche, Linda Ronstadt, Emmylou Harris – vocals
*London Symphony Orchestra
Additional roles
*Neil Young, Elliot Mazer, Tim Mulligan, David Briggs, Jack Nitzsche, Ahmet Ertegun, Charles Greene, Brian Stone, Ry Cooder, Henry Lewy, L.A. Johnson, Kendall Pacios, Stephen Stills, Don Gehman – production
*Joel Bernstein, Gary Burden, Henry Diltz – photography
*Tom Wilkes – photography, cover layout
*Tommy Grekel – album packaging
Charts
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|+Chart performance for Decade
! scope="col" | Chart (1977)
! scope="col" | Peak<br>position
|-
! scope"row"|Australia (Kent Music Report)
| style="text-align:center;" |21
|-
! scope"row"|US Billboard Top LPs & Tape
| align="center" |43
|-
! scope"row"|UK Album Charts
| align="center" |46
|-
! scope"row"|Canadian RPM 100 Albums
| align="center" |47
|-
! scope"row"|Norwegian VG-lista Albums
| align="center" |28
|-
! scope"row"|New Zealand Album Charts
| align="center" |34
|-
! scope"row"|US Cash Box Top 100 Albums
| align="center" |46
|-
! scope"row"|US Record World Album Chart
| align="center" |71
|}
Certifications
Notes
Category:Neil Young compilation albums
Category:Reprise Records compilation albums
Category:Albums produced by Neil Young
Category:Albums produced by David Briggs (producer)
Category:Albums produced by Elliot Mazer
Category:1977 compilation albums
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decade_(Neil_Young_album)
|
2025-04-05T18:28:31.557587
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Demeter
|
| mount | festivals Thesmophoria, Eleusinian Mysteries, Lithobolia
| equivalent1_type = Egyptian
| equivalent1 = Isis
| animals = Pig, serpent, gecko, turtledove, crane, screech owl
| roman_equivalent = Ceres
}}
In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Demeter (; Attic: Dēmḗtēr ; Doric: Dāmā́tēr) is the Olympian goddess of the harvest and agriculture, presiding over crops, grains, food, and the fertility of the earth. Although Demeter is mostly known as a grain goddess, she also appeared as a goddess of health, birth, and marriage, and had connections to the Underworld. She is also called Deo ( Dēṓ). In Greek tradition, Demeter is the second child of the Titans Rhea and Cronus, and sister to Hestia, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and Zeus. Like her other siblings except Zeus, she was swallowed by her father as an infant and rescued by Zeus.
Through her brother Zeus, she became the mother of Persephone, a fertility goddess and resurrection deity. One of the most notable Homeric Hymns, the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, tells the story of Persephone's abduction by Hades and Demeter's search for her. When Hades, the King of the Underworld, wished to make Persephone his wife, he abducted her from a field while she was picking flowers, with Zeus' leave. Demeter searched everywhere to find her missing daughter to no avail until she was informed that Hades had taken her to the Underworld. In response, Demeter neglected her duties as goddess of agriculture, plunging the earth into a deadly famine where nothing would grow, causing mortals to die. Zeus ordered Hades to return Persephone to her mother to avert the disaster. However, because Persephone had eaten food from the Underworld, she could not stay with Demeter forever, but had to divide the year between her mother and her husband, explaining the seasonal cycle as Demeter does not let plants grow while Persephone is gone.
Her cult titles include Sito (), "she of the Grain", as the giver of food or grain, and Thesmophoros (, thesmos: divine order, unwritten law; , phoros: bringer, bearer), "giver of customs" or "legislator", in association with the secret female-only festival called the Thesmophoria. Though Demeter is often described simply as the goddess of the harvest, she presided also over the sacred law and the cycle of life and death. She and her daughter Persephone were the central figures of the Eleusinian Mysteries, a religious tradition that predated the Olympian pantheon and which may have its roots in the Mycenaean period –1200 BC.
Demeter was often considered to be the same figure as the Anatolian goddess Cybele, and she was identified with the Roman goddess Ceres.
Etymology
Demeter may appear in Linear A as da-ma-te on three documents (AR Zf 1 and 2, and KY Za 2), all three dedicated to religious situations and all three bearing just the name (i-da-ma-te on AR Zf 1 and 2). It is unlikely that Demeter appears as da-ma-te in a Linear B (Mycenean Greek) inscription (PY En 609); the word }}, da-ma-te, probably refers to "households". On the other hand, }}, si-to-po-ti-ni-ja, "Potnia of the Grain", is regarded as referring to her Bronze Age predecessor or to one of her epithets.
Demeter's character as mother-goddess is identified in the second element of her name meter () derived from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) *méh₂tēr (mother). In antiquity, different explanations were already proffered for the first element of her name. It is possible that Da (), a word which corresponds to Gē () in Attic, is the Doric form of De (), "earth", the old name of the chthonic earth-goddess, and that Demeter is "Mother-Earth". Liddell & Scott find this "improbable" and Beekes writes, "there is no indication that [da] means "earth", although it has also been assumed in the name of Poseidon found in the Linear B inscription E-ne-si-da-o-ne, "earth-shaker". John Chadwick also argues that the dā element in the name of Demeter is not so simply equated with "earth".
M. L. West has proposed that the word Demeter, initially Damater, could be a borrowing from an Illyrian deity attested in the Messapic goddess Damatura, with a form dā- ("earth", from PIE *dʰǵʰ(e)m-) attached to -matura ("mother"), akin to the Illyrian god Dei-paturos (dei-, "sky", attached to -paturos, "father"). The Lesbian form Dō- may simply reflect a different colloquial pronunciation of the non-Greek name.
Another theory suggests that the element De- might be connected with Deo, an epithet of Demeter and it could derive from the Cretan word dea (), Ionic zeia ()—variously identified with emmer, spelt, rye, or other grains by modern scholars—so that she is the mother and the giver of food generally. This view is shared by British scholar Jane Ellen Harrison, who suggests that Démeter's name means Grain-Mother, instead of Earth-Mother.
An alternative Proto-Indo-European etymology comes through Potnia and Despoina, where Des- represents a derivative of PIE *dem (house, dome), and Demeter is "mother of the house" (from PIE *dems-méh₂tēr). R. S. P. Beekes rejects a Greek interpretation, but not necessarily an Indo-European one.
In Arcadia, she was known as "Black Demeter". She was said to have taken the form of a mare to escape the pursuit of her younger brother, Poseidon, and having been raped by him despite her disguise, she dressed all in black and retreated into a cave to mourn and to purify herself. She was consequently depicted with the head of a horse in this region.
A sculpture of the Black Demeter was made by Onatas.
Description
In the earliest conceptions of Demeter she is the goddess of grain and threshing, however her functions were extended beyond the fields and she was often identified with the earth goddess (Gaia). Some of the epithets of Gaia and Demeter are similar showing the identity of their nature. In most of her myths and cults, Demeter is the "Grain-Mother" or the "Earth-Mother". In the older chthonic cults the earth goddess was related to the Underworld and in the secret rites (mysteries) Demeter and Persephone share the double function of death and fertility. Demeter is the giver of the secret rites and the giver of the laws of cereal agriculture. She was occasionally identified with the Great Mother Rhea-Cybele who was worshipped in Crete and Asia Minor with the music of cymbals and violent rites. It seems that poppies were connected with the cult of the Great Mother.
As an agricultural goddess
, who offers the triune wheat (}})]]
In epic poetry and Hesiod's Theogony, Demeter is the Grain-Mother, the goddess of cereals who provides grain for bread and blesses its harvesters. In Homer's Iliad, the light-haired Demeter with the help of the wind separates the grain from the chaff. Homer mentions the Thalysia a Greek harvest-festival of first fruits in honour of Demeter . In Hesiod, prayers to Zeus-Chthonios (chthonic Zeus) and Demeter help the crops grow full and strong. This was her main function at Eleusis, and she became panhellenic. In Cyprus, "grain-harvesting" was damatrizein. Demeter was the zeidoros arοura, the Homeric "Mother Earth arοura" who gave the gift of cereals (zeai or deai).
Most of the epithets of Demeter describe her as a goddess of grain. Her name Deo in literature probably relates her with deai a Cretan word for cereals. In Attica she was called Haloas (of the threshing floor) according to the earliest conception of Demeter as the Corn-Mother. She was sometimes called Chloe (ripe-grain or fresh-green) and sometimes Ioulo (ioulos : grain sheaf). Chloe was the goddess of young corn and young vegetation and "Iouloi" were harvest songs in honour of the goddess. The reapers called Demeter Amallophoros (bringer of sheaves) and Amaia (reaper). The goddess was the giver of abundance of food and she was known as Sito (of the grain) and Himalis (of abundance ). The bread from the first harvest-fruits was called thalysian bread (Thalysia) in honour of Demeter. The sacrificial cakes burned on the altar were called "ompniai" and in Attica the goddess was known as Ompnia (related to corns). These cakes were offered to all gods.
: Persephone, Triptolemus and Demeter (Roman copy dating to the Early Imperial period and hosted by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, of the Great Eleusinian Relief in the National Archaeological Museum, Athens, marble bas-relief from Eleusis, 440–430 BC.)]]
In some feasts big loafs (artoi) were offered to the goddess and in Boeotia she was known as
Megalartos (of the big loaf) and Megalomazos (of the big mass, or big porridge). Her function was extended to vegetation generally and to all fruits and she had the epithets eukarpos (of good crop), karpophoros (bringer of fruits), malophoros (apple bearer) and sometimes Oria (all the fruits of the season). These epithets show an identity in nature with the earth goddess.
The central theme in the Eleusinian Mysteries was the reunion of Persephone with her mother, Demeter when new crops were reunited with the old seed, a form of eternity.
According to the Athenian rhetorician Isocrates, Demeter's greatest gifts to humankind were agriculture which gave to men a civilized way of life, and the Mysteries which give the initiate higher hopes in this life and the afterlife.
These two gifts were intimately connected in Demeter's myths and mystery cults. Demeter is the giver of mystic rites and the giver of the civilized way of life (teaching the laws of agriculture). Her epithet Eleusinia relates her with the Eleusinian mysteries, however at Sparta Eleusinia had an early use, and it was probably a name rather than an epithet. Demeter Thesmophoros (law-giving) is closely associated to the laws of cereal agriculture. The festival Thesmophoria was celebrated throughout Greece and was connected to a form of agrarian magic. Her epithet (as paired with Auxesia for Persephone) was the center of the festival called the Lithobolia. Near Pheneus in Arcadia she was known as Demeter-Thesmia (lawfull), and she received rites according to the local version.
Demeter's emblem is the poppy, a bright red flower that grows among the barley.
As an earth and underworld goddess
and Demeter with a sceptre and plough. By the Orestes Painter. 440-430 BC.National Archaeological Museum, Athens]]
In addition to her role as an agricultural goddess, Demeter was often worshipped more generally as a goddess of the earth, from which crops spring up. Her individuality was rooted to the less developed personality of Gaia (earth). In Arcadia Demeter Melaina (the black Demeter) was represented as snake-haired with a horse's head holding a dove and dolphin, perhaps to symbolize her power over the Underworld, the air, and the water. The cult of Demeter in the region was related to Despoina, a very old chthonic divinity. Demeter shares the double function of death and fertility with her daughter Persephone. Demeter and Persephone were called Despoinai (the mistresses) and Demeters. This duality was also used in the classical period (Thesmophoroi, Double named goddesses) and particularly in an oath: "By the two goddesses".
In the cult of Phlya she was worshipped as Anesidora who sends up gifts from the Underworld.
In Sparta, she was known as Demeter-Chthonia (chthonic Demeter). After each death the mourning should end with a sacrifice to the goddess. Pausanias believes that her cult was introduced from Hermione, where Demeter was associated with Hades. In a local legend a hollow in the earth was the entrance to the underworld, by which the souls could pass easily. In Elis she was called Demeter-Chamyne (goddess of the ground),
Pindar uses the rare epithet Chalkokrotos (bronze sounding). Brazen musical instruments were used in the mysteries of Demeter and the Great-Mother Rhea-Cybele was also worshipped with the music of cymbals.
In central Greece Demeter was known as Amphictyonis (of the dwellers-round), in a cult of the goddess at Anthele near Thermopylae (hot gates). She was the patron goddess of an ancient Amphictyony. Thermopylae is the place of hot springs considered to be entrances to Hades, since Demeter was a chthonic goddess in the older local cults.
The Athenians called the dead "Demetrioi",
In Arcadia Demeter had the epithets Erinys (fury) and Melaina (black) which are associated with the myth of Demeter's rape by Poseidon. The epithets stress the darker side of her character and her relation to the dark underworld, in an old chthonic cult associated with wooden structures (xoana). In the mysteries of Pheneus the goddess was known as Cidaria. Her priest would put on the mask of Demeter, which was kept secret. The cult may have been connected with both the Underworld and a form of agrarian magic.
As a poppy goddess
Theocritus described one of Demeter's earlier roles as that of a goddess of poppies:
Karl Kerényi asserted that poppies were connected with a Cretan cult which was eventually carried to the Eleusinian Mysteries in Classical Greece. In a clay statuette from Gazi, the Minoan poppy goddess wears the seed capsules, sources of nourishment and narcosis, in her diadem. According to Kerényi, "It seems probable that the Great Mother Goddess who bore the names Rhea and Demeter, brought the poppy with her from her Cretan cult to Eleusis and it is almost certain that in the Cretan cult sphere opium was prepared from poppies."
Epithets
:See :Category:Epithets of Demeter
Worship
In Crete
In an older tradition in Crete the vegetation cult was related with the deity of the cave. During the Bronze Age, a goddess of nature dominated both in Minoan and Mycenean cults. In the Linear B inscriptions po-ti-ni-ja (potnia) refers to the goddess of nature who was concerned with birth and vegetation and had certain chthonic apects. Some scholars believe that she was the universal mother goddess. A Linear B inscription at Knossos mentions the potnia of the labyrinth da-pu-ri-to-jo po-ti-ni-ja. Poseidon was often given the title wa-na-ka (wanax) in Linear B inscriptions in his role as King of the Underworld, and his title E-ne-si-da-o-ne indicates his chthonic nature. He was the male companion (paredros) of the goddess in the Minoan and probably Mycenean cult. Elements of this early form of worship survived in the Eleusinian cult, where the following words were uttered: "the mighty Potnia had born a strong son."
On the Greek mainland
, Hellenistic marble sculpture, around 350 BC]]
Tablets from Pylos of BC record sacrificial goods destined for "the Two Queens and Poseidon" ("to the Two Queens and the King":wa-na-ssoi, wa-na-ka-te). The "Two Queens" may be related to Demeter and Persephone or their precursors, goddesses who were no longer associated with Poseidon in later periods.
Major cults to Demeter are known at Eleusis in Attica, Hermion (in Crete), Megara, Celeae, Lerna, Aegila, Munychia, Corinth, Delos, Priene, Akragas, Iasos, Pergamon, Selinus, Tegea, Thoricus, Dion (in Macedonia) Lykosoura, Mesembria, Enna, and Samothrace.
Probably the earliest Amphictyony centred on the cult of Demeter at Anthele (Ἀνθήλη), lay on the coast of Malis south of Thessaly, near Thermopylae.
Mysian Demeter had a seven-day festival at Pellené in Arcadia. The geographer Pausanias passed the shrine to Mysian Demeter on the road from Mycenae to Argos and reports that according to Argive tradition, the shrine was founded by an Argive named Mysius who venerated Demeter. coin in India, with Demeter and Hermes, 1st century BC]]
"Saint Demetra"<span class"anchor" id"Saint Demetra"></span>
]]
Even after Theodosius I issued the Edict of Thessalonica and banned paganism throughout the Roman Empire, people throughout Greece continued to pray to Demeter as "Saint Demetra", patron saint of agriculture. Around 1765–1766, the antiquary Richard Chandler, alongside the architect Nicholas Revett and the painter William Pars, visited Eleusis and mentioned a statue of a caryatid as well as the folklore that surrounded it, they stated that it was considered sacred by the locals because it protected their crops. They called the statue "Saint Demetra", a saint whose story had many similarities to the myth of Demeter and Persephone, except that her daughter had been abducted by the Turks and not by Hades. The locals covered the statue with flowers to ensure the fertility of their fields. This tradition continued until 1865,Festivals
Demeter's two major festivals were sacred mysteries. Her Thesmophoria festival (11–13 October) was women-only. Her Eleusinian mysteries were open to initiates of any gender or social class. At the heart of both festivals were myths concerning Demeter as the mother and Persephone as her daughter.
Conflation with other goddesses
, Greece.]]
In the Roman period, Demeter became conflated with the Roman agricultural goddess Ceres through interpretatio romana. The worship of Demeter has formally merged with that of Ceres around 205 BC, along with the ritus graecia cereris, a Greek-inspired form of cult, as part of Rome's general religious recruitment of deities as allies against Carthage, towards the end of the Second Punic War. The cult originated in southern Italy (part of Magna Graecia) and was probably based on the Thesmophoria, a mystery cult dedicated to Demeter and Persephone as "Mother and Maiden". It arrived along with its Greek priestesses, who were granted Roman citizenship so that they could pray to the gods "with a foreign and external knowledge, but with a domestic and civil intention". The new cult was installed in the already ancient Temple of Ceres, Liber and Libera, Rome's Aventine patrons of the plebs; from the end of the 3rd century BC, Demeter's temple at Enna, in Sicily, was acknowledged as Ceres' oldest, most authoritative cult centre, and Libera was recognized as Proserpina, Roman equivalent to Persephone.
Their joint cult recalls Demeter's search for Persephone after the latter's abduction into the Underworld by Hades. At the Aventine, the new cult took its place alongside the old. It did not refer to Liber, whose open and gender-mixed cult played a central role in plebeian culture as a patron and protector of plebeian rights, freedoms and values. The exclusively female initiates and priestesses of the new "greek style" mysteries of Ceres and Proserpina were expected to uphold Rome's traditional, patrician-dominated social hierarchy and traditional morality. Unmarried girls should emulate the chastity of Proserpina, the maiden; married women should seek to emulate Ceres, the devoted and fruitful mother. Their rites were intended to secure a good harvest and increase the fertility of those who partook in the mysteries.
Beginning in the 5th century BCE in Asia Minor, Demeter was also considered equivalent to the Phrygian goddess Cybele. Demeter's festival of Thesmophoria was popular throughout Asia Minor, and the myth of Persephone and Adonis in many ways mirrors the myth of Cybele and Attis.
Some late antique sources syncretized several "great goddess" figures into a single deity. For example, the Platonist philosopher Apuleius, writing in the late 2nd century, identified Ceres (Demeter) with Isis, having her declare:
<blockquote>I, mother of the universe, mistress of all the elements, first-born of the ages, highest of the gods, queen of the shades, first of those who dwell in heaven, representing in one shape all gods and goddesses. My will controls the shining heights of heaven, the health-giving sea winds, and the mournful silences of hell; the entire world worships my single godhead in a thousand shapes, with divers rites, and under many a different name. The Phrygians, first-born of mankind, call me the Pessinuntian Mother of the gods; ... the ancient Eleusinians Actaean Ceres; ... and the Egyptians who excel in ancient learning, honour me with the worship which is truly mine and call me by my true name: Queen Isis.
:--Apuleius, translated by E. J. Kenny. The Golden Ass</blockquote>
Mythology
Lineage, consorts, and offspring
, Demeter and Persephone by the Triptolemos-painter, c. 470 BC, Louvre]]
Alongside the rest of her siblings, with the exception of her youngest brother Zeus, she was swallowed as a newborn by her father due to his fear of being overthrown by one of his children; she was later freed when Zeus made Cronus disgorge all of his children by giving him a special potion.
Demeter is notable as the mother of Persephone, described by both Hesiod and in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter as the result of a union with her younger brother Zeus. An alternate recounting of the matter appears in a fragment of the lost Orphic theogony, which preserves part of a myth in which Zeus mates with his mother, Rhea, in the form of a snake, explaining the origin of the symbol on Hermes' staff. Their daughter is said to be Persephone, whom Zeus, in turn, mates with to conceive Dionysus. According to the Orphic fragments, "After becoming the mother of Zeus, she who was formerly Rhea became Demeter."
There is some evidence that the figures of the Queen of the Underworld and the daughter of Demeter were initially considered separate goddesses. However, they must have become conflated by the time of Hesiod in the 7th century BC. In Arcadia they were known as "the Great Goddesses" and "the mistresses". In Mycenaean Pylos, Demeter and Persephone were probably called the "queens" (wa-na-ssoi).
an relief of Demeter in her aspects of mother goddess and goddess of agriculture]]
Both Homer and Hesiod, writing c. 700 BC, described Demeter making love with the agricultural hero Iasion in a ploughed field during the marriage of Cadmus and Harmonia. According to Hesiod, this union resulted in the birth of Plutus.
According to Diodorus Siculus, in his Bibliotheca historica'' written in the 1st century BC, Demeter and Zeus were also the parents of Dionysus. Diodorus described the myth of Dionysus' double birth (once from the earth, i.e. Demeter, when the plant sprouts) and once from the vine (when the fruit sprouts from the plant). Diodorus also related a version of the myth of Dionysus' destruction by the Titans ("sons of Gaia"), who boiled him, and how Demeter gathered up his remains so that he could be born a third time (Diod. iii.62). Diodorus states that Dionysus' birth from Zeus and his older sister Demeter was somewhat of a minority belief, possibly via conflation of Demeter with her daughter, as most sources state that the parents of Dionysus were Zeus and Persephone, and later Zeus and Semele., 1st century]]
Hesiod's Theogony (c. 700 BC) describes Demeter as the second daughter of Cronus and Rhea, and the sister of Hestia, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and Zeus.
In Arcadia, a major Arcadian deity known as Despoina ("Mistress") was said to be the daughter of Demeter and Poseidon. According to Pausanias, a Thelpusian tradition said that during Demeter's search for Persephone, Poseidon pursued her. Demeter turned into a horse to avoid her younger brother's advances. However, he turned into a stallion and mated with the goddess, resulting in the birth of the horse god Arion and a daughter "whose name they are not wont to divulge to the uninitiated". Elsewhere, he says that the Phigalians assert that the offspring of Poseidon and Demeter was not a horse, but Despoina, "as the Arcadians call her".
In Orphic literature, Demeter seems to be the mother of the witchcraft goddess Hecate.
The goddess took Mecon, a young Athenian, as a lover; he was at some point transformed into a poppy flower.
The following is a list of Demeter's offspring, by various fathers. Beside each offspring, the earliest source to record the parentage is given, along with the century to which the source (in some cases approximately) dates.
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"
! scope"col" style"width: 100pt;" | Offspring
! scope"col" style"width: 95pt;" | Father
! scope"col" style"width: 55pt;" | Source
! scope"col" style"width: 70pt;" | Date
! class"unsortable" scope"col" style="width: 10pt;" |
|-
| Persephone
| rowspan="2" | Zeus
| Hes. Theog.
| data-sort-value=1 | 8th cent. BC
|
|-
| Dionysus
| Diod. Sic.
| data-sort-value=15 | 1st cent. BC
|
|-
| Arion, Despoina
| Poseidon
| Paus.
| data-sort-value=19 | 2nd cent. AD
|
|-
| Plutus
| rowspan="2" | Iasion
| Hes. Theog.
| data-sort-value=1 | 8th cent. BC
|
|-
| Philomelus
| Hyg. De astr.
| data-sort-value=16 | 1st cent. BC/AD
|
|-
| Hecate
| rowspan="2" | No father mentioned''
| Orphic frr.
| data-sort-value=50 |
|
|}
Abduction of Persephone
at Selinunte, Sicily, 6th century BC.]]
Demeter's daughter Persephone was abducted to the Underworld by Hades, who received permission from her father Zeus to take her as his bride. Demeter searched for her ceaselessly for nine days, preoccupied with her grief. Hecate then approached her and said that while she had not seen what happened to Persephone, she heard her screams. Together the two goddesses went to Helios, the sun god, who witnessed everything that happened on earth thanks to his lofty position. Helios then revealed to Demeter that Hades had snatched a screaming Persephone to make her his wife with the permission of Zeus, the girl's father. Demeter then filled with anger. The seasons halted; living things ceased their growth and began to die. Faced with the extinction of all life on earth, Zeus sent his messenger Hermes to the Underworld to bring Persephone back. Hades agreed to release her if she had eaten nothing while in his realm, but Persephone had eaten a small number of pomegranate seeds. This bound her to Hades and the Underworld for certain months of every year, most likely the dry Mediterranean summer, when plant life is threatened by drought, despite the popular belief that it is autumn or winter. There are several variations on the basic myth; the earliest account, the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, relates that Persephone is secretly slipped a pomegranate seed by Hades and in Ovid's version, Persephone willingly and secretly eats the pomegranate seeds, thinking to deceive Hades, but is discovered and made to stay. Contrary to popular perception, Persephone's time in the Underworld does not correspond with the unfruitful seasons of the ancient Greek calendar, nor her return to the upper world with springtime. Demeter's descent to retrieve Persephone from the Underworld is connected to the Eleusinian Mysteries.
The myth of the capture of Persephone seems to be pre-Greek. In the Greek version, Ploutos (πλούτος, wealth) represents the wealth of the corn that was stored in underground silos or ceramic jars (pithoi). Similar subterranean pithoi were used in ancient times for funerary practices. At the beginning of the autumn, when the corn of the old crop is laid on the fields, she ascends and is reunited with her mother, Demeter, for at this time, the old crop and the new meet each other.
of Baubo, of the face-in-torso type]]
In the Orphic tradition, while she was searching for her daughter, a mortal woman named Baubo received Demeter as her guest and offered her a meal and wine. Demeter declined them both because she mourned the loss of Persephone. Baubo then, thinking she had displeased the goddess, lifted her skirt and showed her genitalia to the goddess, simultaneously revealing Iacchus, Demeter's son. Demeter was most pleased with the sight and delighted she accepted the food and wine. This tale survives in the account of Clement of Alexandria, an early Christian writer who wrote about pagan practices and mythology. Several Baubo figurines (figurines of women revealing their vulvas) have been discovered, supporting the story.
Demeter at Eleusis
Demeter's search for her daughter Persephone took her to the palace of Celeus, the King of Eleusis in Attica. She assumed the form of an old woman and asked him for shelter. He took her in, to nurse Demophon and Triptolemus, his sons by Metanira. To reward his kindness, she planned to make Demophon immortal; she secretly anointed the boy with ambrosia and laid him in the hearth's flames to gradually burn away his mortal self. But Metanira walked in, saw her son in the fire and screamed in fright. Demeter abandoned the attempt. Instead, she taught Triptolemus the secrets of agriculture, and he, in turn, taught them to any who wished to learn them. Thus, humanity learned how to plant, grow and harvest grain. The myth has several versions; some are linked to figures such as Eleusis, Rarus and Trochilus. The Demophon element may be based on an earlier folk tale.
, Archaeological Museum of Heraklion.]]
Demeter and Iasion
Homer's Odyssey (c. late 8th century BC) contains perhaps the earliest direct references to the myth of Demeter and her consort Iasion, a Samothracian hero whose name may refer to bindweed, a small white flower that frequently grows in wheat fields. In the Odyssey, Calypso describes how Demeter, "without disguise", made love to Iasion. "So it was when Demeter of the braided tresses followed her heart and lay in love with Iasion in the triple-furrowed field; Zeus was aware of it soon enough and hurled the bright thunderbolt and killed him." However, Ovid states that Iasion lived up to old age as the husband of Demeter. In ancient Greek culture, part of the opening of each agricultural year involved the cutting of three furrows in the field to ensure its fertility.
Hesiod expanded on the basics of this myth. According to him, the liaison between Demeter and Iasion took place at the wedding of Cadmus and Harmonia in Crete. Demeter, in this version, had lured Iasion away from the other revellers. Hesiod says that Demeter subsequently gave birth to Plutus.
Demeter and Poseidon
)]]
In Arcadia, located in what is now southern Greece, the major goddess Despoina was considered the daughter of Demeter and Poseidon Hippios ("Horse-Poseidon"). In the associated myths, Poseidon represents the river spirit of the Underworld, and he appears as a horse, as often happens in northern European folklore. The myth describes how he pursued his older sister, Demeter, who hid from him among the horses of the king Onkios, but even in the form of a mare, she could not conceal her divinity. Poseidon caught and raped his older sister in the form of a stallion. Demeter was furious at Poseidon's assault; in this furious form, she became known as Demeter Erinys. Her anger at Poseidon drove her to dress all in black and retreat into a cave to purify herself, an act which was the cause of a universal famine. Demeter's absence caused the death of crops, livestock, and eventually of the people who depended on them (later Arcadian tradition held that it was both her rage at Poseidon and her loss of her daughter caused the famine, merging the two myths).
"In her alliance with Poseidon," Kerényi noted, "she was Earth, who bears plants and beasts, and could therefore assume the shape of an ear of grain or a mare." Moreover, she bore a daughter Despoina (: the "Mistress"), whose name should not be uttered outside the Arcadian Mysteries, and a horse named Arion, with a black mane and tail.
At Phigaleia, a xoanon (wood-carved statue) of Demeter was erected in a cave which, tradition held, was the cave into which Black Demeter retreated. The statue depicted a Medusa-like figure with a horse's head and snake-like hair, holding a dove and a dolphin, which probably represented her power over air and water:
Demeter and Erysichthon
Another myth involving Demeter's rage resulting in famine is that of Erysichthon, king of Thessaly.
In a variation, Erysichthon tore down a temple of Demeter, wishing to build a roof for his house; she punished him the same way, and near the end of his life, she sent a snake to plague him. Afterwards, Demeter put him among the stars (the constellation Ophiuchus), as she did the snake, to continue to inflict its punishment on Erysichthon.
In the Pergamon Altar, which depicts the battle of the gods against the Giants (Gigantomachy), survive remains of what seems to have been Demeter fighting a Giant labelled "Erysichthon." Demeter is also depicted fighting against the Giants next to Hermes in the Suessula Gigantomachy vase, now housed in the Louvre Museum. Usually, ancient depictions of the Gigantomachy tend to exclude Demeter due to her non-martial nature.
Wrath myths
from Panticapaeum, 1st century Crimea.]]
While travelling far and wide looking for her daughter, Demeter arrived exhausted in Attica. A woman named Misme took her in and offered her a cup of water with pennyroyal and barley groats, for it was a hot day. Demeter, in her thirst, swallowed the drink clumsily. Witnessing that, Misme's son Ascalabus laughed, mocked her, and asked her if she would like a deep jar of that drink. Demeter then poured her drink over him and turned him into a gecko, hated by both men and gods. It was said that Demeter showed her favour to those who killed geckos.
Before Hades abducted her daughter, he had kept the nymph Minthe as his mistress. But after he married Persephone, he set Minthe aside. Minthe would often brag about being lovelier than Persephone and say Hades would soon come back to her and kick Persephone out of his halls. Demeter, hearing that, grew angry and trampled Minthe; from the earth then sprang a lovely-smelling herb named after the nymph. In other versions, Persephone herself is the one who kills and turns Minthe into a plant for sleeping with Hades.
In an Argive myth, when Demeter arrived in Argolis, a man named Colontas refused to receive her in his house, whereas his daughter Chthonia disapproved of his actions. Colontas was punished by being burnt along with his house, while Demeter took Chthonia to Hermione, where she built a sanctuary for the goddess.
Demeter pinned Ascalaphus under a rock for reporting, as sole witness, to Hades that Persephone had consumed some pomegranate seeds. Later, after Heracles rolled the stone off Ascalaphus, Demeter turned him into a short-eared owl instead.
Demeter also turned the Sirens into half-bird monsters for not helping her daughter Persephone when she was abducted by Hades.
Once, the Colchian princess Medea ended a famine that plagued Corinth by making sacrifices to Demeter and the nymphs.
Favour myths
, 2nd century CE]]
Demeter gave Triptolemus her serpent-drawn chariot (one of the serpents that drew this chariot was Kykreides) and seed and bade him scatter it across the earth (teach humankind the knowledge of agriculture). Triptolemus rode through Europe and Asia until he came to the land of Lyncus, a Scythian king. Lyncus pretended to offer what's accustomed of hospitality to him, but once Triptolemus fell asleep, he attacked him with a dagger, wanting to take credit for his work. Demeter then saved Triptolemus by turning Lyncus into a lynx and ordered Triptolemus to return home airborne. Hyginus records a very similar myth, in which Demeter saves Triptolemus from an evil king named Carnabon who additionally seized Triptolemus' chariot and killed one of the dragons, so he might not escape; Demeter restored the chariot to Triptolemus, substituted the dead dragon with another one, and punished Carnabon by putting him among the stars holding a dragon as if to kill it.
During her wanderings, Demeter came upon the town of Pheneus; to the Pheneates that received her warmly and offered her shelter, she gave all sorts of pulse, except for beans, deeming it impure. Two of the Pheneates, Trisaules and Damithales, had a temple of Demeter built for her. Demeter also gifted a fig tree to Phytalus, an Eleusinian man, for welcoming her in his home.
In the tale of Eros and Psyche, Demeter, along with her sister Hera, visited Aphrodite, raging with fury about the girl who had married her son. Aphrodite asks the two to search for her; the two try to talk sense into her, arguing that her son is not a little boy, although he might appear as one, and there's no harm in him falling in love with Psyche. Aphrodite took offence at their words. Sometime later, Psyche in her wanderings came across an abandoned shrine of Demeter, and sorted out the neglected sickles and harvest implements she found there. As she was doing so, Demeter appeared to her and called from afar; she warned the girl of Aphrodite's great wrath and her plan to take revenge on her. Then Psyche begged the goddess to help her, but Demeter answered that she could not interfere and incur Aphrodite's anger at her, and for that reason, Psyche had to leave the shrine or else be kept as a captive of hers.
in the façade of the Academy of Athens, Greece.]]
When her son Philomelus invented the plough and used it to cultivate the fields, Demeter was so impressed by his good work that she immortalized him in the sky by turning him into a constellation, the Boötes.
Hierax, a man of justice and distinction, set up sanctuaries for Demeter and received plenteous harvests from her in return. When the tribe neglected Poseidon in favour of Demeter, the sea god destroyed all of her crops, so Hierax sent them instead his own food and was transformed into a hawk by Poseidon.
Besides giving gifts to those who were welcoming to her, Demeter was also a goddess who nursed the young; all of Plemaeus's children born by his first wife died in a cradle; Demeter took pity on him and reared herself his son Orthopolis. Plemaeus built a temple to her to thank her. Demeter also raised Trophonius, the prophetic son of either Apollo or Erginus.Other accountsDemeter seems to have accompanied Dionysus when he descended into the Underworld to retrieve his mother Semele in order to visit her now married daughter, and perhaps lead her back to the land of the living for the remainder of the year. In many vases from Athens Dionysus is seen in the company of mother and daughter.
Once Tantalus, a son of Zeus, invited the gods over for dinner. Tantalus, wanting to test them, cut his son Pelops, cooked him and offered him as a meal to them. They all saw through Tantalus' crime except Demeter, who ate Pelops' shoulder before the gods brought him back to life.Genealogy
See also
* Family tree of the Greek gods
* Greek mythology in popular culture
* Isis and Osiris
* Demophon of Eleusis
Notes
References
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* Apuleius, The golden ass, or, Metamorphoses. E. J. Kenney. 2004. London: Penguin Books.
*
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*
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* Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873) [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.04.0104 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library].
* Stalmith A.B, The name of Demeter Thesmophoros in GRBS48 (2008) p. 115-131
* Strabo, The Geography of Strabo. Edition by H.L. Jones. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0198%3Abook%3D6%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library].
* Tripp, Edward, ''Crowell's Handbook of Classical Mythology, Thomas Y. Crowell Co; First edition (June 1970). .
* West, M. L. (1983), The Orphic Poems, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1983. .
* West, M. L. (2007), Indo-European Poetry and Myth, OUP Oxford, 2007. . [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXrJA_5LKlYC Google Books].
*
*
* External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110722185007/http://earlywomenmasters.net/demeter/index.html Hymn to Demeter, Ancient Greek and English text, Interlinear Translation edited & adapted from the 1914 prose translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, with Greek-English glossary, notes and illustrations.]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=9gkkDkThbKAC Foley P. Helene, The Homeric hymn to Demeter: translation, commentary, and interpretive essays, Princeton Univers. Press, 1994.] with Ancient Greek text and English translation.
* [http://uh.edu/~cldue/texts/demeter.html Text of Homeric Hymn to Demeter]
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/gpr/ Online book of Martin P. Nilsson, Greek Popular Religion'']
* [http://www.jiesonline.com/issues/ "The Political Cosmology of the Homeric Hymn to Demeter"]
* [http://goddessnike.com/goddess_nike_sanctuary_sophian_prayers.php#prayertodemeter "The Sophian Prayer to Demeter"]
* [https://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/category/vpc-taxonomy-000209 The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (images of Demeter)]
Category:Abundance goddesses
Category:Agricultural goddesses
Category:Children of Cronus
Category:Chthonic beings
Category:Deities in the Iliad
Category:Divine women of Zeus
Category:Earth goddesses
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Category:Food goddesses
Category:Greek goddesses
Category:Greek underworld
Category:Horse deities
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Category:Kourotrophoi
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Category:Nature goddesses
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Category:Seasons
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Category:Twelve Olympians
Category:Underworld goddesses
Category:Women of Helios
Category:Women of Poseidon
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Death metal
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}}
| cultural_origins = Mid-1980s, United States
| derivatives | subgenrelist
| subgenres = * Brutal death metal
** slam death metal
* industrial death metal
* melodic death metal
* old school death metal
* symphonic death metal
* technical death metal
| fusiongenres = * Blackened death-doom
* blackened death metal (melodic black-death
* war metal)
* death-doom (funeral doom)
* deathcore
* deathgrind
* deathrash
* death 'n' roll
* goregrind
* pornogrind
| regional_scenes = * Florida
* Indonesia
* Netherlands
* Sweden
* Norway
* Poland
| local_scenes = * New York City
| other_topics = * Extreme metal
* blast beat
* death growl
*
*
}}
Death metal is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music. It typically employs heavily distorted and low-tuned guitars, played with techniques such as palm muting and tremolo picking; deep growling vocals; aggressive, powerful drumming, featuring double kick and blast beat techniques; minor keys or atonality; abrupt tempo, key, and time signature changes; and chromatic chord progressions. The lyrical themes of death metal may include slasher film-style violence, political conflict, religion, nature, philosophy, true crime and science fiction.
Building from the musical structure of thrash metal and early black metal, death metal emerged during the mid-1980s. Bands such as Venom, Celtic Frost, Slayer, and Kreator were important influences on the genre's creation. Possessed, Death, Necrophagia, Obituary, Autopsy, and Morbid Angel are often considered pioneers of the genre.
Since then, death metal has diversified, spawning several subgenres. Melodic death metal combines death metal elements with those of the new wave of British heavy metal. Technical death metal is a complex style, with uncommon time signatures, atypical rhythms, and unusual harmonies and melodies. Death-doom combines the deep growled vocals and double-kick drumming of death metal with the slow tempos and melancholic atmosphere of doom metal. Deathgrind, goregrind, and pornogrind mix the complexity of death metal with the intensity, speed, and brevity of grindcore. Deathcore combines death metal with metalcore traits. Death 'n' roll combines death metal's growled vocals and highly distorted, detuned guitar riffs with elements of 1970s hard rock and heavy metal.
History
Emergence and early history (early to mid–1980s)
in 1989]]
English extreme metal band Venom, from Newcastle, crystallized the elements of what later became known as thrash metal, death metal and black metal, with their first two albums Welcome to Hell and Black Metal, released in late 1981 and 1982, respectively. Their dark, blistering sound, harsh vocals, and macabre, proudly Satanic imagery proved a major inspiration for extreme metal bands. Another highly influential band, Slayer, formed in 1981. Although the band was a thrash metal act, Slayer's music was more violent than their thrash contemporaries Metallica, Megadeth, and Anthrax. Their breakneck speed and instrumental prowess combined with lyrics about death, violence, war, and Satanism won Slayer a cult following. According to Mike McPadden, Hell Awaits, Slayer's second album, "largely invent[ed] much of the sound and fury that would evolve into death metal." According to AllMusic, their third album Reign in Blood inspired the entire death metal genre. It had a big impact on genre leaders such as Death, Obituary, and Morbid Angel. While attributed as having a Slayer influence, current and former members of the band had actually cited Venom and Motörhead, as well as early work by Exodus, as the main influences on their sound. Although the group had released only two studio albums and an EP in their formative years, they have been described by music journalists and musicians as either being "monumental" in developing the death metal style, or as being the first death metal band. Earache Records noted that "the likes of Trey Azagthoth and Morbid Angel based what they were doing in their formative years on the Possessed blueprint laid down on the legendary Seven Churches recording. Possessed arguably did more to further the cause of 'Death Metal' than any of the early acts on the scene back in the mid-late 80's."
(1967–2001) of Death, during a 1992 tour in Scotland in support of the album Human.]]
During the same period as the dawn of Possessed, a second influential metal band was formed in Orlando, Florida. Originally called Mantas, Death was formed in 1983 by Chuck Schuldiner, Kam Lee, and Rick Rozz. Inspired by the Brandon, Florida act Nasty Savage, they took the sound of Nasty Savage and deepened it. In 1984, they released their first demo entitled Death by Metal, followed by several more. The tapes circulated through the tape trader world, quickly establishing the band's name. With Death guitarist Schuldiner adopting vocal duties, the band made a major impact in the emerging Florida death metal scene. The fast minor-key riffs and solos were complemented with fast drumming, creating a style that would catch on in tape trading circles. Schuldiner has been credited by AllMusic's Eduardo Rivadavia for being widely recognized as the "Father of Death Metal". Death's 1987 debut release, Scream Bloody Gore, has been described by About.com's Chad Bowar as being the "evolution from thrash metal to death metal", and "the first true death metal record" by the San Francisco Chronicle. In an Interview Jeff Becerra talked about the discussions of being the creator of the genre, saying that Schuldiner cited Possessed as a massive influence, and Death were even called "Possessed clones" early on. Along with Possessed and Death, other pioneers of death metal in the United States include Macabre, Master, Massacre, Immolation, Cannibal Corpse, Obituary, and Post Mortem.Growing popularity (late 1980s to late 1990s)By 1989, many bands had been signed by eager record labels wanting to cash in on the subgenre, including Florida's Obituary, Morbid Angel and Deicide. This collective of death metal bands hailing from Florida are often labeled as "Florida death metal". Morbid Angel pushed the genre's limits both musically and lyrically, with the release of their debut album Altars of Madness in 1989. The album "redefined what it meant to be heavy while influencing an upcoming class of brutal death metal." According to Jason Birchmeier of AllMusic, "Venom and Slayer redefined the extent to which a metal band could align itself with all things evil during the beginning of the decade, but Morbid Angel made these two groups sound like children's music."
Following the original death metal innovators, new subgenres began to develop the end of the decade, such as melodic death metal. Death released their fourth album Human in 1991, which has become a hallmark in technical death metal. Death's founder Schuldiner helped push the boundaries of the genre with uncompromising speed and technical virtuosity, combining intricate rhythm guitar work with complex arrangements and emotive guitar solos.
Earache Records, Relativity Records and Roadrunner Records became the genre's most important labels, with Earache releasing albums by Carcass, Napalm Death, Morbid Angel, and Entombed, and Roadrunner releasing albums by Obituary, and Pestilence. Although these labels had not been death metal labels, they initially became the genre's flagship labels at the beginning of the 1990s. In addition to these, other labels formed as well, such as Nuclear Blast, Century Media, and Peaceville. Many of these labels would go on to achieve successes in other genres of metal throughout the 1990s.
In September 1990, Death's manager Eric Greif held one of the first North American death metal festivals, Day of Death, in Milwaukee suburb Waukesha, Wisconsin, and featured 26 bands including Autopsy, Broken Hope, Hellwitch, Obliveon, Revenant, Viogression, Immolation, Atheist, and Cynic.
]]
Death metal's popularity achieved its initial peak during 1992–1993, with some bands such as Morbid Angel and Cannibal Corpse enjoying mild commercial success. However, the genre as a whole never broke into the mainstream. The genre's mounting popularity may have been partly responsible for a strong rivalry between Norwegian black metal and Swedish death metal scenes. Fenriz of Darkthrone has noted that Norwegian black metal musicians were "fed up with the whole death metal scene" at the time. Death metal diversified in the 1990s, spawning a rich variety of subgenres that still have a large "underground" following at the present.
Later history (2000–present)
In the 2000s, a number of bands in the hardcore punk scene, including Black Breath and Trap Them began to incorporate elements of death metal into their sound. This was followed by a wave of bands expanding upon the death-doom style of Incantation while incorporating elements of ambient music, including Dead Congregation and Necros Christos. One of the earliest groups in this wave was Horrendous, who formed in 2009, who along with Tomb Mold took a progressive take the genre. In a 2022 article by MetalSucks writer Christopher Krovatin stated "Right now, as a music journalist, all I hear about is death metal." In the UK, this movement became the "New Wave of British Death Metal", fronted by Mortuary Spawn, Vacuous and Celestial Sanctuary, this name being coined by Tom Cronin, of Celestial Sanctuary, in order to separate these hardcore-indebted bands from the country's prior movements. The earliest bands in this wave were Cruciamentum and Grave Miasma.
A large part of the New Wave of Old School Death Metal was death metal bands who originated from the hardcore scene, some of which merge elements of hardcore into their style. Xibalba and Fuming Mouth were two of the earliest groups, with the wave being solidified by Gatecreeper, 200 Stab Wounds, Creeping Death, Sanguisugabogg and Kruelty. Venom Prison came from this scene and gained particular attention for their confrontation of what Kerrang! called death metal's "misogyny problem", by instead writing "rape-revenge narrative[s]". Their lead vocalist Larissa Stupar was described by the publication as "metal's most important - and uncompromising - voice".CharacteristicsInstrumentationThe setup most frequently used within the death metal genre is two guitarists, a bass player, a vocalist, and a drummer often using "hyper double-bass blast beats". Although this is the standard setup, bands have been known to occasionally incorporate other instruments such as electronic keyboards.
has performed with death metal bands Cannibal Corpse, Deicide and Six Feet Under.]]
drummer Steve Asheim]]
Vocals and lyrics
vocalist George "Corpsegrinder" Fisher]]
Death metal vocals are referred to as death growls; which are coarse roars/snarls. Death growling is mistakenly thought to be a form of screaming using the lowest vocal register known as vocal fry, however vocal fry is actually a form of overtone screaming, and while growling can be performed this way by experienced vocalists who use the fry screaming technique, "true" death growling is in fact created by an altogether different technique. Growling has been called Cookie Monster vocals, tongue-in-cheek, due to the vocal similarity to the voice of the popular Sesame Street character of the same name. Although often criticized, death growls serve the aesthetic purpose of matching death metal's aggressive lyrical content.
The lyrical themes of death metal may invoke slasher film-stylised violence, Additionally, contributing artists to the genre often defend death metal as little more than an extreme form of art and entertainment, similar to horror films in the motion picture industry.
Christian death metal bands often utilize the gory themes of death metal to invoke violent imagery against Satan, demons, sin and sinners, much of the violent imagery being drawn from the Bible. Satanic and anti-Christian imagery is also frequently inverted.
Etymology
Verifiable uses of the term "death metal" began around 1983, however it was largely interchangeable with what is now understood as thrash metal. The 1983 premier issue of the zine Metal Chaos used the term to describe the music that disc-jockey Gene Khoury played on WMSC (FM) and the Winter 1983–1984 issue of Metal Forces used the term to describe Metal Church and Hellhammer.
During 1984, use of the term began to gravitate towards more extreme bands, such as Bathory, Destruction, Onslaught, Slayer and Sodom. Hellhammer, in particular, put a significant emphasis on the term, being used in the liner notes for Apocalyptic Raids (1984), Examples of blackened death-doom bands include Morast, Dragged into Sunlight, Hands of Thieves, and Soulburn. Kim Kelly, journalist from Vice, has called Faustcoven as "one of the finest bands to ever successfully meld black, death, and doom metal into a cohesive, legible whole." Blackened death metal bands are also more likely to wear corpse paint and suits of armour, than bands from other styles of death metal. Lower range guitar tunings, death growls and abrupt tempo changes are common in the genre. Examples of blackened death metal bands are Belphegor, Behemoth, Akercocke, and Sacramentum.Melodic black-deathMelodic black-death Some bands who have played this style include Dissection, Sacramentum, Dawn, and Cardinal Sin.<!---The Metal Injection source references to this list as a list of bands playing this style. Also don't add unreliable sources for listings. --->
War metal
War metal (also known as war black metal or bestial black metal) described by Rock Hard journalist Wolf-Rüdiger Mühlmann as "rabid" Archgoat, Bestial Warlust, and Zyklon-B.Brutal death metal
vocalist Frank Mullen]]
Brutal death metal is a subgenre of death metal that privileges heaviness, speed, and complex rhythms over other aspects, such as melody and timbres. Brutal death metal bands employ high-speed, palm-muted power chording and single-note riffage. Dying Fetus, Cryptopsy, and Skinless.
Slam death metal
Slam death metal is a brutal death metal microgenre that evolved from the 1990s New York death metal scene, incorporating elements of hardcore punk. In contrast to other death metal styles, it is not generally focused on guitar solos and blast beats; instead, it employs mid-tempo rhythms, breakdowns, and palm-muted riffing, as well as hip hop-inspired vocal and drum beat rhythms. The first wave of bands in the genre were New York bands like Internal Bleeding and Pyrexia, with notable subsequent acts including Devourment and Cephalotripsy.
Death-doom
at Frozen Rock Fest. 2007.]]
Death-doom is a style that combines the slow tempos and pessimistic atmosphere of doom metal with the deep growling vocals and double-kick drumming of death metal. Influenced mostly by the early work of Hellhammer and Celtic Frost, the style emerged during the late 1980s and gained a certain amount of popularity during the 1990s. It is played at a very slow tempo, and places an emphasis on evoking a sense of emptiness and despair. Typically, electric guitars are heavily distorted and dark ambient aspects such as keyboards or synthesizers are often used to create a dreamlike atmosphere. Vocals consist of mournful chants or growls and are often in the background.Death 'n' roll
Death 'n' roll is a style that combines death metal's growled vocals and highly distorted detuned guitar riffs along with elements of 1970s hard rock and heavy metal. Notable examples include Entombed, Dying Fetus was also influencing deathcore through their extensive use of slam riffs, breakdowns, and hardcore-inspired grooves. Their 1996 album Purification Through Violence and 1998's Killing on Adrenaline introduced a mix of brutal death metal and hardcore elements that would later be adopted by deathcore bands. Early pioneers of deathcore include the Red Chord, Suicide Silence, Despised Icon, Ion Dissonance, Salt the Wound, Whitechapel, Job For A Cowboy, Carnifex, and the Acacia Strain. These bands combined the technicality of death metal with the breakdown-driven structures of metalcore, creating a distinct and influential sound.Deathgrind, goregrind and pornogrind
are "key contributors to the death-grind genres," according to AllMusic.]]
Goregrind, deathgrind and pornogrind are styles that mix grindcore with death metal, with goregrind focused on themes like gore and forensic pathology, and pornogrind dealing with sexual and pornographic themes. Some notable examples of these genres are Brujeria, Cattle Decapitation, Cephalic Carnage, Pig Destroyer, Circle of Dead Children, Rotten Sound, Gut, and Cock and Ball Torture.
Deathrash
Deathrash, also known as death-thrash, is a shorthand term to describe bands who play a fusion of death metal and thrash metal.}} The genre gained notoriety in Bali, Indonesia, where it attracted criticism of being related to the accelerated tourism development on the island and the superseding of its local culture, particularly by Jakartan one. Notable bands include Grave, Mortification, The Crown,}} Incapacity,}} Darkane,}} Deathchain,
Industrial death metal
Industrial death metal is a genre of death metal that adds elements of industrial music. Some notable bands include Fear Factory, Anaal Nathrakh, Autokrator, and Meathook Seed.Melodic death metal
performing in 2008.]]
Swedish death metal could be considered the forerunner of "melodic death metal." Melodic death metal, occasionally shortened to "melodeath", is a fusion of heavy metal with elements of death metal. The subgenre is heavily influenced by the new wave of British heavy metal. Unlike most other death metal, melodeath usually features screams instead of growls, slower tempos, and much stronger emphasis on melody. Clean vocals may be used on occasion. Carcass is sometimes credited with releasing the first melodic death metal album with 1993's Heartwork, although Swedish bands In Flames, Dark Tranquillity, and At the Gates are usually mentioned as the main pioneers of the genre and of the Gothenburg metal sound.
Old school death metal
Old school death metal is a style of death metal that is characterized by slower tempos and simpler song structures.The style typically employs fewer blast beats and is less concerned with the technical aspects of songwriting. It gained prominence in the late 1990s, with bands like Repugnant,}} Thanatos, Necrophagia, Abscess, Bloodbath and Mortem.
Symphonic death metal
Symphonic death metal is a genre of death metal that adds elements of classical music. Bands described as symphonic death metal include Fleshgod Apocalypse, Septicflesh, Necronomicon, and Children of Bodom. Haggard's 2000 album, Awaking the Centuries, has been described as death metal-styled symphonic metal.
Technical death metal
performing in 2010.]]
Technical death metal (also known as tech-death, progressive death metal, or prog-death) is a subgenre of death metal that employs dynamic song structures, uncommon time signatures, atypical rhythms and unusual harmonies and melodies. Bands described as technical death metal or progressive death metal usually fuse common death metal aesthetics with elements of progressive rock, jazz or classical music. While the term technical death metal is sometimes used to describe bands that focus on speed and extremity as well as complexity, the line between progressive and technical death metal is thin. Tech death and prog death, for short, are terms commonly applied to such bands as Nile, Edge of Sanity, and Opeth. Necrophagist and Spawn of Possession are known for a classical music-influenced death metal style. Death metal pioneers Death also refined their style in a more progressive direction in their final years. Some albums for this subgenre are Hallucinations (1990) by the German band Atrocity and Death's Human (1991). This style has significantly influenced many bands, creating a stream that in Europe was carried out at first by bands such as Gory Blister and Electrocution. The Polish band Decapitated gained recognition as one of Europe's primary modern technical death metal acts.
See also
*List of death metal bands
References
Bibliography
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Category:1980s in music
Category:1990s in music
Category:20th-century music genres
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Category:2010s in music
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Don Quixote
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Quijote (gastropod)}}
}}
, , ; ; .}} in Spanish is .}} the full title being The Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha, , . In Part 2, is replaced with (), meaning "knight".}} is a Spanish novel by Miguel de Cervantes. It was originally published in two parts, in 1605 and 1615. Considered a founding work of Western literature, it is often said to be the first modern novel. The novel has been labelled by many well-known authors as the "best book of all time" from La Mancha named Alonso Quijano, who reads so many chivalric romances that he loses his mind and decides to become a knight-errant () to revive chivalry and serve his nation, under the name . He recruits as his squire a simple farm labourer, Sancho Panza, who brings a unique, earthy wit to Don Quixote's lofty rhetoric. In the first part of the book, Don Quixote does not see the world for what it is and prefers to imagine that he is living out a knightly story meant for the annals of all time. However, as Salvador de Madariaga pointed out in his Guía del lector del Quijote (1972 [1926]), referring to "the Sanchification of Don Quixote and the Quixotization of Sancho", as "Sancho's spirit ascends from reality to illusion, Don Quixote's declines from illusion to reality".
The book had a major influence on the literary community, as evidenced by direct references in Alexandre Dumas's The Three Musketeers (1844), and Edmond Rostand's Cyrano de Bergerac (1897) as well as the word quixotic. Mark Twain referred to the book as having "swept the world's admiration for the mediaeval chivalry-silliness out of existence". It has been described by some as the greatest work ever written.Summary
For Cervantes and the readers of his day, Don Quixote was a one-volume book published in 1605, divided internally into four parts, not the first part of a two-part set. The mention in the 1605 book of further adventures yet to be told was totally conventional, did not indicate any authorial plans for a continuation, and was not taken seriously by the book's first readers.Part 1.]]The first sally
Cervantes, in a metafictional narrative, writes that the first few chapters were taken from "the archives of La Mancha", and the rest were translated from an Arabic text by the Moorish historian Cide Hamete Benengeli.
Alonso Quixano is a hidalgo nearing 50 years of age who lives in a deliberately unspecified region of La Mancha with his niece and housekeeper. While he lives a frugal life, as an avid reader of chivalric romances, he is full of fantasies about chivalry. Eventually, he goes mad and decides to become a knight errant. So, he dons an old suit of armor, renames himself "Don Quixote", names his old workhorse "Rocinante", and designates Aldonza Lorenzo (a slaughterhouse worker with a famed hand for salting pork) his lady love, renaming her Dulcinea del Toboso.
As he travels in search of adventure, he arrives at an inn that he believes to be a castle, calls the prostitutes he meets there "ladies", and demands that the innkeeper, whom he takes to be the lord of the castle, dub him a knight. The innkeeper agrees. Quixote starts the night holding vigil at the inn's horse trough, which Quixote imagines to be a chapel. He then becomes involved in a fight with muleteers who try to remove his armor from the horse trough so that they can water their mules. In a pretended ceremony, the innkeeper dubs him a knight to be rid of him and sends him on his way.
Quixote encounters a servant named Andres who is tied to a tree and beaten by his master over disputed wages. Quixote orders the master to stop beating Andres and untie him and makes the master swear to treat Andres fairly. However, the beating is resumed, and redoubled, as soon as Quixote leaves.
Quixote then encounters traders from Toledo. He demands that they agree that Dulcinea del Toboso is the most beautiful woman in the world. One of them demands to see her picture so that he can decide for himself. Enraged, Quixote charges at them but his horse stumbles, causing him to fall. One of the traders beats up Quixote, who is left at the side of the road until a neighboring peasant brings him back home.
While Quixote lies unconscious in his bed, his niece, the housekeeper, the parish curate, and the local barber burn most of his chivalric and other books. They seal up the room which contained the library, later telling Quixote that it was done by a wizard.
The second sally
depicting the famous windmill scene]]
Don Quixote asks his neighbour, the poor farm labourer Sancho Panza, to be his squire, promising him a petty governorship. Sancho agrees and they sneak away at dawn. Their adventures together begin with Quixote's attack on some windmills which he believes to be ferocious giants. They next encounter two Benedictine friars and, nearby, an unrelated lady in a carriage. Quixote takes the friars to be enchanters who are holding the lady captive, knocks one of them from his horse, and is challenged by an armed Basque travelling with the company. The combat ends with the lady leaving her carriage and commanding those travelling with her to "surrender" to Quixote.
After a friendly encounter with some goatherds and a less friendly one with some Yanguesan porters driving Galician ponies, Quixote and Sancho return to the "castle" (inn), where a mix-up involving a servant girl's romantic rendezvous with another guest results in a brawl. Quixote explains to Sancho that the castle is enchanted. They decide to leave, but Quixote, following the example of the fictional knights, leaves without paying. Sancho ends up wrapped in a blanket and tossed in the air by several mischievous guests at the inn before he manages to follow.
After further adventures involving a dead body, a barber's basin that Quixote imagines as the legendary helmet of Mambrino, and a group of galley slaves, they wander into the Sierra Morena. There they encounter the dejected and mostly mad Cardenio, who relates his story. Quixote decides to imitate Cardenio and live like a hermit. He sends Sancho to deliver a letter to Dulcinea, but instead Sancho finds the barber and priest from his village. They make a plan to trick Quixote into coming home, recruiting Dorotea, a woman they discover in the forest, to pose as the Princess Micomicona, a damsel in distress.
The plan works and Quixote and the group return to the inn, though Quixote is now convinced, thanks to a lie told by Sancho when asked about the letter, that Dulcinea wants to see him. At the inn, several other plots intersect and are resolved. Meanwhile, a sleepwalking Quixote does battle with some wineskins which he takes to be the giant who stole the princess Micomicona's kingdom. An officer of the Santa Hermandad arrives with a warrant for Quixote's arrest for freeing the galley slaves, but the priest begs for the officer to have mercy on account of Quixote's insanity. The officer agrees and Quixote is locked in a cage which he is made to think is an enchantment. He has a learned conversation with a Toledo canon he encounters by chance on the road, in which the canon expresses his scorn for untruthful chivalric books, but Don Quixote defends them. The group stops to eat and lets Quixote out of the cage; he gets into a fight with a goatherd and with a group of pilgrims, who beat him into submission, before he is finally brought home.
The narrator ends the story by saying that he has found manuscripts of Quixote's further adventures.
Part 2
Although the two parts are now published as a single work, Don Quixote, Part Two was a sequel published ten years after the original novel. In an early example of metafiction, Part Two indicates that several of its characters have read the first part of the novel and are thus familiar with the history and peculiarities of the two protagonists.
The third sally
Don Quixote and Sancho are on their way to El Toboso to meet Dulcinea, with Sancho aware that his story about Dulcinea was a complete fabrication. They reach the city at daybreak and decide to enter at nightfall. However, a bad omen frightens Quixote into retreat and they quickly leave. Sancho is instead sent out alone by Quixote to meet Dulcinea and act as a go-between. Sancho's luck brings three peasant girls along the road and he quickly tells Quixote that they are Dulcinea and her ladies-in-waiting and as beautiful as ever. Since Quixote only sees the peasant girls, Sancho goes on to pretend that an enchantment of some sort is at work.
A duke and duchess encounter the duo. These nobles have read Part One of the story and are themselves very fond of books of chivalry. They decide to play along for their own amusement, beginning a string of imagined adventures and practical jokes. As part of one prank, Quixote and Sancho are led to believe that the only way to release Dulcinea from her spell is for Sancho to give himself three thousand three hundred lashes. Sancho naturally resists this course of action, leading to friction with his master. Under the duke's patronage, Sancho eventually gets his promised governorship, though it is false, and he proves to be a wise and practical ruler before all ends in humiliation. Near the end, Don Quixote reluctantly sways towards sanity.
Quixote battles the Knight of the White Moon (a young man from Quixote's hometown who had earlier posed as the Knight of Mirrors) on the beach in Barcelona. Defeated, Quixote submits to prearranged chivalric terms: the vanquished must obey the will of the conqueror. He is ordered to lay down his arms and cease his acts of chivalry for a period of one year, by which time his friends and relatives hope he will be cured.
On the way back home, Quixote and Sancho "resolve" the disenchantment of Dulcinea. Upon returning to his village, Quixote announces his plan to retire to the countryside as a shepherd, but his housekeeper urges him to stay at home. Soon after, he retires to his bed with a deathly illness, and later awakes from a dream, having fully become Alonso Quixano once more. Sancho tries to restore his faith and his interest in Dulcinea, but Quixano only renounces his previous ambition and apologizes for the harm he has caused. He dictates his will, which includes a provision that his niece will be disinherited if she marries a man who reads books of chivalry.
After Quixano dies, the author emphasizes that there are no more adventures to relate and that any further books about Don Quixote would be spurious.
Other stories
Don Quixote, Part One contains a number of stories which do not directly involve the two main characters, but which are narrated by some of the picaresque figures encountered by the Don and Sancho during their travels. The longest and best known of these is "El Curioso Impertinente" (The Ill-Advised Curiosity), found in Part One, Book Four. This story, read to a group of travelers at an inn, tells of a Florentine nobleman, Anselmo, who becomes obsessed with testing his wife's fidelity and talks his close friend Lothario into attempting to seduce her, with disastrous results for all.
In Part Two, the author acknowledges the criticism of his digressions in Part One and promises to concentrate the narrative on the central characters (although at one point he laments that his narrative muse has been constrained in this manner). Nevertheless, "Part Two" contains several back narratives related by peripheral characters.
Several abridged editions have been published which delete some or all of the extra tales in order to concentrate on the central narrative.
The Ill-Advised Curiosity summary
The story within a story relates that, for no particular reason, Anselmo decides to test the fidelity of his wife, Camilla, and asks his friend, Lothario, to seduce her. Thinking that to be madness, Lothario reluctantly agrees, and soon reports to Anselmo that Camilla is a faithful wife. Anselmo learns that Lothario has lied and attempted no seduction. He makes Lothario promise to try in earnest and leaves town to make this easier. Lothario tries and Camilla writes letters to her husband telling him of the attempts by Lothario and asking him to return. Anselmo makes no reply and does not return. Lothario then falls in love with Camilla, who eventually reciprocates; an affair between them ensues, but is not disclosed to Anselmo, and their affair continues after Anselmo returns.
One day, Lothario sees a man leaving Camilla's house and jealously presumes she has taken another lover. He tells Anselmo that, at last, he has been successful and arranges a time and place for Anselmo to see the seduction. Before this rendezvous, however, Lothario learns that the man was the lover of Camilla's maid. He and Camilla then contrive to deceive Anselmo further: When Anselmo watches them, she refuses Lothario, protests her love for her husband, and stabs herself lightly in the breast. Anselmo is reassured of her fidelity. The affair restarts with Anselmo none the wiser.
Later, the maid's lover is discovered by Anselmo. Fearing that Anselmo will kill her, the maid says she will tell Anselmo a secret the next day. Anselmo tells Camilla that this is to happen, and Camilla expects that her affair is to be revealed. Lothario and Camilla flee that night. The maid flees the next day. Anselmo searches for them in vain before learning from a stranger of his wife's affair. He starts to write the story, but dies of grief before he can finish. Lothario is killed in battle soon afterward and Camilla dies of grief.
Style and interpretations
Use of language
The novel's farcical elements make use of punning and similar verbal playfulness. Character-naming in Don Quixote makes ample figural use of contradiction, inversion, and irony, such as the names Rocinante (a reversal) and Dulcinea (an allusion to illusion), and the word itself, possibly a pun on (jaw) but certainly (Catalan: thighs), a reference to a horse's rump.
As a military term, the word quijote refers to cuisses, part of a full suit of plate armour protecting the thighs. The Spanish suffix -ote denotes the augmentative—for example, grande means large, but grandote means extra large, with grotesque connotations. Following this example, Quixote would suggest 'The Great Quijano', an oxymoronic play on words that makes much sense in light of the character's delusions of grandeur.
Cervantes wrote his work in Early Modern Spanish, heavily borrowing from Old Spanish, the medieval form of the language. The language of Don Quixote, although still containing archaisms, is far more understandable to modern Spanish readers than is, for instance, the completely medieval Spanish of the Poema de mio Cid, a kind of Spanish that is as different from Cervantes' language as Middle English is from Modern English. The Old Castilian language was also used to show the higher class that came with being a knight errant.
In Don Quixote, there are basically two different types of Castilian: Old Castilian is spoken only by Don Quixote, while the rest of the roles speak a contemporary (late 16th century) version of Spanish. The Old Castilian of Don Quixote is a humoristic resource—he copies the language spoken in the chivalric books that made him mad; and many times when he talks nobody is able to understand him because his language is too old. This humorous effect is more difficult to see nowadays because the reader must be able to distinguish the two old versions of the language, but when the book was published it was much celebrated. (English translations can get some sense of the effect by having Don Quixote use King James Bible or Shakespearean English, or even Middle English.)
In Old Castilian, the letter x represented the sound written sh in modern English, so the name was originally pronounced . However, as Old Castilian evolved towards modern Spanish, a sound change caused it to be pronounced with a voiceless velar fricative sound (like the Scots or German ch), and today the Spanish pronunciation of "Quixote" is . The original pronunciation is reflected in languages such as Asturian, Leonese, Galician, Catalan, Italian, Portuguese, Turkish and French, where it is pronounced with a "sh" or "ch" sound; the French opera Don Quichotte is one of the best-known modern examples of this pronunciation.
Today, English speakers generally attempt something close to the modern Spanish pronunciation of Quixote (Quijote), as , The traditional English rendering is preserved in the pronunciation of the adjectival form quixotic, i.e., ,}}}} defined by Merriam-Webster as the foolishly impractical pursuit of ideals, typically marked by rash and lofty romanticism.Meaning
Harold Bloom says Don Quixote is the first modern novel, and that the protagonist is at war with Freud's reality principle, which accepts the necessity of dying. Bloom says that the novel has an endless range of meanings, but that a recurring theme is the human need to withstand suffering.
Edith Grossman, who wrote and published a highly acclaimed English translation of the novel in 2003, says that the book is mostly meant to move people into emotion using a systematic change of course, on the verge of both tragedy and comedy at the same time. Grossman has stated:<blockquote>The question is that Quixote has multiple interpretations [...] and how do I deal with that in my translation. I'm going to answer your question by avoiding it [...] so when I first started reading the Quixote I thought it was the most tragic book in the world, and I would read it and weep [...] As I grew older [...] my skin grew thicker [...] and so when I was working on the translation I was actually sitting at my computer and laughing out loud. This is done [...] as Cervantes did it [...] by never letting the reader rest. You are never certain that you truly got it. Because as soon as you think you understand something, Cervantes introduces something that contradicts your premise.</blockquote>
Themes
(1868)]]
The novel's structure is episodic in form. The full title is indicative of the tale's object, as (Spanish) means "quick with inventiveness", marking the transition of modern literature from dramatic to thematic unity. The novel takes place over a long period of time, including many adventures united by common themes of the nature of reality, reading, and dialogue in general.
Although burlesque on the surface, the novel, especially in its second half, has served as an important thematic source not only in literature but also in much of art and music, inspiring works by Pablo Picasso and Richard Strauss. The contrasts between the tall, thin, fancy-struck and idealistic Quixote and the fat, squat, world-weary Panza is a motif echoed ever since the book's publication, and Don Quixote's imaginings are the butt of outrageous and cruel practical jokes in the novel.
Even faithful and simple Sancho is forced to deceive him at certain points. The novel is considered a satire of orthodoxy, veracity and even nationalism. In exploring the individualism of his characters, Cervantes helped lead literary practice beyond the narrow convention of the chivalric romance. He spoofs the chivalric romance through a straightforward retelling of a series of acts that redound to the knightly virtues of the hero. The character of Don Quixote became so well known in its time that the word quixotic was quickly adopted by many languages. Characters such as Sancho Panza and Don Quixote's steed, Rocinante, are emblems of Western literary culture. The phrase "tilting at windmills" to describe an act of attacking imaginary enemies (or an act of extreme idealism), derives from an iconic scene in the book.
It stands in a unique position between medieval romance and the modern novel. The former consists of disconnected stories featuring the same characters and settings with little exploration of the inner life of even the main character. The latter are usually focused on the psychological evolution of their characters. In Part I, Quixote imposes himself on his environment. By Part II, people know about him through "having read his adventures", and so, he needs to do less to maintain his image. By his deathbed, he has regained his sanity, and is once more "Alonso Quixano the Good".
Background
The cave of Medrano (also known as the casa de Medrano) in Argamasilla de Alba, which has been known since the beginning of the 17th century, and according to the tradition of Argamasilla de Alba, was the prison of Miguel de Cervantes and the place where he conceived and began to write his famous work "Don Quixote de la Mancha."
Sources
Sources for Don Quixote include the Castilian novel Amadis de Gaula, which had enjoyed great popularity throughout the 16th century. Another prominent source, which Cervantes evidently admires more, is Tirant lo Blanch, which the priest describes in Chapter VI of Quixote as "the best book in the world." (However, the sense in which it was "best" is much debated among scholars. Since the 19th century, the passage has been called "the most difficult passage of Don Quixote".) The scene of the book burning provides a list of Cervantes's likes and dislikes about literature.
Cervantes makes a number of references to the Italian poem Orlando furioso. In chapter 10 of the first part of the novel, Don Quixote says he must take the magical helmet of Mambrino, an episode from Canto I of Orlando, and itself a reference to Matteo Maria Boiardo's Orlando innamorato. The interpolated story in chapter 33 of Part four of the First Part is a retelling of a tale from Canto 43 of Orlando, regarding a man who tests the fidelity of his wife.
Another important source appears to have been Apuleius's The Golden Ass, one of the earliest known novels, a picaresque from late classical antiquity. The wineskins episode near the end of the interpolated tale "The Curious Impertinent" in chapter 35 of the first part of Don Quixote is a clear reference to Apuleius, and recent scholarship suggests that the moral philosophy and the basic trajectory of Apuleius's novel are fundamental to Cervantes' program. Similarly, many of both Sancho's adventures in Part II and proverbs throughout are taken from popular Spanish and Italian folklore.
Cervantes' experiences as a galley slave in Algiers also influenced Quixote.
Medical theories may have also influenced Cervantes' literary process. Cervantes had familial ties to the distinguished medical community. His father, Rodrigo de Cervantes, and his great-grandfather, Juan Díaz de Torreblanca, were surgeons. Additionally, his sister, Andrea de Cervantes, was a nurse. He also befriended many individuals involved in the medical field, in that he knew medical author Francisco Díaz, an expert in urology, and royal doctor Antonio Ponce de Santa Cruz who served as a personal doctor to both Philip III and Philip IV of Spain.
Apart from the personal relations Cervantes maintained within the medical field, Cervantes' personal life was defined by an interest in medicine. He frequently visited patients from the Hospital de Inocentes in Sevilla.
Spurious Second Part by Avellaneda
It is not certain when Cervantes began writing Part Two of Don Quixote, but he had probably not proceeded much further than Chapter LIX by late July 1614. In about September, however, a spurious Part Two, entitled Second Volume of the Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha: by the Licenciado (doctorate) Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda, of Tordesillas, was published in Tarragona by an unidentified Aragonese who was an admirer of Lope de Vega, rival of Cervantes. It was translated into English by William Augustus Yardley, Esquire in two volumes in 1784.
Some modern scholars suggest that Don Quixote's fictional encounter with Avellaneda's book in Chapter 59 of Part II should not be taken as the date that Cervantes encountered it, which may have been much earlier.
Avellaneda's identity has been the subject of many theories, but there is no consensus as to who he was. In its prologue, the author gratuitously insulted Cervantes, who took offense and responded; the last half of Chapter LIX and most of the following chapters of Cervantes's Segunda Parte lend some insight into the effects upon him; Cervantes manages to work in some subtle digs at Avellaneda's own work, and in his preface to Part II, comes very near to criticizing Avellaneda directly.
In his introduction to The Portable Cervantes, Samuel Putnam, a noted translator of Cervantes' novel, calls Avellaneda's version "one of the most disgraceful performances in history".
The second part of Cervantes' Don Quixote, finished as a direct result of the Avellaneda book, has come to be regarded by some literary critics as superior to the first part, because of its greater depth of characterization, its discussions, mostly between Quixote and Sancho, on diverse subjects, and its philosophical insights. In Cervantes's Segunda Parte, Don Quixote visits a printing-house in Barcelona and finds Avellaneda's Second Part being printed there, in an early example of metafiction. Don Quixote and Sancho Panza also meet one of the characters from Avellaneda's book, Don Alvaro Tarfe, and make him swear that the "other" Quixote and Sancho are impostors.SettingLocation|italicno}} in Madrid]]
Cervantes' story takes place on the plains of La Mancha, specifically the comarca of Campo de Montiel.
The location of the village to which Cervantes alludes in the opening sentence of Don Quixote has been the subject of debate since its publication over four centuries ago. Indeed, Cervantes deliberately omits the name of the village, giving an explanation in the final chapter:
In 2004, a team of academics from Complutense University, led by Francisco Parra Luna, Manuel Fernández Nieto, and Santiago Petschen Verdaguer, deduced that the village was that of Villanueva de los Infantes. Their findings were published in a paper titled "'''El Quijote' como un sistema de distancias/tiempos: hacia la localización del lugar de la Mancha", which was later published as a book: El enigma resuelto del Quijote''. The result was replicated in two subsequent investigations: "La determinación del lugar de la Mancha como problema estadístico" and "The Kinematics of the Quixote and the Identity of the 'Place in La Mancha'".
Translators of Don Quixote, such as John Ormsby, have commented that the region of La Mancha is one of the most desertlike, unremarkable regions of Spain, the least romantic and fanciful place that one would imagine as the home of a courageous knight.
On the other hand, as Borges points out:
The story also takes place in El Toboso where Don Quixote goes to seek Dulcinea's blessings.
Historical context
Don Quixote is said to reflect the Spanish society in which Cervantes lived and wrote. Spain's status as a world power was declining, and the Spanish national treasury was bankrupt due to expensive foreign wars.
The opening sentence of the book created a classic Spanish cliché with the phrase ("whose name I do not wish to recall"): ("In a village of La Mancha, whose name I do not wish to recall, there lived, not very long ago, one of those gentlemen with a lance in the lance-rack, an ancient shield, a skinny old horse, and a fast greyhound.")
Influence on the English language
Don Quixote alongside its many translations, has also provided a number of idioms and expressions to the English language. Examples with their own articles include the phrase "the pot calling the kettle black" and the adjective "quixotic."
Tilting at windmills
Tilting at windmills is an English idiom that means "attacking imaginary enemies". The expression is derived from Don Quixote, and the word "tilt" in this context refers to jousting. This phrase is sometimes also expressed as "charging at windmills" or "fighting the windmills".
The phrase is sometimes used to describe either confrontations where adversaries are incorrectly perceived, or courses of action that are based on misinterpreted or misapplied heroic, romantic, or idealistic justifications. It may also connote an inopportune, unfounded, and vain effort against adversaries real or imagined. In science Dulcibella, a deep-sea amphipod species, was named after the character Dulcinea in the novel, following the tradition of naming amphipods after literary figures.PublicationIn July 1604, Cervantes sold the rights of El ingenioso hidalgo don Quixote de la Mancha (known as Don Quixote, Part I) to the publisher-bookseller Francisco de Robles for an unknown sum. License to publish was granted in September, the printing was finished in December, and the book came out on 16 January 1605.
The novel was an immediate success. Most of the 400 copies of the first edition were sent to the New World, with the publisher hoping to get a better price in the Americas. Although most of them disappeared in a shipwreck near La Havana, approximately 70 copies reached Lima, from where they were sent to Cuzco, in the heart of the defunct Inca Empire.
Sale of these publishing rights deprived Cervantes of further financial profit on Part One. In 1607, an edition was printed in Brussels. Robles, the Madrid publisher, found it necessary to meet demand with a third edition, a seventh publication in all, in 1608. Popularity of the book in Italy was such that a Milan bookseller issued an Italian edition in 1610. Yet another Brussels edition was called for in 1611. The work has been produced in numerous editions and languages, the Cervantes Collection, at the State Library of New South Wales includes over 1,100 editions. These were collected, by Ben Haneman, over a period of thirty years.
In 1613, Cervantes published the Novelas ejemplares, dedicated to the Maecenas of the day, the Conde de Lemos. Eight and a half years after Part One had appeared came the first hint of a forthcoming Segunda Parte (Part Two). "You shall see shortly", Cervantes says, "the further exploits of Don Quixote and humours of Sancho Panza." Don Quixote, Part Two, published by the same press as its predecessor, appeared late in 1615, and quickly reprinted in Brussels and Valencia (1616) and Lisbon (1617). Parts One and Two were published as one edition in Barcelona in 1617. Historically, Cervantes' work has been said to have "smiled Spain's chivalry away", suggesting that Don Quixote as a chivalric satire contributed to the demise of Spanish Chivalry.English editions in translation
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There are many translations of the book, and it has been adapted many times in shortened versions. Many derivative editions were also written at the time, as was the custom of envious or unscrupulous writers. Seven years after the Parte Primera appeared, Don Quixote had been translated into French, German, Italian, and English, with the first French translation of 'Part II' appearing in 1618, and the first English translation in 1620. One abridged adaptation, authored by Agustín Sánchez, runs slightly over 150 pages, cutting away about 750 pages.
Thomas Shelton's English translation of the First Part appeared in 1612 while Cervantes was still alive, although there is no evidence that Shelton had met the author. Although Shelton's version is cherished by some, according to John Ormsby and Samuel Putnam, it was far from satisfactory as a carrying over of Cervantes' text. Nonetheless, future translators would find much to fault in Motteux's version: Samuel Putnam criticized "the prevailing slapstick quality of this work, especially where Sancho Panza is involved, the obtrusion of the obscene where it is found in the original, and the slurring of difficulties through omissions or expanding upon the text". John Ormsby considered Motteux's version "worse than worthless", and denounced its "infusion of Cockney flippancy and facetiousness" into the original.
The proverb "The proof of the pudding is in the eating" is widely attributed to Cervantes. The Spanish word for pudding (), however, does not appear in the original text but premieres in the Motteux translation. In Smollett's translation of 1755 he notes that the original text reads literally "you will see when the eggs are fried", meaning "time will tell".
A translation by Captain John Stevens, which revised Thomas Shelton's version, also appeared in 1700, but its publication was overshadowed by the simultaneous release of Motteux's translation.
An expurgated children's version, under the title The Story of Don Quixote, was published in 1922 (available on Project Gutenberg). It leaves out the risqué sections as well as chapters that young readers might consider dull, and embellishes a great deal on Cervantes' original text. The title page actually gives credit to the two editors as if they were the authors, and omits any mention of Cervantes.
The most widely read English-language translations of the mid-20th century are by Samuel Putnam (1949), J. M. Cohen (1950; Penguin Classics), and Walter Starkie (1957). The last English translation of the novel in the 20th century was by Burton Raffel, published in 1996. The 21st century has already seen five new translations of the novel into English. The first is by John D. Rutherford and the second by Edith Grossman. Reviewing the novel in The New York Times, Carlos Fuentes called Grossman's translation a "major literary achievement" and another called it the "most transparent and least impeded among more than a dozen English translations going back to the 17th century."
In 2005, the year of the novel's 400th anniversary, Tom Lathrop published a new English translation of the novel, based on a lifetime of specialized study of the novel and its history. The fourth translation of the 21st century was released in 2006 by former university librarian James H. Montgomery, 26 years after he had begun it, in an attempt to "recreate the sense of the original as closely as possible, though not at the expense of Cervantes' literary style."
In 2011, another translation by Gerald J. Davis appeared, which is self-published via Lulu.com. The latest and the sixth translation of the 21st century is Diana de Armas Wilson's 2020 revision of Burton Raffel's translation.List of English translations
#Thomas Shelton (1612 & 1620)
#John Phillips (1687) – the nephew of John Milton
#Captain John Stevens (1700) (revision of Thomas Shelton)
#Ned Ward (1700), (The) Life & Notable Adventures of Don Quixote merrily translated into Hudibrastic Verse
#Pierre Antoine Motteux (1700)
#John Ozell (1719) (revision of Pierre Antoine Motteux)
#Charles Jervas (1742)
#Dr. Tobias Smollett (1755) (revision of Charles Jervas)
#George Kelly (1769) (considered as another revision of Pierre Antoine Motteux)
#Charles Henry Wilmot (1774)
#Mary Smirke with engravings by Robert Smirke (1818)
#Pierre Antoine Motteux, edited by John Gibson Lockhart (1822)
#Alexander James Duffield (1881)
#John Ormsby (1885). [https://archive.org/stream/TheIngeniousGentlemanDonQuixoteOfLaMancha/The%20Ingenious%20Gentleman%20Don%20Quixote%20of%20La%20Mancha#mode/2up The original version], available free on the Internet Archive, is to be preferred to the Wikisource and similar versions, which do not include Ormsby's careful notes and with his Introduction much abbreviated.
See also
* List of Don Quixote characters
* List of works influenced by Don Quixote – including a gallery of paintings and illustrations
* António José da Silva – writer of Vida do Grande Dom Quixote de la Mancha e do Gordo Sancho Pança (1733)
* Coco – In the last chapter, the epitaph of Don Quijote identifies him as "el coco".
* Man of La Mancha, a musical play based on the life of Cervantes, author of Don Quixote.
* Monsignor Quixote, a novel by Graham Greene
* Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote, a short story by Jorge Luis Borges
Authors and works mentioned in Don Quixote
* Feliciano de Silva – author of Don Quixote's favourite books<!--"there were none he liked so well"-->, 'for their lucidity of style and complicated conceits were as pearls in his sight, particularly when in his reading he came upon courtships and cartels, where he often found passages like "the reason of the unreason with which my reason is afflicted so weakens my reason that with reason I murmur at your beauty;" or again; "the high heavens, that of your divinity divinely fortify you with the stars, render you deserving of the desert your greatness deserves."'
* Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda – author of a spurious sequel to Don Quixote which, in turn, is referenced in the actual sequel
* Amadís de Gaula – one of the chivalric novels found in Don Quixote's library
* Belianís – one of the chivalric novels found in the library of Don Quixote
* Tirant lo Blanch – one of the chivalric novels mentioned by Don Quixote
General
* Great books
* List of best-selling books
* Lists of 100 best books
Notes
References
Further reading
* Bandera, Cesáreo (2011). The Humble Story of Don Quixote: reflections on the birth of the modern novel. Washington: The Catholic University of America Press.
* Bloom, Harold (ed.) (2000). ''Cervantes' Don Quixote (Modern Critical Interpretations)''. Chelsea House Publishers. .
* D' Haen, Theo (ed.) (2009). International Don Quixote. Editions Rodopi B.V. .
* Dobbs, Ronnie (ed.) (2015). Don Quixote and the History of the Novel. Cambridge University Press.
* Duran, Manuel and Rogg, Fay R. (2006). Fighting Windmills: Encounters with Don Quixote. Yale University Press. .
* González Echevarría, Roberto (ed.) (2005). ''Cervantes' Don Quixote: A Casebook. Oxford University Press US. .
* Graf, Eric C. (2007). Cervantes and Modernity: Four Essays on Don Quijote. Bucknell University Press. .
* Hoyle, Alan (2016). "Don Quixote of La Mancha"(1605): Highlights and Lowlights. Rocks Lane Editions. [https://drive.google.com/file/d/1G8TjkbjWgCv7eYXFvzzbfgTd6ORRxhuf/view?ts=5e9db51f See]
* Hoyle, Alan (2023).‘Don Quixote of La Mancha’ Part II (1615): Low Points and High Points. Rocks Lane Editions. <nowiki>ISBN 9781914584367</nowiki>.
* Johnson, Carroll B (ed.) (2006). Don Quijote Across Four Centuries: 1605–2005. Juan de la Cuesta Hispanic Monographs. .
* Ortega y Gasset, José (1957). Meditaciones del Quijote (Meditations on Quixote). Madrid: Ediciones de la Universidad de Puerto Rico.
* Pérez, Rolando (2016). [https://www.academia.edu/32654689/What_is_Don_Quijote_Don_Quixote_And...And...And_The_Disjunctive_Synthesis_of_Cervantes_and_Kathy_Acker See on Academia.edu "What is Don Quijote/Don Quixote And... And... And the Disjunctive Synthesis of Cervantes and Kathy Acker." Cervantes ilimitado: cuatrocientos años del Quijote''. Ed. Nuria Morgado. ALDEEU.]
* Pérez, Rolando (2021). [https://www.ehumanista.ucsb.edu/sites/default/files/sitefiles/ehumanista/volume47/ehum47.perez.pdf "Cervantes's 'Republic': On Representation, Imitation, and Unreason". eHumanista 47. 89–111.]
* Unamuno, Miguel de (1967). Our Lord Don Quixote: The Life of Don Quixote and Sancho, with related essays. New York: Princeton University Press.
External links
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* [http://www.bnc.cat/esl/Fons-i-col-leccions/Cerca-Fons-i-col-leccions/Col-leccio-Cervantina Cervantine Collection of the Biblioteca de Catalunya]
* [https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/coll/cervantes.html Miguel de Cervantes Collection] has rare first volumes in multiple languages of Don Quixote. From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress.
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Dylan
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Dylan may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Bob Dylan (born 1941), American singer and songwriter
Dylan (1973 album), a 1973 album by Bob Dylan
Dylan (2007 album), a 2007 compilation album by Bob Dylan
Dylan (musician), professional name of English singer-songwriter Natasha Woods
Dylan (play), a 1964 play by Sidney Michael about Dylan Thomas
Technology and engineering
Dylan (programming language), a language with Lisp-like semantics and ALGOL-like syntax
Dylan, a RAID storage system by Quantel
Honda Dylan, a high-end 125cc Honda scooter in Vietnam
Other uses
Dylan (name), a given name of Welsh origin and a family name (including a list of persons with the name)
Dylan Thomas (1914–1953), Welsh poet
Dylan ail Don, a sea-god in Welsh mythology
See also
Dilan (disambiguation)
Dillon (disambiguation)
Dilyn, a dog
Dilyn (drug), an expectorant
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Dada
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, Hannah Höch (sitting), Otto Burchard, Johannes Baader, Wieland Herzfelde, Margarete Herzfelde, Dr. Oz (Otto Schmalhausen), George Grosz and John Heartfield.]]
, Theodore Fraenkel, Paul Eluard, Clément Pansaers, Emmanuel Fay (cut off).<br />
Second row: Paul Dermée, Philippe Soupault, Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes.<br />
Front row: Tristan Tzara (with monocle), Celine Arnauld, Francis Picabia, André Breton.]]
; Zürich, 1917]]
: left, ''Le saint des saints c'est de moi qu'il s'agit dans ce portrait, 1 July 1915; center, Portrait d'une jeune fille americaine dans l'état de nudité, 5 July 1915; right, J'ai vu et c'est de toi qu'il s'agit, De Zayas! De Zayas! Je suis venu sur les rivages du Pont-Euxin, New York, 1915]]
Dada () or Dadaism was an anti-establishment art movement that developed in 1915 in the context of the Great War and the earlier anti-art movement. Early centers for dadaism included Zürich and Berlin. Within a few years, the movement had spread to New York City and a variety of artistic centers in Europe and Asia.
Within the umbrella of the movement, people used a wide variety of artistic forms to protest the logic, reason, and aestheticism of modern capitalism and modern war. To develop their protest, artists tended to make use of nonsense, irrationality, and an anti-bourgeois sensibility. The art of the movement began primarily as performance art, but eventually spanned visual, literary, and sound media, including collage, sound poetry, cut-up writing, and sculpture. Dadaist artists expressed their discontent toward violence, war, and nationalism and maintained political affinities with radical politics on the left-wing and far-left politics. The movement had no shared artistic style, although most artists had shown interest in the machine aesthetic.
There is no consensus on the origin of the movement's name; a common story is that the artist Richard Huelsenbeck slid a paper knife randomly into a dictionary, where it landed on "dada", a French term for a hobby horse. Others note it suggests the first words of a child, evoking a childishness and absurdity that appealed to the group. Still others speculate it might have been chosen to evoke a similar meaning (or no meaning at all) in any language, reflecting the movement's internationalism.
The roots of Dada lie in pre-war avant-garde. The term anti-art, a precursor to Dada, was coined by Marcel Duchamp around 1913 to characterize works that challenge accepted definitions of art. Cubism and the development of collage and abstract art would inform the movement's detachment from the constraints of reality and convention. The work of French poets, Italian Futurists, and German Expressionists would influence Dada's rejection of the correlation between words and meaning. Works such as Ubu Roi (1896) by Alfred Jarry and the ballet Parade (1916–17) by Erik Satie would be characterized as proto-Dadaist works. The Dada movement's principles were first collected in Hugo Ball's Dada Manifesto in 1916. Ball is seen as the founder of the Dada movement.
The Dadaist movement included public gatherings, demonstrations, and publication of art and literary journals. Passionate coverage of art, politics, and culture were topics often discussed in a variety of media. Key figures in the movement included Jean Arp, Johannes Baader, Hugo Ball, Marcel Duchamp, Max Ernst, Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, George Grosz, Raoul Hausmann, John Heartfield, Emmy Hennings, Hannah Höch, Richard Huelsenbeck, Francis Picabia, Man Ray, Hans Richter, Kurt Schwitters, Sophie Taeuber-Arp, Tristan Tzara, and Beatrice Wood, among others. The movement influenced later styles like the avant-garde and downtown music movements, and groups including Surrealism, nouveau réalisme, pop art, and Fluxus.
Overview
, Dame! Illustration for the cover of the periodical Dadaphone, n. 7, Paris, March 1920]]
Dada was an informal international movement, with participants in Europe and North America. The beginnings of Dada correspond with the outbreak of World War I. For many participants, the movement was a protest against the bourgeois nationalist and colonialist interests, which many Dadaists believed were the root cause of the war, and against the cultural and intellectual conformity—in art and more broadly in society—that corresponded to the war.
Avant-garde circles outside France knew of pre-war Parisian developments. They had seen (or participated in) Cubist exhibitions held at Galeries Dalmau, Barcelona (1912), Galerie Der Sturm in Berlin (1912), the Armory Show in New York (1913), SVU Mánes in Prague (1914), several Jack of Diamonds exhibitions in Moscow and at Moderne Kunstkring, Amsterdam (between 1911 and 1915). Futurism developed in response to the work of various artists. Dada subsequently combined these approaches.
Many Dadaists believed that the 'reason' and 'logic' of bourgeois capitalist society had led people into war. They expressed their rejection of that ideology in artistic expression that appeared to reject logic and embrace chaos and irrationality.
As Hugo Ball expressed it, "For us, art is not an end in itself ... but it is an opportunity for the true perception and criticism of the times we live in."
A reviewer from the American Art News stated at the time that "Dada philosophy is the sickest, most paralyzing and most destructive thing that has ever originated from the brain of man." Art historians have described Dada as being, in large part, a "reaction to what many of these artists saw as nothing more than an insane spectacle of collective homicide".
Years later, Dada artists described the movement as "a phenomenon bursting forth in the midst of the postwar economic and moral crisis, a savior, a monster, which would lay waste to everything in its path... [It was] a systematic work of destruction and demoralization... In the end it became nothing but an act of sacrilege."</blockquote>HistoryDada emerged from a period of artistic and literary movements like Futurism, Cubism and Expressionism; centered mainly in Italy, France and Germany respectively, in those years. However, unlike the earlier movements Dada was able to establish a broad base of support, giving rise to a movement that was international in scope. Its adherents were based in cities all over the world including New York, Zürich, Berlin, Paris and others. There were regional differences like an emphasis on literature in Zürich and political protest in Berlin.
Prominent Dadaists published manifestos, but the movement was loosely organized and there was no central hierarchy. On 14 July 1916, Ball originated the seminal Dada Manifesto. Tzara wrote a second Dada manifesto,}} considered important Dada reading, which was published in 1918. Tzara's manifesto articulated the concept of "Dadaist disgust"—the contradiction implicit in avant-garde works between the criticism and affirmation of modernist reality. In the Dadaist perspective modern art and culture are considered a type of fetishization where the objects of consumption (including organized systems of thought like philosophy and morality) are chosen, much like a preference for cake or cherries, to fill a void.
The shock and scandal the movement inflamed was deliberate; Dadaist magazines were banned and their exhibits closed. Some of the artists even faced imprisonment. These provocations were part of the entertainment but, over time, audiences' expectations eventually outpaced the movement's capacity to deliver. As the artists' well-known "sarcastic laugh" started to come from the audience, the provocations of Dadaists began to lose their impact. Dada was an active movement during years of political turmoil from 1916 when European countries were actively engaged in World War I, the conclusion of which, in 1918, set the stage for a new political order.Zürich
, Cut with the Kitchen Knife through the Last Epoch of Weimar Beer-Belly Culture in Germany, 1919, collage of pasted papers, 90×144 cm, Nationalgalerie, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin]]
There is some disagreement about where Dada originated. The movement is commonly accepted by most art historians and those who lived during this period to have identified with the Cabaret Voltaire (housed inside the Holländische Meierei bar in Zürich) co-founded by poet and cabaret singer Emmy Hennings and Hugo Ball. Some sources propose a Romanian origin, arguing that Dada was an offshoot of a vibrant artistic tradition that transposed to Switzerland when a group of Jewish modernist artists, including Tristan Tzara, Marcel Janco, and Arthur Segal settled in Zürich. Before World War I, similar art had already existed in Bucharest and other Eastern European cities; it is likely that Dada's catalyst was the arrival in Zürich of artists like Tzara and Janco.
The name Cabaret Voltaire was a reference to the French philosopher Voltaire, whose novel Candide mocked the religious and philosophical dogmas of the day. Opening night was attended by Ball, Tzara, Jean Arp, and Janco. These artists along with others like Sophie Taeuber, Richard Huelsenbeck and Hans Richter started putting on performances at the Cabaret Voltaire and using art to express their disgust with the war and the interests that inspired it.
Having left Germany and Romania during World War I, the artists arrived in politically neutral Switzerland. They used abstraction to fight against the social, political, and cultural ideas of that time. They used shock art, provocation, and "vaudevillian excess" to subvert the conventions they believed had caused the Great War. The Dadaists believed those ideas to be a byproduct of bourgeois society that was so apathetic it would wage war against itself rather than challenge the status quo:
Ball said that Janco's mask and costume designs, inspired by Romanian folk art, made "the horror of our time, the paralyzing background of events" visible.
After the cabaret closed down, Dada activities moved on to a new gallery, and Hugo Ball left for Bern. Tzara began a relentless campaign to spread Dada ideas. He bombarded French and Italian artists and writers with letters, and soon emerged as the Dada leader and master strategist. The Cabaret Voltaire re-opened, and is still in the same place at the Spiegelgasse 1 in the Niederdorf.
Zürich Dada, with Tzara at the helm, published the art and literature review Dada beginning in July 1917, with five editions from Zürich and the final two from Paris.
Other artists, such as André Breton and Philippe Soupault, created "literature groups to help extend the influence of Dada".
After the fighting of the First World War had ended in the armistice of November 1918, most of the Zürich Dadaists returned to their home countries, and some began Dada activities in other cities. Others, such as the Swiss native Sophie Taeuber, would remain in Zürich into the 1920s.
Berlin
"Berlin was a city of tightened stomachers, of mounting, thundering hunger, where hidden rage was transformed into a boundless money lust, and men's minds were concentrating more and more on questions of naked existence... Fear was in everybody's bones" – Richard Hülsenbeck
Raoul Hausmann, who helped establish Dada in Berlin, published his manifesto Synthethic Cino of Painting in 1918 where he attacked Expressionism and the art critics who promoted it. Dada is envisioned in contrast to art forms, such as Expressionism, that appeal to viewers' emotional states: "the exploitation of so-called echoes of the soul". In Hausmann's conception of Dada, new techniques of creating art would open doors to explore new artistic impulses. Fragmented use of real world stimuli allowed an expression of reality that was radically different from other forms of art:
The groups in Germany were not as strongly anti-art as other groups. Their activity and art were more political and social, with corrosive manifestos and propaganda, satire, public demonstrations and overt political activities. The intensely political and war-torn environment of Berlin had a dramatic impact on the ideas of Berlin Dadaists. Conversely, New York's geographic distance from the war spawned its more theoretically driven, less political nature. According to Hans Richter, a Dadaist who was in Berlin yet "aloof from active participation in Berlin Dada", several distinguishing characteristics of the Dada movement there included: "its political element and its technical discoveries in painting and literature"; "inexhaustible energy"; "mental freedom which included the abolition of everything"; and "members intoxicated with their own power in a way that had no relation to the real world", who would "turn their rebelliousness even against each other".
In February 1918, while the Great War was approaching its climax, Huelsenbeck gave his first Dada speech in Berlin, and he produced a Dada manifesto later in the year. Following the October Revolution in Russia, by then out of the war, Hannah Höch and George Grosz used Dada to express communist sympathies. Grosz, together with John Heartfield, Höch and Hausmann developed the technique of photomontage during this period. Johannes Baader, the uninhibited Oberdada, was the "crowbar" of the Berlin movement's direct action according to Hans Richter and is credited with creating the first giant collages, according to Raoul Hausmann.
After the war, the artists published a series of short-lived political magazines and held the First International Dada Fair, 'the greatest project yet conceived by the Berlin Dadaists', in the summer of 1920. As well as work by the main members of Berlin Dada (Grosz, Raoul Hausmann, Hannah Höch, Johannes Baader, Huelsenbeck and Heartfield), the exhibition also included the work of Otto Dix, Francis Picabia, Jean Arp, Max Ernst, Rudolf Schlichter, Johannes Baargeld and others.
The Berlin group published periodicals such as Club Dada, Der Dada, Everyman His Own Football, and Dada Almanach. They also established a political party, the Central Council of Dada for the World Revolution.
Cologne
In Cologne, Ernst, Baargeld, and Arp launched a controversial Dada exhibition in 1920 which focused on nonsense and anti-bourgeois sentiments. Cologne's Early Spring Exhibition was set up in a pub, and required that participants walk past urinals while being read lewd poetry by a woman in a communion dress. The police closed the exhibition on grounds of obscenity, but it was re-opened when the charges were dropped.New York
, the alter ego of Dadaist Marcel Duchamp]]
, Fountain, 1917; photograph by Alfred Stieglitz]]
Like Zürich, New York City was a refuge for writers and artists from the First World War. Soon after arriving from France in 1915, Marcel Duchamp and Francis Picabia met American artist Man Ray. By 1916 the three of them became the center of radical anti-art activities in the United States. American Beatrice Wood, who had been studying in France, soon joined them, along with Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven. Arthur Cravan, fleeing conscription in France, was also in New York for a time. Much of their activity centered in Alfred Stieglitz's gallery, 291, and the home of Walter and Louise Arensberg.
The New Yorkers, though not particularly organized, called their activities Dada, but they did not issue manifestos. They issued challenges to art and culture through publications such as The Blind Man, Rongwrong, and New York Dada in which they criticized the traditionalist basis for museum art. New York Dada lacked the disillusionment of European Dada and was instead driven by a sense of irony and humor. In his book Adventures in the arts: informal chapters on painters, vaudeville and poets Marsden Hartley included an essay on "The Importance of Being 'Dada'".
During this time Duchamp began exhibiting "readymades" (everyday objects found or purchased and declared art) such as a bottle rack, and was active in the Society of Independent Artists. In 1917 he submitted the now famous Fountain, a urinal signed R. Mutt, to the Society of Independent Artists exhibition but they rejected the piece. First an object of scorn within the arts community, the Fountain has since become almost canonized by some as one of the most recognizable modernist works of sculpture. Art world experts polled by the sponsors of the 2004 Turner Prize, Gordon's gin, voted it "the most influential work of modern art".
As recent scholarship documents, the work is still controversial. Duchamp indicated in a 1917 letter to his sister that a female friend was centrally involved in the conception of this work: "One of my female friends who had adopted the pseudonym Richard Mutt sent me a porcelain urinal as a sculpture." The piece is in line with the scatological aesthetics of Duchamp's neighbour, the Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven. In an attempt to "pay homage to the spirit of Dada" a performance artist named Pierre Pinoncelli made a crack in a replica of The Fountain with a hammer in January 2006; he also urinated on it in 1993.
Picabia's travels tied New York, Zürich and Paris groups together during the Dadaist period. For seven years he also published the Dada periodical 391 in Barcelona, New York City, Zürich, and Paris from 1917 through 1924.
By 1921, most of the original players moved to Paris where Dada had experienced its last major incarnation.
Paris
, c. 1921–22, Rencontre dans la porte tournante, published on the cover of Der Sturm, Volume 13, Number 3, 5 March 1922]]
The French avant-garde kept abreast of Dada activities in Zürich with regular communications from Tristan Tzara (whose pseudonym means "sad in country," a name chosen to protest the treatment of Jews in his native Romania), who exchanged letters, poems, and magazines with Guillaume Apollinaire, André Breton, Max Jacob, Clément Pansaers, and other French writers, critics and artists.
Paris had arguably been the classical music capital of the world since the advent of musical Impressionism in the late 19th century. One of its practitioners, Erik Satie, collaborated with Picasso and Cocteau in a mad, scandalous ballet called Parade. First performed by the Ballets Russes in 1917, it succeeded in creating a scandal but in a different way than Stravinsky's Le Sacre du printemps had done almost five years earlier. This was a ballet that was clearly parodying itself, something traditional ballet patrons would obviously have serious issues with.
Dada in Paris surged in 1920 when many of the originators converged there. Inspired by Tzara, Paris Dada soon issued manifestos, organized demonstrations, staged performances and produced a number of journals (the final two editions of Dada, Le Cannibale, and Littérature featured Dada in several editions.)
The first introduction of Dada artwork to the Parisian public was at the Salon des Indépendants in 1921. Jean Crotti exhibited works associated with Dada including a work entitled, Explicatif bearing the word Tabu. In the same year Tzara staged his Dadaist play The Gas Heart to howls of derision from the audience. When it was re-staged in 1923 in a more professional production, the play provoked a theatre riot (initiated by André Breton) that heralded the split within the movement that was to produce Surrealism. Tzara's last attempt at a Dadaist drama was his "ironic tragedy" Handkerchief of Clouds in 1924.
Netherlands
In the Netherlands, the Dada movement centered mainly around Theo van Doesburg, best known for establishing the De Stijl movement and magazine of the same name. Van Doesburg mainly focused on poetry, and included poems from many well-known Dada writers in De Stijl such as Hugo Ball, Hans Arp and Kurt Schwitters. Van Doesburg and (a cordwainer and artist in Drachten) became friends of Schwitters, and together they organized the so-called Dutch Dada campaign in 1923, where van Doesburg promoted a leaflet about Dada (entitled What is Dada?), Schwitters read his poems, Vilmos Huszár demonstrated a mechanical dancing doll and Nelly van Doesburg (Theo's wife), played avant-garde compositions on piano.
Van Doesburg wrote Dada poetry himself in De Stijl, although under a pseudonym, I.K. Bonset, which was only revealed after his death in 1931. 'Together' with I.K. Bonset, he also published a short-lived Dutch Dada magazine called Mécano (1922–23). Another Dutchman identified by K. Schippers in his study of the movement in the Netherlands was the Groningen typographer H. N. Werkman, who was in touch with van Doesburg and Schwitters while editing his own magazine, The Next Call (1923–6). Two more artists mentioned by Schippers were German-born and eventually settled in the Netherlands. These were Otto van Rees, who had taken part in the liminal exhibitions at the Café Voltaire in Zürich, and Paul Citroen.Georgia
Though Dada itself was unknown in Georgia until at least 1920, from 1917 until 1921 a group of poets called themselves Le Degré 41", or "Le Degré Quarante et Un" (English, "The 41st Degree") (referring both to the latitude of Tbilisi, Georgia and to the Celsius temperature of a high fever [equal to 105.8 Fahrenheit]) organized along Dadaist lines. The most important figure in this group was Iliazd (Ilia Zdanevich), whose radical typographical designs visually echo the publications of the Dadaists.
After his flight to Paris in 1921, he collaborated with Dadaists on publications and events. For example, when Tristan Tzara was banned from holding seminars in Théâtre Michel in 1923, Iliazd booked the venue on his behalf for the performance, "The Bearded Heart Soirée", and designed the flyer.
Yugoslavia
In Yugoslavia, alongside the new art movement Zenitism, there was significant Dada activity between 1920 and 1922, run mainly by Dragan Aleksić and including work by Mihailo S. Petrov, Ljubomir Micić and Branko Ve Poljanski. Aleksić used the term "Yougo-Dada" and is known to have been in contact with Raoul Hausmann, Kurt Schwitters, and Tristan Tzara.}}ItalyThe Dada movement in Italy, based in Mantua, was met with distaste and failed to make a significant impact in the world of art. It published a magazine for a short time and held an exhibition in Rome, featuring paintings, quotations from Tristan Tzara, and original epigrams such as "True Dada is against Dada". One member of this group was Julius Evola, who went on to become an eminent scholar of occultism, as well as a right-wing philosopher.Japan
A prominent Dada group in Japan was Mavo. The group was founded in July 1923 by Tomoyoshi Murayama and Yanase Masamu; they were later joined by Tatsuo Okada. Other prominent artists were Jun Tsuji, Eisuke Yoshiyuki, Shinkichi Takahashi and Katué Kitasono.
In Tsuburaya Productions's Ultra Series, an alien named Dada was inspired by the Dadaism movement, with said character first appearing in episode 28 of the 1966 tokusatsu series, Ultraman, its design by character artist Toru Narita. Dada's design is primarily monochromatic, and features numerous sharp lines and alternating black and white stripes, in reference to the movement and, in particular, to chessboard and Go patterns. On May 19, 2016, in celebration to the 100 year anniversary of Dadaism in Tokyo, the Ultra Monster was invited to meet the Swiss Ambassador Urs Bucher.
Butoh, the Japanese dance-form originating in 1959, can be considered to have direct connections to the spirit of the Dada movement, as Tatsumi Hijikata, one of Butoh's founders, "was influenced early in his career by Dadaism".
Russia
Dada in itself was relatively unknown in Russia; however, avant-garde art was widespread due to the Bolsheviks' revolutionary agenda. The , a literary group sharing Dadaist ideals For more information on Dadaism's influence upon Russian avant-garde art, see the book Russian Dada 1914–1924. Notable mentions other than the artists below include: Suzanne Duchamp, Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, Emmy Hennings, Beatrice Wood, Clara Tice, and Ella Bergmann-Michel.
Hannah Höch
Hannah Höch of Berlin is considered to be the only female Dadaist in Berlin at the time of the movement. During this time, she was in a relationship with Raoul Hausmann who also was a Dada artist. She channeled the same anti-war and anti-government (Weimar Republic) in her works but brought out a feminist lens on the themes. With her works primarily of collage and photomontage, she often used precise placement or detailed titles to callout the misogynistic ways she and other women were treated.
In literary arts, Dadaists focused on poetry, particularly the so-called sound poetry invented by Hugo Ball. Dadaist poems attacked traditional conceptions of poetry, including structure, order, as well as the interplay of sound and the meaning of language. For Dadaists, the existing system by which information is articulated robs language of its dignity. The dismantling of language and poetic conventions are Dadaist attempts to restore language to its purest and most innocent form: "With these sound poem, we wanted to dispense with a language which journalism had made desolate and impossible."
Simultaneous poems (or poèmes simultanés) were recited by a group of speakers who, collectively, produced a chaotic and confusing set of voices. These poems are considered manifestations of modernity including advertising, technology, and conflict. Unlike movements such as Expressionism, Dadaism did not take a negative view of modernity and the urban life. The chaotic urban and futuristic world is considered natural terrain that opens up new ideas for life and art.MusicDada was not confined to the visual and literary arts; its influence reached into sound and music. These movements exerted a pervasive influence on 20th-century music, especially on mid-century avant-garde composers based in New York—among them Edgard Varèse, Stefan Wolpe, John Cage, and Morton Feldman. Kurt Schwitters developed what he called sound poems, while Francis Picabia and Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes composed Dada music performed at the Festival Dada in Paris on 26 May 1920. Other composers such as Erwin Schulhoff, Hans Heusser and Alberto Savinio all wrote Dada music, while members of Les Six collaborated with members of the Dada movement and had their works performed at Dada gatherings. Erik Satie also dabbled with Dadaist ideas during his career.
By the dawn of the Second World War, many of the European Dadaists had emigrated to the United States. Some (Otto Freundlich, Walter Serner) died in death camps under Adolf Hitler, who actively persecuted the kind of "degenerate art" that he considered Dada to represent. The movement became less active as post-war optimism led to the development of new movements in art and literature.
Dada is a named influence and reference of various anti-art and political and cultural movements, including the Situationist International and culture jamming groups like the Cacophony Society. Upon breaking up in July 2012, anarchist pop band Chumbawamba issued a statement which compared their own legacy with that of the Dada art movement.
At the same time that the Zürich Dadaists were making noise and spectacle at the Cabaret Voltaire, Lenin was planning his revolutionary plans for Russia in a nearby apartment. Tom Stoppard used this coincidence as a premise for his play Travesties (1974), which includes Tzara, Lenin, and James Joyce as characters. French writer Dominique Noguez imagined Lenin as a member of the Dada group in his tongue-in-cheek Lénine Dada (1989).
The former building of the Cabaret Voltaire fell into disrepair until it was occupied from January to March 2002, by a group proclaiming themselves Neo-Dadaists, led by Mark Divo. The group included Jan Thieler, Ingo Giezendanner, Aiana Calugar, Lennie Lee, and Dan Jones. After their eviction, the space was turned into a museum dedicated to the history of Dada. The work of Lee and Jones remained on the walls of the new museum.
Several notable retrospectives have examined the influence of Dada upon art and society. In 1967, a large Dada retrospective was held in Paris. In 2006, the Museum of Modern Art in New York City mounted a Dada exhibition in partnership with the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., and the Centre Pompidou in Paris. The LTM label has released a large number of Dada-related sound recordings, including interviews with artists such as Tzara, Picabia, Schwitters, Arp, and Huelsenbeck, and musical repertoire including Satie, Ribemont-Dessaignes, Picabia, and Nelly van Doesburg.
Musician Frank Zappa was a self-proclaimed Dadaist after learning of the movement:<blockquote>In the early days, I didn't even know what to call the stuff my life was made of. You can imagine my delight when I discovered that someone in a distant land had the same idea—AND a nice, short name for it.</blockquote>David Bowie adapted William S. Burroughs' cut-up technique for writing lyrics and Kurt Cobain also admittedly used this method for many of his Nirvana lyrics, including In Bloom.Art techniques developed
Dadaism also blurred the line between literary and visual arts:
<blockquote>Dada is the groundwork to abstract art and sound poetry, a starting point for performance art, a prelude to postmodernism, an influence on pop art, a celebration of antiart to be later embraced for anarcho-political uses in the 1960s and the movement that laid the foundation for Surrealism.</blockquote>
Collage
The Dadaists imitated the techniques developed during the cubist movement through the pasting of cut pieces of paper items, but extended their art to encompass items such as transportation tickets, maps, plastic wrappers, etc. to portray aspects of life, rather than representing objects viewed as still life. They also invented the "chance collage" technique, involving dropping torn scraps of paper onto a larger sheet and then pasting the pieces wherever they landed.
Cut-up technique
Cut-up technique is an extension of collage to words themselves, Tristan Tzara describes this in the Dada Manifesto:
<poem style="margin-left: 2em;">
TO MAKE A DADAIST POEM
Take a newspaper.
Take some scissors.
Choose from this paper an article of the length you want to make your poem.
Cut out the article.
Next carefully cut out each of the words that makes up this article and put them all in a bag.
Shake gently.
Next take out each cutting one after the other.
Copy conscientiously in the order in which they left the bag.
The poem will resemble you.
And there you are – an infinitely original author of charming sensibility, even though unappreciated by the vulgar herd.
</poem>
Photomontage
The Dadaists – the "monteurs" (mechanics) – used scissors and glue rather than paintbrushes and paints to express their views of modern life through images presented by the media. A variation on the collage technique, photomontage utilized actual or reproductions of real photographs printed in the press. In Cologne, Max Ernst used images from the First World War to illustrate messages of the destruction of war. Although the Berlin photomontages were assembled, like engines, the (non)relationships among the disparate elements were more rhetorical than real.
Assemblage
The assemblages were three-dimensional variations of the collage – the assembly of everyday objects to produce meaningful or meaningless (relative to the war) pieces of work including war objects and trash. Objects were nailed, screwed or fastened together in different fashions. Assemblages could be seen in the round or could be hung on a wall.Readymades
Marcel Duchamp began to view the manufactured objects of his collection as objects of art, which he called "readymades". He would add signatures and titles to some, converting them into artwork that he called "readymade aided" or "rectified readymades". Duchamp wrote: "One important characteristic was the short sentence which I occasionally inscribed on the 'readymade.' That sentence, instead of describing the object like a title, was meant to carry the mind of the spectator towards other regions more verbal. Sometimes I would add a graphic detail of presentation which in order to satisfy my craving for alliterations, would be called 'readymade aided. One such example of Duchamp's readymade works is the urinal that was turned onto its back, signed "R. Mutt", titled Fountain, and submitted to the Society of Independent Artists exhibition that year, though it was not displayed.
Many young artists in America embraced the theories and ideas espoused by Duchamp. Robert Rauschenberg in particular was very influenced by Dadaism and tended to use found objects in his collages as a means of dissolving the boundary between high and low culture.
Artists
* Dragan Aleksić (1901–1958), Yugoslavia
* Louis Aragon (1897–1982), France
* Jean Arp (1886–1966), Germany, France
* Sophie Taeuber-Arp (1889–1943) Switzerland, France
* Johannes Baader (1875–1955) Germany
* Hugo Ball (1886–1927), Germany, Switzerland
* André Breton (1896–1966), France
* John Covert (1882–1960), US
* Jean Crotti (1878–1958), France
* Otto Dix (1891–1969), Germany
* Theo van Doesburg (1883–1931) Netherlands
* Marcel Duchamp (1887–1968), France
* Suzanne Duchamp (1889–1963), France
* Paul Éluard (1895–1952), France
* Max Ernst (1891–1976), Germany, US
* Julius Evola (1898–1974), Italy
* George Grosz (1893–1959), Germany, France, US
* Raoul Hausmann (1886–1971), Germany
* John Heartfield (1891–1968), Germany, USSR, Czechoslovakia, UK
* Hannah Höch (1889–1978), Germany
* Richard Huelsenbeck (1892–1974), Germany
* Georges Hugnet (1906–1974), France
* Marcel Janco (1895–1984), Romania, Israel
* Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven (1874–1927), Germany, US
* Clément Pansaers (1885–1922), Belgium
* Francis Picabia (1879–1953), France
* Man Ray (1890–1976), France, US
* Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes (1884–1974), France
* Hans Richter, Germany, Switzerland
* Juliette Roche Gleizes (1884–1980), France
* Kurt Schwitters (1887–1948), Germany
* Walter Serner (1889–1942), Austria
* Philippe Soupault (1897–1990), France
* Tristan Tzara (1896–1963), Romania, France
* Beatrice Wood (1893–1998), US
* Mümtaz Zeki Taşkın (1915–2013), Turkey
* Ercüment Behzat Lav (1903–1984), Turkey
See also
* Art intervention
* Dadaglobe
* List of Dadaists
* Épater la bourgeoisie
* Happening
* Incoherents
* Transgressive art
* Destruction Was My Beatrice, history by Jed Resula
* Corecore
References
Sources
* |reference (2004). (ed.). Dadaism. Taschen. .}}
*
*
*
*
Further reading
* The Dada Almanac, ed. Richard Huelsenbeck [1920], re-edited and translated by Malcolm Green et al., Atlas Press, with texts by Hans Arp, Johannes Baader, Hugo Ball, Paul Citröen, Paul Dermée, Daimonides, Max Goth, John Heartfield, Raoul Hausmann, Richard Huelsenbeck, Vincente Huidobro, Mario D'Arezzo, Adon Lacroix, Walter Mehring, Francis Picabia, Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes, Alexander Sesqui, Philippe Soupault, Tristan Tzara.
* Blago Bung, Blago Bung, Hugo Ball's Tenderenda, Richard Huelsenbeck's Fantastic Prayers, & Walter Serner's Last Loosening – three key texts of Zurich ur-Dada. Translated and introduced by Malcolm Green. Atlas Press,
* Ball, Hugo. Flight Out Of Time (University of California Press: Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1996)
* Bergius, Hanne Dada in Europa – Dokumente und Werke (co-ed. Eberhard Roters), in: Tendenzen der zwanziger Jahre. 15. Europäische Kunstausstellung, Catalogue, Vol.III, Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1977.
* Bergius, Hanne Das Lachen Dadas. Die Berliner Dadaisten und ihre Aktionen. Gießen: Anabas-Verlag 1989.
* Bergius, Hanne Dada Triumphs! Dada Berlin, 1917–1923. Artistry of Polarities. Montages – Metamechanics – Manifestations. Translated by Brigitte Pichon. Vol. V. of the ten editions of Crisis and the Arts: the History of Dada, ed. by Stephen Foster, New Haven, Connecticut, Thomson/Gale 2003. .
* Jones, Dafydd W. Dada 1916 In Theory: Practices of Critical Resistance (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2014).
* Biro, M. The Dada Cyborg: Visions of the New Human in Weimar Berlin. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009.
* Dachy, Marc. Journal du mouvement Dada 1915–1923, Genève, Albert Skira, 1989 (Grand Prix du Livre d'Art, 1990)
* Dada & les dadaïsmes, Paris, Gallimard, Folio Essais, n° 257, 1994.
* ''Dada : La révolte de l'art, Paris, Gallimard / Centre Pompidou, collection "Découvertes Gallimard" (nº 476), 2005.
* Archives Dada / Chronique, Paris, Hazan, 2005.
* Dada, catalogue d'exposition, Centre Pompidou, 2005.
* Durozoi, Gérard. Dada et les arts rebelles, Paris, Hazan, Guide des Arts, 2005
* Hoffman, Irene. [http://www.artic.edu/reynolds/essays/hofmann.php Documents of Dada and Surrealism: Dada and Surrealist Journals in the Mary Reynolds Collection] , Ryerson and Burnham Libraries, The Art Institute of Chicago.
* Hopkins, David, A Companion to Dada and Surrealism, Volume 10 of Blackwell Companions to Art History, John Wiley & Sons, May 2, 2016,
* Huelsenbeck, Richard. Memoirs of a Dada Drummer, (University of California Press: Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1991)
* Jones, Dafydd. Dada Culture (New York and Amsterdam: Rodopi Verlag, 2006)
* Lavin, Maud. Cut With the Kitchen Knife: The Weimar Photomontages of Hannah Höch. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993.
* Lemoine, Serge. Dada'', Paris, Hazan, coll. L'Essentiel.
* Lista, Giovanni. Dada libertin & libertaire, Paris, L'insolite, 2005.
* Melzer, Annabelle. 1976. Dada and Surrealist Performance. PAJ Books ser. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins UP, 1994. .
* Novero, Cecilia. "Antidiets of the Avant-Garde: From Futurist Cooking to Eat Art". (University of Minnesota Press, 2010)
* Richter, Hans. Dada: Art and Anti-Art (London: Thames and Hudson, 1965)
* Sanouillet, Michel. Dada à Paris, Paris, Jean-Jacques Pauvert, 1965, Flammarion, 1993, CNRS, 2005
* Sanouillet, Michel. Dada in Paris, Cambridge, Massachusetts, The MIT Press, 2009
* Schneede, Uwe M. George Grosz, His life and work (New York: Universe Books, 1979)
* Verdier, Aurélie. ''L'ABCdaire de Dada'', Paris, Flammarion, 2005.
Filmography
* 1968: , Documentary by Universal Education, Presented By Kartes Video Communications, 56 Minutes
* 1971: , Une émission produite par Jean José Marchand, réalisée par Philippe Collin et Hubert Knapp, Ce documentaire a été diffusé pour la première fois sur la RTF le 28.03.1971, 267 min.
* 2016: [https://www.srf.ch/sendungen/sternstunde-kunst/das-prinzip-dada-3 Das Prinzip Dada], Documentary by , Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen (), 52 Minutes
* 2016 , Bruno Art Group in collaboration with Cabaret Voltaire & Art Stage Singapore 2016, 27 minutesExternal links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20161214211903/http://www.dada-companion.com/ Dada Companion], bibliographies, chronology, artists' profiles, places, techniques, reception
* The [https://www.lib.uiowa.edu/dada/ International Dada Archive], University of Iowa, early Dada periodicals, online scans of publications
* [http://www.dadart.com/dadaism/dada/index.html Dadart], history, bibliography, documents, and news
* [http://www.ltmrecordings.com/fdrcat.html Dada audio recordings at LTM]
* [http://bibliothequekandinsky.centrepompidou.fr/clientBookline/service/reference.asp?INSTANCEincipio&OUTPUTPORTAL&DOCID0473982&DOCBASECGPP New York dada (magazine), Marcel Duchamp and Man Ray, April, 1921] , Bibliothèque Kandinsky, Centre Pompidou (access online)
* [https://digital.kunsthaus.ch/dadaismus/en Kunsthaus Zürich], one of the world's largest Dada collections
* [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/dada-115169154/ "A Brief History of Dada"], Smithsonian Magazine
* [https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-1010/wwi-dada/dada1/a/introduction-to-dada Introduction to Dada], Khan Academy Art 1010
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090114080143/http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/2006/dada/cities/index.shtm National Gallery of Art 2006 Dada Exhibition]
* [https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Search/Home?lookfor%22%20Dadaism%22&searchtypesubject&ftft&setfttrue Hathi Trust full-text Dadaism publications online]
* [https://exchange.umma.umich.edu/resources/23677 Collection: "Dada and Neo-Dada"] from the University of Michigan Museum of Art
* [https://archive.org/details/sim_boston-phoenix_1982-02-23_11_8/page/n56/mode/1up Dada] - a theater piece directed by James Williams
Manifestos
* Text of Hugo Ball's 1916 Dada Manifesto
* [http://www.391.org/manifestos/19180323tristantzara_dadamanifesto.htm Text of Tristan Tzara's 1918 Dada Manifesto]
* [http://www.english.upenn.edu/~jenglish/English104/tzara.html Excerpts of Tristan Tzara's Dada Manifesto (1918) and Lecture on Dada (1922)]
* [http://keever.us/tzaraseven.pdf Seven Dada Manifestos by Tristan Tzara]
* [https://digital.lib.uiowa.edu/islandora/object/ui%3Adada Dada Digital Collection]
}}
Category:Avant-garde art
Category:Art movements
Category:20th-century German literature
Category:Counterculture of the 1910s
Category:Counterculture of the 1920s
Category:Nonsense
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Debian
|
| logo = Debian-OpenLogo.svg
| logo size = 100px
| logo_alt = The official logo (also known as open use logo) contains the well-known Debian swirl and best represents the visual identity of the Debian Project
| screenshot = Screenshot of Debian 12 (Bookworm) GNOME 43.9—English.png
| screenshot_alt = Screenshot of Debian 12 (Bookworm) with the GNOME desktop environment version 43.9
| caption = Debian 12 (Bookworm) running its default desktop environment, GNOME Version 43.9
| developer = The Debian Project
| family = Linux (Unix-like)
| working_state = Current
| source_model = Open source
| released
| latest release version 12.10
| latest release date =
| latest preview version
| ()
}}
| latest preview date
| repo = [https://salsa.debian.org salsa.debian.org]
| language = 78 languages
| updatemodel = * Command line via package manager
* Optional graphical app stores
| package_manager = APT, dpkg
| supported_platforms =
| kernel_type = Monolithic (Linux kernel)
| userland = GNU
| ui GNOME Although, Debian also offers ISOs for Cinnamon, KDE Plasma, LXDE, LXQt, MATE and Xfce}}
| license = DFSG-compatible licenses, plus proprietary firmware files
| website =
}}
Debian GNU/Linux (), or simply Debian, is a free and open source Linux distribution, developed by the Debian Project, which was established by Ian Murdock in August 1993. Debian is one of the oldest operating systems based on the Linux kernel, and is the basis of many other Linux distributions.
As of September 2023, Debian is the second-oldest Linux distribution still in active development: only Slackware is older. The project is coordinated over the Internet by a team of volunteers guided by the Debian Project Leader and three foundational documents: the Debian Social Contract, the Debian Constitution, and the Debian Free Software Guidelines.
In general, Debian has been developed openly and distributed freely according to some of the principles of the GNU Project and Free Software. Because of this, the Free Software Foundation sponsored the project from November 1994 to November 1995. However, Debian is no longer endorsed by GNU and the FSF because of the distribution's long-term practice of hosting non-free software repositories and, since 2022, its inclusion of non-free firmware in its installation media by default. Founding (1993–1998) First announced on August 16, 1993, Debian was founded by Ian Murdock, who initially called the system "the Debian Linux Release". The word "Debian" was formed as a portmanteau of the first names of himself and his then-girlfriend (later ex-wife) Debra Lynn. Before Debian's release, the Softlanding Linux System (SLS) had been a popular Linux distribution and the basis for Slackware. Murdock was motivated to launch a new distribution by what he saw as poor maintenance and the prevalence of bugs in SLS.
Debian 0.01, released on September 15, 1993, was the first of several internal releases. Version 0.90 was the first public release, The release included the Debian Linux Manifesto, outlining Murdock's view for the new operating system. In it he called for the creation of a distribution to be maintained "openly in the spirit of Linux and GNU."
The Debian project released the 0.9x versions in 1994 and 1995. During this time it was sponsored by the Free Software Foundation for one year. Ian Murdock delegated the base system, the core packages of Debian, to Bruce Perens, while Murdock focused on the management of the growing project. By that time and thanks to Ian Jackson, the dpkg package manager was already an essential part of Debian.
In 1996, Bruce Perens assumed the project leadership. Perens was a controversial leader, regarded as authoritarian and strongly attached to Debian. He drafted a social contract and edited suggestions from a month-long discussion into the Debian Social Contract and the Debian Free Software Guidelines. After the FSF withdrew their sponsorship in the midst of the free software vs. open source debate, Perens initiated the creation of the legal umbrella organization Software in the Public Interest instead of seeking renewed involvement with the FSF. By the time Debian 1.2 was released, the project had grown to nearly two hundred volunteers.
Ian Jackson became the project leader in 1998. Debian 2.0 introduced the second official port, m68k. On December 2, the first Debian Constitution was ratified. The package manager front-end APT was deployed with Debian 2.1. Corel Linux and Stormix's Storm Linux, were started in 1999.
In late 2000, the project reorganized the archive with new package "pools" and created the Testing trunk, made up of packages considered stable, to reduce the freeze for the next release. In May 2001, Hewlett-Packard announced plans to base its Linux development on Debian.
In July 2002, the project released version 3.0, code-named Woody, the first release to include cryptographic software, a free-licensed KDE and internationalization. During these last release cycles, the Debian project drew considerable criticism from the free software community because of the long time between stable releases.
Some events disturbed the project while the Sarge release was in preparation, as Debian servers were attacked by fire and hackers. One of the most memorable was the Vancouver prospectus. After a meeting held in Vancouver, release manager Steve Langasek announced a plan to reduce the number of supported ports to four in order to shorten future release cycles. There was a large reaction because the proposal looked more like a decision and because such a drop would damage Debian's aim to be "the universal operating system".
The first version of the Debian-based Ubuntu distribution, named "4.10 Warty Warthog", was released on October 20, 2004. Because it was distributed as a free download, it became one of the most popular and successful operating systems with more than "40 million users" according to Canonical Ltd. However, Murdock was critical of the differences between Ubuntu packages and Debian, stating that it led to incompatibilities.Sarge and later releases (2005–present)The 3.1 Sarge release was made in June 2005. This release updated 73% of the software and included over 9,000 new packages. A new installer with a modular design, Debian-Installer, allowed installations with RAID, XFS and LVM support, improved hardware detection, made installations easier for novice users, and was translated into almost forty languages. An installation manual and release notes were in ten and fifteen languages respectively. The efforts of Skolelinux, Debian-Med and Debian-Accessibility raised the number of packages that were educational or had a medical affiliation, and of packages made for people with disabilities.
logo]]
In 2006, as a result of a much-publicized dispute, Mozilla software was rebranded in Debian. The Mozilla Corporation stated that software with unapproved modifications could not be distributed under the Firefox trademark. Two reasons that Debian had modified the Firefox software were to replace non-free artwork and to provide security patches. Consequently, Debian contained a fork of Firefox named Iceweasel and one of Thunderbird named Icedove. In February 2016, it was announced that Mozilla and Debian had reached an agreement and Iceweasel would revert to the name Firefox; a similar agreement was anticipated for Icedove/Thunderbird.
A fund-raising experiment, Dunc-Tank, was created to solve the release cycle problem and release managers were paid to work full-time; in response, unpaid developers slowed down their work and the release was delayed.
Debian 4.0 (Etch) was released in April 2007, featuring the x86-64 port and a graphical installer. The release was dedicated to Thiemo Seufer, a developer who died in a car crash.
In July 2009, the policy of time-based development freezes on a two-year cycle was announced. Time-based freezes are intended to blend the predictability of time based releases with Debian's policy of feature-based releases, and to reduce overall freeze time. In September 2010, the backports service became official, providing more recent versions of some software for the stable release.
Debian 8 (Jessie) was released in April 2015, using systemd as the new init system.
Debian 9 (Stretch) was released in June 2017, with nftables as a replacement for iptables, support for Flatpak apps, and MariaDB as the replacement for MySQL.
Debian 10 (Buster) was released in July 2019, adding support for Secure Boot and enabling AppArmor by default.
Debian 11 (Bullseye) was released in August 2021, enabling persistency in the system journal, adding support for driverless scanning, and containing kernel-level support for exFAT filesystems.
Debian 12 (Bookworm) was released on June 10, 2023, including various improvements and features, increasing the supported Linux Kernel to version 6.1, and leveraging new "Emerald" artwork. Debian 12 also was the first version under a revised Debian Social Contract that includes non-free firmware in its installation media by default, if and when the installer detects that it is needed for installed hardware to function, such as with Wi-Fi cards.
Debian is still in development and new packages are uploaded to unstable every day.
Debian used to be released as a very large set of CDs for each architecture, but with the release of Debian 9 (Stretch) in 2017, many of the images have been dropped from the archive but remain buildable via jigdo.
Throughout Debian's lifetime, both the Debian distribution and its website have won various awards from different organizations, including Server Distribution of the Year 2011, The best Linux distro of 2011, and a Best of the Net award for October 1998.
On December 2, 2015, Microsoft announced that they would offer Debian GNU/Linux as an endorsed distribution on the Azure cloud platform. Microsoft has also added a user environment to their Windows 10 desktop operating system called Windows Subsystem for Linux that offers a Debian subset. Features
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Debian has access to online repositories that contain over 51,000 packages. Debian officially contains only free software, but non-free software can be downloaded and installed from the Debian repositories. Debian includes popular free programs such as LibreOffice, Firefox web browser, Evolution mail, K3b disc burner, VLC media player, GIMP image editor, and Evince document viewer. Kernels
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Debian supports the Linux kernel officially, having offered Debian GNU/kFreeBSD for version 7 but not 8, and GNU Hurd unofficially. GNU/kFreeBSD was released as a technology preview for IA-32 and x86-64 architectures, Official support for kFreeBSD was removed for version 8, which did not provide a kFreeBSD-based distribution. Dyson is an unofficial derivative of Debian that implements the illumos kernel and Service Management Facility init system.
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Several flavors of the Linux kernel exist for each port. For example, the i386 port has flavors for IA-32 PCs supporting Physical Address Extension and real-time computing, for older PCs, and for x86-64 PCs. The Linux kernel does not officially contain firmware lacking source code, although such firmware is available in non-free packages and alternative installation media. Desktop environments Debian offers CD and DVD images specifically built for Xfce, GNOME, KDE, MATE, Cinnamon, LXDE, and LXQt. MATE support was added in 2014, and Cinnamon support was added with Debian 8 Jessie. Less common window managers such as Enlightenment, Openbox, Fluxbox, IceWM, Window Maker and others are available.
The default desktop environment of version 7 Wheezy was temporarily switched to Xfce, because GNOME 3 did not fit on the first CD of the set. The default for the version 8 Jessie was changed again to Xfce in November 2013, and back to GNOME in September 2014. Localization Several parts of Debian are translated into languages other than American English, including package descriptions, configuration messages, documentation and the website. The level of software localization depends on the language, ranging from the highly supported German and French to the barely translated Creek and Samoan. The Debian 10 installer is available in 76 languages. Multimedia support Multimedia support has been problematic in Debian regarding codecs threatened by possible patent infringements, lacking source code, or under too restrictive licenses. Even though packages with problems related to their distribution could go into the non-free area, software such as libdvdcss is not hosted at Debian .
A notable third party repository exists, formerly named Debian-multimedia.org, providing software not present in Debian such as Windows codecs, libdvdcss and the Adobe Flash Player. Even though this repository is maintained by Christian Marillat, a Debian developer, it is not part of the project and is not hosted on a Debian server. The repository provides packages already included in Debian, interfering with the official maintenance. Eventually, project leader Stefano Zacchiroli asked Marillat to either settle an agreement about the packaging or to stop using the "Debian" name. Marillat chose the latter and renamed the repository to deb-multimedia.org. The repository was so popular that the switchover was announced by the official blog of the Debian project. Distribution Debian offers DVD and CD images for installation that can be downloaded using BitTorrent or jigdo. Physical discs can also be bought from retailers. The full sets are made up of several discs (the amd64 port consists of 13 DVDs or 84 CDs), but only the first disc is required for installation, as the installer can retrieve software not contained in the first disc image from online repositories.
Debian offers different network installation methods. A minimal install of Debian is available via the netinst CD, whereby Debian is installed with just a base and later added software can be downloaded from the Internet. Another option is to boot the installer from the network.
The default bootstrap loader is GNU GRUB version 2, though the package name is simply grub, while version 1 was renamed to grub-legacy. This conflicts with distros (e.g., Fedora Linux), where grub version 2 is named grub2.
The default desktop may be chosen from the DVD boot menu among GNOME, KDE Plasma, Xfce, LXDE, and LXQt and from special disc 1 CDs.
Debian releases live install images for CDs, DVDs and USB thumb drives, for IA-32 and x86-64 architectures, and with a choice of desktop environments. These Debian Live images allow users to boot from removable media and run Debian without affecting the contents of their computer. A full install of Debian to the computer's hard drive can be initiated from the live image environment. Personalized images can be built with the live-build tool for discs, USB drives and for network booting purposes. Installation images are hybrid on some architectures and can be used to create a bootable USB drive (Live USB).
Packages
Package management operations can be performed with different tools available on Debian, from the lowest level command <kbd>dpkg</kbd> to graphical front-ends like Synaptic. The recommended standard for administering packages on a Debian system is the <kbd>apt</kbd> toolset.
dpkg provides the low-level infrastructure for package management. The dpkg database contains the list of installed software on the current system. The dpkg command tool does not know about repositories. The command can work with local .deb package files, and information from the dpkg database. APT tools
to view Debian package details]]
An Advanced Packaging Tool (APT) allows a Debian system to retrieve and resolve package dependencies from repositories. APT tools share dependency information and cached packages. GDebi can install a local .deb file via the command line like the dpkg command, but with access to repositories to resolve dependencies. Other graphical front-ends for APT include Software Center, Synaptic and Apper.
GNOME Software is a graphical front-end for PackageKit, which itself can work on top of various software packaging systems.
Repositories
The Debian Free Software Guidelines (DFSG) define the distinctive meaning of the word "free" as in "free and open-source software". Packages that comply with these guidelines, usually under the GNU General Public License, Modified BSD License or Artistic License, are included inside the main area; otherwise, they are included inside the non-free and contrib areas. These last two areas are not distributed within the official installation media, but they can be adopted manually. such as documentation with invariant sections and proprietary software, and legally questionable packages. an opinion echoed by some in Debian including the former project leader Wichert Akkerman. The internal dissent in the Debian project regarding the non-free section has persisted, but the last time it came to a vote in 2004, the majority decided to keep it. Cross-distribution package managers The most popular optional Linux cross-distribution package manager are graphical (front-ends) package managers. They are available within the official Debian Repository but are not installed by default. They are widely popular with both Debian users and Debian software developers who are interested in installing the most recent versions of application or using the cross-distribution package manager built-in sandbox environment. While at the same time remaining in control of the security.
Four most popular cross-distribution package managers, sorted in alphabetical order:
* AppImage Linux distribution-agnostic binary software deployment
* Flatpak software code is owned and maintained by the not for profit Flatpak Team, with an open source LGPL-2.1-or-later license.
* Homebrew software code is owned and maintained by its original author Max Howell, with an open source BSD 2-Clause License.
* Snap software code is owned and maintained by the for profit Canonical Group Limited, with an open source GNU General Public License, version 3.0.
Branches
Three branches of Debian (also called releases, distributions or suites) are regularly maintained:
* Stable is the current release and targets stable and well-tested software needs. Stable is made by freezing Testing for a few months where bugs are fixed and packages with too many bugs are removed; then the resulting system is released as stable. It is updated only if major security or usability fixes are incorporated. Stables CDs and DVDs can be found in the Debian website.
Other branches in Debian:
* Oldstable is the prior stable release. Numbering scheme Stable and oldstable get minor updates, called point releases; , the stable release is version 11.7, released on , and the oldstable release is version 10.10.
The numbering scheme for the point releases up to Debian 4.0 was to include the letter r (for revision) after the main version number and then the number of the point release; for example, the latest point release of version 4.0 is 4.0r9. This scheme was chosen because a new dotted version would make the old one look obsolete and vendors would have trouble selling their CDs.
From Debian 5.0, the numbering scheme of point releases was changed, conforming to the GNU version numbering standard; the first point release of Debian 5.0 was 5.0.1 instead of 5.0r1. The numbering scheme was once again changed for the first Debian 7 update, which was version 7.1. The r scheme is no longer in use, but point release announcements include a note about not throwing away old CDs.
Branding
Debian has two logos. The official logo (also known as <q>open use logo</q>) contains the well-known Debian <q>swirl</q> and best represents the visual identity of the Debian Project. A separate logo also exists for use by the Debian Project and its members only. in 1999 as part of a contest to replace the semi-official logo that had been used. The winner of the contest received an @Debian.org email address, and a set of Debian 2.1 install CDs for the architecture of their choice. Initially, the swirl was magic smoke arising from an also included bottle of an Arabian-style genie presented in black profile, but shortly after was reduced to the red smoke swirl for situations where space or multiple colours were not an option, and before long the bottle version effectively was superseded. There has been no official statement from the Debian project on the logo's meaning, but at the time of the logo's selection, it was suggested that the logo represented the magic smoke that made computers work.
One theory about the origin of the Debian logo is that Buzz Lightyear, the chosen character for the first named Debian release, has a swirl in his chin. Stefano Zacchiroli also suggested that this swirl is the Debian one. Buzz Lightyear's swirl is a more likely candidate as the codenames for Debian are names of Toy Story characters. The former Debian project leader Bruce Perens used to work for Pixar and is credited as a studio tools engineer on Toy Story 2 (1999). Hardware Hardware requirements are at least those of the kernel and the GNU toolsets. Debian's recommended system requirements depend on the level of installation, which corresponds to increased numbers of installed components:
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;"
|-
! Type
! Minimum RAM size
! Recommended RAM size
! Minimum processor clock speed (IA-32)
! Hard-drive capacity
|-
| Non-desktop
| 256 MiB
| 512 MiB
|
| 2 GB
|-
| Desktop
| 1 GiB
| 2 GiB
| 1 GHz
| 10 GB
|}
The real minimum memory requirements depend on the architecture and may be much less than the numbers listed in this table. It is possible to install Debian with 170 MB of RAM for x86-64; Similarly, disk space requirements, which depend on the packages to be installed, can be reduced by manually selecting the packages needed.
It is possible to run graphical user interfaces on older or low-end systems. However, the installation of window managers instead of desktop environments is recommended, as desktop environments are more resource intensive. Requirements for individual software vary widely and must be considered, with those of the base operating environment.
* amd64: x86-64 architecture with 64-bit userland and supporting 32-bit software
* arm64: ARMv8-A architecture
* armel: Little-endian ARM architecture (ARMv4T instruction set) on various embedded systems (embedded application binary interface (EABI)), although support has ended after Buster
* armhf: ARM hard-float architecture (ARMv7 instruction set) requiring hardware with a floating-point unit
* i386: IA-32 architecture with 32-bit userland, compatible with x86-64 machines
* s390x: z/Architecture with 64-bit userland, intended to replace s390
Unofficial ports are available as part of the unstable distribution:
* m68k: Motorola 68k architecture on Amiga, Atari, Macintosh and various embedded VME systems
* powerpc: 32-bit PowerPC
* ppc64: PowerPC64 architecture supporting 64-bit PowerPC CPUs with VMX
* sh4: Hitachi SuperH architecture
* sparc64: Sun SPARC architecture with 64-bit userland
* x32: x32 ABI userland for x86-64
Debian supports a variety of ARM-based NAS devices. The NSLU2 was supported by the installer in Debian 4.0 and 5.0, and Martin Michlmayr is providing installation tarballs since version 6.0. Other supported NAS devices are the Buffalo Kurobox Pro, GLAN Tank, Thecus N2100 and QNAP Turbo Stations. There are efforts to run Debian on mobile devices, but this is not a project goal yet since the Debian Linux kernel maintainers would not apply the needed patches. Nevertheless, there are packages for resource-limited systems.
There are efforts to support Debian on wireless access points. Debian is known to run on set-top boxes. Work is ongoing to support the AM335x processor, which is used in electronic point of service solutions. Debian may be customized to run on cash machines.
BeagleBoard, a low-power open-source hardware single-board computer (made by Texas Instruments) has switched to Debian Linux preloaded on its Beaglebone Black board's flash.
Roqos Core, manufactured by Roqos, is a x86-64 based IPS firewall router running Debian Linux.
Organization
|caption=Simplified organizational structure
}}
Debian's policies and team efforts focus on collaborative software development and testing processes. The Debian project is a volunteer organization with three foundational documents:
* The Debian Social Contract defines a set of basic principles by which the project and its developers conduct affairs.
|source=[//www.debian.org/vote/ Debian Voting Information]
|[//www.debian.org/vote/1999/vote_0001#quorum 1999] |347
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2000/vote_0007#quorum 2000] |347
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2001/vote_0001#quorum 2001] |?
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2002/vote_0001#quorum 2002] |939
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2003/vote_0001#quorum 2003] |831
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2004/vote_001.quorum.log 2004] |911
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2005/vote_001.quorum.log 2005] |965
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2006/vote_001_quorum.log 2006] |972
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2007/vote_001_quorum.log 2007] |1036
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2008/vote_001_quorum.log 2008] |1075
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2009/vote_001_quorum.log 2009] |1013
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2010/vote_001_quorum.log 2010] |886
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2011/vote_001_quorum.log 2011] |911
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2012/vote_001_quorum.log 2012] |948
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2013/vote_001_quorum.log 2013] |988
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2014/vote_001_quorum.log 2014] |1003
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2015/vote_001_quorum.log 2015] |1033
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2016/vote_001_quorum.log 2016] |1023
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2017/vote_001_quorum.log 2017] |1062
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2018/vote_001_quorum.log 2018] |1001
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2019/vote_001_quorum.log 2019] |1003
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2020/vote_001_quorum.log 2020] |1011
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2021/vote_001_quorum.log 2021] |1018
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2022/vote_001_quorum.log 2022] |1023
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2023/vote_001_quorum.log 2023] |996
|[//www.debian.org/vote/2024/vote_001_quorum.log 2024] |1010}}
Debian developers are organized in a web of trust. There are about one thousand active Debian developers, but it is possible to contribute to the project without being an official developer.
The project maintains official mailing lists and conferences for communication and coordination between developers. For issues with single packages and other tasks, a public bug tracking system is used by developers and end users. Internet Relay Chat is also used for communication among developers
Debian is supported by donations made to organizations authorized by the leader. and umbrella organization for various other community free software projects.
A Project Leader is elected once per year by the developers. The leader has special powers, but they are not absolute, and appoints delegates to perform specialized tasks. Delegates make decisions as they think is best, taking into account technical criteria and consensus. By way of a General Resolution, the developers may recall the leader, reverse a decision made by the leader or a delegate, amend foundational documents and make other binding decisions.
Project leadership is distributed occasionally. Branden Robinson was helped by the Project Scud, a team of developers that assisted the leader, but there were concerns that such leadership would split Debian into two developer classes. Anthony Towns created a supplemental position, Second In Charge (2IC), that shared some powers of the leader. Steve McIntyre was 2IC and had a 2IC himself.
One important role in Debian's leadership is that of a release manager. The release team sets goals for the next release, supervises the processes and decides when to release. The team is led by the next release managers and stable release managers. Release assistants were introduced in 2003.
Developers
The Debian Project has an influx of applicants wishing to become developers. These applicants must undergo a vetting process which establishes their identity, motivation, understanding of the project's principles, and technical competence. This process has become much harder throughout the years.
Debian developers join the project for many reasons. Some that have been cited include:
* Debian is their main operating system and they want to promote Debian
* To improve the support for their favorite technology
* They are involved with a Debian derivative
* A desire to contribute back to the free-software community
* To make their Debian maintenance work easier
Debian developers may resign their positions at any time or, when deemed necessary, they can be expelled.
Development
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<div class="thumbcaption">Flowchart of the life cycle of a Debian package</div></div></div>
Each software package has a maintainer that may be either one person or a team of Debian developers and non-developer maintainers. The maintainer keeps track of upstream releases, and ensures that the package coheres with the rest of the distribution and meets the standards of quality of Debian. Packages may include modifications introduced by Debian to achieve compliance with Debian Policy, even to fix non-Debian specific bugs, although coordination with upstream developers is advised. Developers are responsible for any package they upload even if the packaging was prepared by another contributor.
Initially, an accepted package is only available in the unstable branch.
* It has been in unstable for a certain length of time that depends on the urgency of the changes.
* It does not have "release-critical" bugs, except for the ones already present in Testing. Release-critical bugs are those considered serious enough that they make the package unsuitable for release.
* There are no outdated versions in unstable for any release ports.
* The migration does not break any packages in Testing.
* Its dependencies can be satisfied by packages already in Testing or by packages being migrated at the same time.
* The migration is not blocked by a freeze.
Thus, a release-critical bug in a new version of a shared library on which many packages depend may prevent those packages from entering Testing, because the updated library must meet the requirements too. From the branch viewpoint, the migration process happens twice per day, rendering Testing in perpetual beta.
A version of a package can belong to more than one branch, usually testing and unstable. It is possible for a package to keep the same version between stable releases and be part of oldstable, stable, testing and unstable at the same time. Each branch can be seen as a collection of pointers into the package "pool" mentioned above.
Release cycle
A new stable branch of Debian gets released approximately every 2 years. It will receive official support for about 3 years with update for major security or usability fixes. Point releases will be available every several months as determined by Stable Release Managers (SRM).
Debian also launched its Long Term Support (LTS) project since Debian 6 (Debian Squeeze). For each Debian release, it will receive two years of extra security updates provided by LTS Team after its End Of Life (EOL). However, no point releases will be made. Now each Debian release can receive 5 years of security support in total.
Security
The Debian project handles security through public disclosure. Debian security advisories are compatible with the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures dictionary, are usually coordinated with other free software vendors and are published the same day a vulnerability is made public. There used to be a security audit project that focused on packages in the stable release looking for security bugs; Steve Kemp, who started the project, retired in 2011 but resumed his activities and applied to rejoin in 2014.
The stable branch is supported by the Debian security team; oldstable is supported for one year. Although Squeeze is not officially supported, Debian is coordinating an effort to provide long-term support (LTS) until February 2016, five years after the initial release, but only for the IA-32 and x86-64 platforms. Testing is supported by the testing security team, but does not receive updates in as timely a manner as stable. Unstables security is left for the package maintainers. AppArmor support is available and enabled by default since Buster. Debian provides an optional hardening wrapper, and does not harden all of its software by default using gcc features such as PIE and buffer overflow protection, unlike operating systems such as OpenBSD, but tries to build as many packages as possible with hardening flags.
In May 2008, a Debian developer discovered that the OpenSSL package distributed with Debian and derivatives such as Ubuntu made a variety of security keys vulnerable to a random number generator attack, since only 32,767 different keys were generated. The security weakness was caused by changes made in 2006 by another Debian developer in response to memory debugger warnings. The complete resolution procedure was cumbersome because patching the security hole was not enough; it involved regenerating all affected keys and certificates. Value The cost of developing all of the packages included in Debian 5.0 Lenny (323 million lines of code) has been estimated to be about , using one method based on the COCOMO model. , Black Duck Open Hub estimated that the current codebase (74 million lines of code) would cost about to develop, using a different method based on the same model.
Forks and derivatives
A large number of forks and derivatives have been built upon Debian over the years. Among the more notable are Ubuntu, developed by Canonical Ltd. and first released in 2004, which has surpassed Debian in popularity with desktop users; Knoppix, first released in the year 2000 and one of the first distributions optimized to boot from external storage; and Devuan, which gained attention in 2014 when it forked in disagreement over Debian's adoption of the systemd software suite, and has been mirroring Debian releases since 2017. The Linux Mint Debian Edition (LMDE) uses Debian Stable as the software source base since 2014. Derivatives and flavors
Debian is one of the most popular Linux distributions, and many other distributions have been created from the Debian codebase. , DistroWatch lists 121 active Debian derivatives. The Debian project provides its derivatives with guidelines for best practices and encourages derivatives to merge their work back into Debian.
Debian Pure Blends are subsets of a Debian release configured out-of-the-box for users with particular skills and interests. For example, Debian Jr. is made for children, while Debian Science is for researchers and scientists. The complete Debian distribution includes all available Debian Pure Blends.Debian GNU/Hurd
]]
Debian GNU/Hurd is a flavor based on the Hurd kernel (which, in turn, runs on the GNU Mach microkernel), instead of the Linux kernel. Debian GNU/Hurd has been in development since 1998, and made a formal release in May 2013, with 78% of the software packaged for Debian GNU/Linux ported to the GNU Hurd. Hurd is not yet an official Debian release, and is maintained and developed as an unofficial port. Debian GNU/Hurd is distributed as an installer CD (running the official Debian installer) or ready-to-run virtual disk image (Live CD, Live USB). The CD uses the IA-32 architecture, making it compatible with IA-32 and x86-64 PCs. The current version of Debian GNU/Hurd is 2023, published in June 2023.Debian GNU/kFreeBSDDebian GNU/kFreeBSD is a discontinued Debian flavor. It used the FreeBSD kernel and GNU userland. The majority of software in Debian GNU/kFreeBSD was built from the same sources as Debian, with some kernel packages from FreeBSD. The k in kFreeBSD is an abbreviation for kernel, which refers to the FreeBSD kernel. Before discontinuing the project, Debian maintained i386 and amd64 ports. The last version of Debian kFreeBSD was Debian 8 (Jessie) RC3. Debian GNU/kFreeBSD was created in 2002. It was included in Debian 6.0 (Squeeze) as a technology preview, and in Debian 7 (Wheezy) as an official port. Debian GNU/kFreeBSD was discontinued as an officially supported platform as of Debian 8. Debian developers cited OSS, pf, jails, NDIS, and ZFS as reasons for being interested in the FreeBSD kernel. It has not been officially updated since Debian 8. However, starting in July 2019, the operating system continued to be maintained unofficially. As of July 2023, the development of Debian GNU/kFreeBSD has officially terminated due to the lack of interest and developers.
See also
* Armbian
* Comparison of Linux distributions
* Comparison of mobile operating systems
* Debian version history
* List of Debian project leaders
* List of open source mobile phones
* Mobian
References and notes
Sources
*
*
*
External links
*
*
Category:Debian
Category:1993 software
Category:ARM Linux distributions
Category:Free software culture and documents
Category:IA-32 Linux distributions
Category:Operating system distributions bootable from read-only media
Category:Power ISA Linux distributions
Category:PowerPC Linux distributions
Category:X86-64 Linux distributions
Category:Linux distributions
Category:Independent Linux distributions
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Doonesbury
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|status= Sunday only<br />(repeat strips through the week)
|syndicate= Universal Press Syndicate/Andrews McMeel Syndication
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Doonesbury is a comic strip by American cartoonist Garry Trudeau that chronicles the adventures and lives of an array of characters of various ages, professions, and backgrounds, from the President of the United States to the title character, Michael Doonesbury, who has progressed over the decades from a college student to a youthful senior citizen.
Created in "the throes of <abbr title"1960s">'60s</abbr> and <abbr title"1970s">'70s</abbr> counterculture", and frequently political in nature, Doonesbury features characters representing a range of affiliations, but the cartoon is noted for a liberal viewpoint. The name "Doonesbury" is a combination of the word doone (American prep school slang for someone who is clueless, inattentive, or careless) and the surname of Charles Pillsbury, Trudeau's roommate at Yale University.
Doonesbury is written and penciled by Garry Trudeau, then inked and lettered by an assistant, Don Carlton,
then Todd Pound. Sunday strips are colored by George Corsillo. Doonesbury was a daily strip through most of its existence, but since February 2014 it has run repeat strips Monday through Saturday, and new strips on Sunday.
History
Doonesbury began as a continuation of Bull Tales, which appeared in the Yale University student newspaper, the Yale Daily News, from 1968 to 1970. It focused on local campus events at Yale.
Doonesbury proper debuted as a daily strip in twenty-eight newspapers on October 26, 1970 (it being the first strip from Universal Press Syndicate). A Sunday strip began on March 21, 1971. Many of the early strips were reprints of the Bull Tales cartoons, with some changes to the drawings and plots. B. D.'s helmet changed from having a "Y" (for Yale) to a star (for the fictional Walden College). Mike and B. D. started Doonesbury as roommates; they were not roommates in Bull Tales.
Doonesbury became known for its social and political commentary. By the 2010s, it was syndicated in approximately 1,400 newspapers worldwide.
In May 1975, Doonesbury became the first daily comic strip to win a Pulitzer Prize, taking the award for Editorial Cartooning.
, from August 12, 1974; awarded the Pulitzer Prize]]
1983–1984 hiatus
Trudeau took a 22-month hiatus, from January 2, 1983, to September 30, 1984. Before the break in the strip, the characters were eternal college students, living in a commune together near Walden College, which was modeled after Trudeau's alma mater, Yale. During the break, Trudeau helped create a Broadway musical of the strip, showing the graduation of the main characters. The Broadway adaptation opened at the Biltmore Theatre on November 21, 1983, and played 104 performances. Elizabeth Swados composed the music for Trudeau's book and lyrics.
After the hiatus
The strip resumed some time after the events in the musical, with further changes having taken place after the end of the musical's plot. Mike, Mark, Zonker, B.D., and Boopsie were all now graduates; B.D. and Boopsie were living in Malibu, California, where B.D. was a third-string quarterback for the Los Angeles Rams, and Boopsie was making a living from walk-on and cameo roles. Mark was living in Washington, D.C., working for National Public Radio. Michael and J.J. had gotten married, and Mike had dropped out of business school to start work in an advertising agency in New York City. Zonker, still not ready for the "real world", was living with Mike and J.J. until he was accepted as a medical student at his Uncle Duke's "Baby Doc College" in Haiti.
Prior to the hiatus, the strip's characters had aged only slightly. But when Trudeau returned to Doonesbury, the characters began to age in something close to real time, as in Gasoline Alley and For Better or for Worse, Since then, the main characters' ages and career developments have tracked those of standard media portrayals of baby boomers, with jobs in advertising, law enforcement, and the dot-com boom. Current events are mirrored through the original characters, their offspring (the "second generation"), and occasional new characters.
Garry Trudeau received the National Cartoonist Society Newspaper Comic Strip Award for 1994, and their Reuben Award for 1995 for his work on the strip.
Alpha House and hiatuses: 2013
Doonesbury syndicate, Universal Uclick, announced on May 29, 2013, that the comic strip would go on hiatus from June 10 to Labor Day of that year while Garry Trudeau worked on his streaming video comedy Alpha House, which was picked up by Amazon Studios. "Doonesbury Flashbacks" were offered during those weeks, but due to the unusually long hiatus, some newspapers opted to run different comic strips instead. Sunday strips returned as scheduled, but the daily strip's hiatus was extended until November 2013.
After Alpha House was renewed for a second season in February 2014, Trudeau announced that he would now produce only Sunday strips for the foreseeable future. Since March 3, 2014, the strip has offered reruns starting from the very beginning of its history as opposed to the recent ones that re-run when Trudeau is on vacation. Alpha House was cancelled in 2016, but Trudeau did not return to drawing Monday-to-Saturday strips, and continued his Sunday-only schedule.
In a 2018 interview with Rolling Stone, Trudeau said that while Donald Trump appears in only a limited number of strips, "for the last two years, he's been subtext in almost all of them."
TV special
In 1977, Trudeau wrote a script for a 26-minute animated special, A Doonesbury Special, which was produced and directed by Trudeau along with John Hubley (who died during the storyboarding stage) and Faith Hubley. The special was first broadcast by NBC on November 27, 1977. It won a Special Jury Award at the Cannes International Film Festival for best short film, and received an Oscar nomination (for best animated short film), both in 1978. In its 2003 series "John Kerry: A Candidate in the Making" on the 2004 presidential race, The Boston Globe reprinted and discussed 1971 Doonesbury cartoons of the young Kerry's Vietnam War protest speeches.
Characters
<!-- Please don't let this section get too long--that's what the list article is for-->
Doonesbury has a large group of recurring characters, with 24 currently listed at the strip's website. There, it notes that "readers new to Doonesbury sometimes experience a temporary bout of character shock", as the sheer number of characters (and the historical connections among them) can be overwhelming.
The main characters are a group who attended the fictional Walden College during the strip's first 12 years, and moved into a commune together in April 1972. Most of the other characters first appeared as family members, friends, or other acquaintances. The original Walden Commune residents were Mike Doonesbury, Zonker Harris, Mark Slackmeyer, Nichole, Bernie, and DiDi. In September 1972, Joanie Caucus joined the comic, meeting Mike and Mark in Colorado and eventually moving into the commune. They were later joined by B.D. and his girlfriend (later wife) Boopsie, upon B.D.'s return from Vietnam. Nichole, DiDi, and Bernie were mostly phased out in subsequent years, and Zonker's Uncle Duke was introduced as the most prominent character outside the Walden group, and the main link to many secondary characters.
The Walden students graduated in 1983, after which the strip began to progress in something closer to real time. Their spouses and developing families became more important after this: Joanie's daughter J.J. Caucus married Mike and they had a daughter, Alex Doonesbury. They divorced, Mike married Kim Rosenthal, a Vietnamese refugee (who had appeared in the strip as a baby adopted by a Jewish family just after the fall of Saigon; see Operation Babylift), and J.J. married Zeke Brenner, her former boyfriend and Uncle Duke's former groundskeeper. Joanie married Rick Redfern, and they had a son, Jeff. Uncle Duke and Roland Hedley have also appeared often, frequently in more topical settings unconnected to the main characters. In more recent years the second generation has taken prominence as they have grown to college age: Jeff Redfern, Alex Doonesbury, Zonker's nephew Zipper Harris, and Uncle Duke's son Earl.
Controversial strips and groundbreaking moments
Doonesbury has covered numerous political and social issues, some of which were pioneering and others that drew criticism:
1970s
* A November 1972 Sunday strip depicting Zonker telling a little boy in a sandbox a fairy tale ending in the protagonist being awarded "his weight in fine, uncut Turkish hashish" raised an uproar.
* During the Watergate scandal, a strip showed Mark on the radio with a "Watergate profile" of John Mitchell, declaring him "Guilty! Guilty, guilty, guilty!!" A number of newspapers removed the strip and one, The Washington Post, ran an editorial criticizing the cartoon. Following Richard Nixon's death in 1994, the strip was rerun with all the instances of the word "guilty" crossed out and replaced with "flawed".
* In June 1973, the military newspaper Stars and Stripes dropped Doonesbury'' for being too political. The strip was quickly reinstated after hundreds of protests by military readers.
* September 1973: The Lincoln Journal became the first newspaper to move Doonesbury to its editorial page.
* In February 1976, a storyline included the character Andy Lippincott saying that he was gay. Dozens of papers opted not to publish the storyline, with Miami Herald editor Larry Jinks saying, "We just decided we weren't ready for homosexuality in a comic strip."
* In November 1976, when the storyline included the blossoming romance of Rick Redfern and Joanie Caucus, four days of strips were devoted to a transition from one apartment to another, ending with a view of the two together in bed, marking the first time any nationally run comic strip portrayed premarital sex in this fashion. The strip was removed from the comics pages of a number of newspapers, although some newspapers opted to simply repeat the opening frame of that day's strip.
* In June 1978, a strip included a coupon listing various politicians and dollar amounts allegedly taken from Korean lobbyists, to be clipped and glued to a postcard to be sent to the Speaker of the House Tip O'Neill, resulting in an overflow of mail to the Speaker's office.1980s* In 1985, a series of Doonesbury strips helped to repeal a 60-year-old discriminatory law in Palm Springs, in Orange County in Florida.
* In June 1985, a strip featuring Aniello Dellacroce and Frank Sinatra together, which referred to Dellacroce as an "alleged human" who has been charged with murder led to several papers dropping the strip and a statement from Sinatra.
*In December 1988, the Winston-Salem Journal dropped a Sunday strip featuring the R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company (in which a prospective executive cannot deny the link between smoking and cancer without bursting out laughing) because "it would be personally offensive to its employees." It was the first time the strip had been pulled in deference to a corporation.
* In June 1989, several days' comics (which had already been drawn and written) had to be replaced with repeats, because the humor of the strips was considered in bad taste in light of the violent crackdown on protesters in Tiananmen Square in Beijing. Trudeau himself asked for the recall, despite an interview published with Universal Press Syndicate Editorial Director Lee Salem in the May 28, 1989, San Jose Mercury News, in which Salem stated his hopes the strips could still be used.1990s* In November 1991, a series of strips appeared to give credibility to a real-life prison inmate who falsely stated that former Vice President Dan Quayle had connections with drug dealers. The strip sequence was dropped by some two dozen newspapers, in part because the allegations had been investigated and dispelled previously. Six years later, the reporter who broke the Quayle story, some weeks after the Doonesbury cartoons, later published a book saying he no longer believed the story had been true.
* In November 1993, a storyline dealing with California wildfires was dropped from several California newspapers, including the Los Angeles Times, The Orange County Register, and The San Diego Union-Tribune.
* In June 1994, the Roman Catholic Church took issue with a series of strips dealing with the book Same-Sex Unions in Pre-Modern Europe by John Boswell. A few newspapers dropped single strips from the series, and the Bloomington, Illinois, Pantagraph refused to run the entire series.
* In March 1995, John McCain denounced Trudeau on the floor of the Senate: "Suffice it to say that I hold Trudeau in utter contempt." This was in response to a strip about Bob Dole's strategy of exploiting his war record during his presidential campaign. The quotation was used on the cover of Trudeau's book Doonesbury Nation. McCain and Trudeau later made peace: McCain wrote the foreword to The Long Road Home, Trudeau's collection of comic strips dealing with character B.D.'s leg amputation during the second Iraq war.
* In February 1998, a strip dealing with Bill Clinton's sex scandal was removed from the comics pages of a number of newspapers because it included the phrases "oral sex" and "semen-streaked dress".
2000s
* In November 2000, a strip was not run in some newspapers when Duke said of presidential candidate George W. Bush: "He's got a history of alcohol abuse and cocaine."
* In September 2001, a strip perpetuated the Internet hoax that claimed George W. Bush had the lowest IQ of any president in the last 50 years, half that of Bill Clinton. When caught repeating the hoax, Trudeau apologized "with a trademark barb – he said he deeply apologized for unsettling anyone who thought the president quite intelligent."
* In 2003, a cartoon that publicized the recent medical research suggesting a connection between masturbation and a reduced risk of prostate cancer, with one character alluding to the practice as "self-dating", was not run in many papers; pre-publication sources indicated that as many as half of the 700 papers to which it was syndicated were planning not to run the strip.
* In February 2004, Trudeau used his strip to make the apparently genuine offer of $10,000 (to the USO in the winner's name) for anyone who could personally confirm that George W. Bush was actually present during any part of his service in the National Guard. Reuters and CNN reported by the end of that week that despite 1,300 responses, no credible evidence had been offered. An FAQ posted on the Doonesbury site in September of that year noted that the submissions, while "surreally entertaining", had failed to provide a single definitive corroborator, adding that Trudeau had donated the $10,000 to the USO anyway.
* April 2004: On April 21, after nearly 34 years, readers finally saw B.D.'s head without some sort of helmet. In the same strip, it was revealed that he had lost a leg in the Iraq War. Two days later, on April 23, after awakening and discovering his situation, B.D. exclaims "SON OF A BITCH!!!" The single strip was removed from many papers—including The Boston Globe—although in others, such as Newsday, the offending word was replaced by a line. The Dallas Morning News ran the cartoon uncensored, with a footnote that the editor believed profanity was appropriate, given the subject matter. An image of B.D. with an amputated leg also appeared on the cover of Rolling Stone that summer (issue 954).
* In June 2005, Trudeau published The Long Road Home, a book devoted to B.D.'s recovery from his loss of a leg in Iraq. Although Trudeau opposed the Iraq War, the foreword was written by Senator John McCain, a supporter of the war. McCain was impressed by Trudeau's desire to highlight the struggle of seriously wounded veterans, and his desire to assist them. Proceeds from the book, and its sequel The War Within benefited Fisher House.
* July 2005: Several newspapers declined to run two strips in which George W. Bush refers to his adviser Karl Rove as "Turd Blossom", a nickname Bush has been reported to use for Rove.
* In September 2005 when The Guardian relaunched in a smaller format, Doonesbury was dropped for reasons of space. After a flood of protests, the strip was reinstated with an omnibus covering the issues missed and a full apology.
* The strips scheduled to run from October 31 to November 5, 2005, and a Sunday strip scheduled for November 13 about the nomination of Harriet Miers to the Supreme Court were withdrawn after her nomination was withdrawn. The strips have been posted on the official website, and were replaced by re-runs by the syndicate.
* Trudeau sought input from readers as to where Alex Doonesbury should attend college in a May 15, 2006, straw poll at Doonesbury.com. Voters chose among MIT, Rensselaer, and Cornell. Students from Rensselaer and then MIT hacked the system, which was designed to limit each computer to one vote. In the end, voters logged 175,000 votes, with MIT grabbing 48% of the total. The Doonesbury Town Hall FAQ stated that given that the rules of the poll had not ruled out such methods, "the will, chutzpah, and bodacious craft of the voting public will be respected", declaring that Alex will be attending MIT.
* Before the 2008 presidential election, Trudeau sent out strips to run in the days after the election in which Barack Obama was portrayed as the winner. Newspapers were also provided with old strips as an alternative. In response, McCain spokesman Tucker Bounds said, "We hope the strip proves to be as predictive as it is consistently lame."
* In 2014, the site at doonesbury.com moved under washingtonpost.com, and now it redirects to the latter.
Criticism
When the strip became a success with its often seemingly static imagery where the essential action is entirely in the dialogue, veteran cartoonist Al Capp grudgingly admitted: “Anybody who can draw bad pictures of the White House four times in a row and succeed knows something I don’t. His style defies all measurement.”
Charles M. Schulz of Peanuts called Trudeau "unprofessional" for taking a long sabbatical. (See also, similar comments by Schulz about sabbaticals taken by Bill Watterson.) Nor was the return of the strip itself greeted with universal acclaim; in 1985, Saturday Review listed Trudeau as one of the country's "Most Overrated People in American Arts and Letters", commenting that the "most publicized return since MacArthur's has produced a strip that is predictable, mean-spirited, and not as funny as before."
Doonesbury has angered, irritated, or been rebuked by many of the political figures that have appeared or been referred to in the strip over the years. A 1984 series of strips showing Vice President George H. W. Bush placing his manhood in a blind trust—in parody of Bush's use of that financial instrument to fend off concerns that his governmental decisions would be influenced by his investment holdings—brought the politician to complain, "Doonesbury carrying water for the opposition. Trudeau is coming out of deep left field."
Some conservatives have intensely criticized Doonesbury. Several examples are cited in the Milestones section of the strip's website. The strip has also met criticism from its readers almost since it began syndicated publication. For example, when Lacey Davenport's husband Dick, in the last moments before his death, calls on God, several conservative pundits called the strip blasphemous. The sequence of Dick Davenport's final bird-watching and fatal heart attack was run in November 1986.
Liberal politicians skewered by Trudeau in the strip have also complained, including Democrats such as former U.S. House Speaker Tip O'Neill and California Governor Jerry Brown.
Strips about post-World War II American wars have also generated controversy, including Vietnam, Grenada, Panama and both Gulf Wars.
After many letter-writing campaigns demanding the removal of the strip were unsuccessful, conservatives changed their tactics, and instead of writing to newspaper editors, they began writing to one of the printers who prints the color Sunday comics. In 2005, Continental Features refused to continue printing the Sunday Doonesbury, causing it to disappear from the 38 Sunday papers that Continental Features printed. Of the 38, only one newspaper, The Anniston Star in Anniston, Alabama, continued to carry the Sunday Doonesbury, though of necessity in black and white.
Some newspapers have dealt with the criticism by moving the strip from the comics page to the editorial page, because many people believe that a politically based comic strip like Doonesbury does not belong in a traditionally child-friendly comics section. The Lincoln Journal started the trend in 1973. In some papers (such as the Tulsa World and Orlando Sentinel) Doonesbury appears on the opinions page alongside Mallard Fillmore, a politically conservative comic strip.
Awards and honors
* In 1975, the strip won Trudeau a Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning, the first strip cartoon to be so honored. The Editorial Cartoonists' Society subsequently passed a resolution condemning the Pulitzer Committee. (After being assured that the award was irrevocable, Trudeau supported the resolution.) Doonesbury was also a Nominated Pulitzer Finalist in 1990, 2004, and 2005.
* In 1977, the short film A Doonesbury Special won the Grand Jury Prize from the Cannes Film Festival. It was nominated for the Palme d'Or for "Best Short Film". It was also nominated for an Academy Award.
* Trudeau received Certificates of Achievement from the US Army 4th Battalion 67th Armor Regiment and the Ready First Brigade in 1991 for his comic strips dealing with the first Gulf War. The texts of these citations are quoted on the back of the comic strip collection Welcome to Club Scud!
* Trudeau won the Reuben Award from the National Cartoonists Society in 1995.
* Trudeau was awarded the US Army's Commander's Award for Public Service in 2006 for his series of strips about B.D.'s recovery following the loss of his leg in Iraq.
* In 2008, Trudeau received the Mental Health Research Advocacy Award from the Yale School of Medicine for his depiction of the mental-health issues facing soldiers upon returning home from the Afghanistan and Iraq wars.
* In 2020, Trudeau was inducted into the New York State Writers Hall of Fame.
See also
* List of published collections of Doonesbury
Notes
References
*
* Trudeau, Garry, Doonesbury Flashbacks CD-ROM for Microsoft Windows. Published by Mindscape, 1995.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051228043005/http://www.reuben.org/ncs/awards.asp NCS Awards]
External links
* [http://www.doonesbury.com/ Doonesbury home page]
* [https://gocomics.typepad.com/the_sandbox/ Doonesbury—The Sandbox-Military Blog]
* [http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,917981-10,00.html Doonesbury: Drawing and Quartering for Fun and Profit]—Time article from February 9, 1976
*
* Garry Trudeau Papers. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
Category:1970 comics debuts
Category:American comic strips
Category:American comics adapted into films
Category:American political satire
Category:Political satire comics
Category:Comics adapted into plays
Category:Comics characters introduced in 1970
Category:Comics controversies
Category:Fictional characters who break the fourth wall
Category:Fictional universities and colleges
Category:Comics about politics
Category:Obscenity controversies in comics
Category:Satirical comics
Category:GoComics
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Dice
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A die (: dice, sometimes also used as ) is a small, throwable object with marked sides that can rest in multiple positions. Dice are used for generating random values, commonly as part of tabletop games, including dice games, board games, role-playing games, and games of chance.
A traditional die is a cube with each of its six faces marked with a different number of dots (pips) from one to six. When thrown or rolled, the die comes to rest showing a random integer from one to six on its upper surface, with each value being equally likely. Dice may also have polyhedral or irregular shapes, may have faces marked with numerals or symbols instead of pips and may have their numbers carved out from the material of the dice instead of marked on it. Loaded dice are specifically designed or modified to favor some results over others for cheating or entertainment.
History
Dice have been used since before recorded history, and their origin is uncertain. It is hypothesized that dice developed from the practice of fortune-telling with the talus of hoofed animals, colloquially known as knucklebones. The Ancient Egyptian game of senet (played before 3000 BCE and up to the 2nd century CE) was played with flat two-sided throwsticks which indicated the number of squares a player could move, and thus functioned as a form of dice. Perhaps the oldest known dice were excavated as part of a backgammon-like game set at the Burnt City, an archeological site in south-eastern Iran, estimated to be from between 2800 and 2500 BCE. Bone dice from Skara Brae, Scotland have been dated to 3100–2400 BCE. Excavations from graves at Mohenjo-daro, an Indus Valley civilization settlement, unearthed terracotta dice dating to 2500–1900 BCE, including at least one die whose opposite sides all add up to seven, as in modern dice.
Games involving dice are mentioned in the ancient Indian Rigveda, Atharvaveda, Mahabharata and the Buddhist games list. Knucklebones was a game of skill played in ancient Greece; a derivative form had the four sides of bones receive different values like modern dice.
Although gambling was illegal, many Romans were passionate gamblers who enjoyed dicing, which was known as aleam ludere ("to play at dice"). There were two sizes of Roman dice. Tali were large dice inscribed with one, three, four, and six on four sides. Tesserae were smaller dice with sides numbered from one to six. Twenty-sided dice date back to the 2nd century CE and from Ptolemaic Egypt as early as the 2nd century BCE. The transition from dice to playing cards occurred in China around the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), and coincides with the technological transition from rolls of manuscripts to block printed books. In Japan, dice were used to play a popular game called sugoroku. There are two types of sugoroku. Ban-sugoroku is similar to backgammon and dates to the Heian period (794–1185 CE), while e-sugoroku is a racing game.
<gallery modepacked heights150px>
File:Knuck dice Steatite 37x27x21 mm.JPG|Knucklebones die, made of soapstone
File:Twenty-sided die (icosahedron) with faces inscribed with Greek letters MET 10.130.1158 001.jpg|Twenty-sided serpentinite die from Ptolemaic Egypt
File:Roman dice IMG 4367.JPG|Roman die
File:9BFE00 -roman lead die (FindID 103936).jpg|Composite image of all sides of a Roman die, found in Leicestershire, England
File:Wall painting - scenes around the pub - Pompeii (VI 14 35-36) - Napoli MAN 111482 - 04.jpg|Roman wall painting showing two dice-players, Pompeii, 1st century
File:historical dice.jpg|A collection of historical dice from various regions of Asia
File:Chinese dice from Late Yuan Dynasty to early Qing Dynasty.jpg|Chinese dice from Late Yuan Dynasty to early Qing Dynasty in Jiangyin Museum, China.
</gallery>
Use
Dice are thrown onto a surface either from the hand or from a container designed for this (such as a cup, tray, or tower). The face (or corner, in cases such as tetrahedral dice, or edge, for odd-numbered long dice) of the die that is uppermost when it comes to rest provides the value of the throw.
The result of a die roll is determined by the way it is thrown, according to the laws of classical mechanics (although luck is often credited for the results of a roll). A die roll is made random by uncertainty in minor factors such as tiny movements in the thrower's hand; they are thus a crude form of hardware random number generator.
One typical contemporary dice game is craps, where two dice are thrown simultaneously and wagers are made on the total value of the two dice. Dice are frequently used to introduce randomness into board games, where they are often used to decide the distance through which a piece will move along the board (as in backgammon and Monopoly).
Thrown or simulated dice are sometimes used to generate specific probability distributions, which are fundamental to probability theory. For example, rolling a single six-sided die yields a uniform distribution, where each number from 1 to 6 has an equal chance of appearing. However, when rolling two dice and summing the results, the probability distribution shifts, as some sums (like 7) become more likely than others (like 2 or 12). These distributions can model real-world scenarios or mathematical constructs, making dice a practical tool for teaching and exploring concepts in probability theory.
Construction
Arrangement
of dice. Faces may be placed counterclockwise (top) or clockwise.]]
Common dice are small cubes, most often across, whose faces are numbered from one to six, usually by patterns of round dots called pips. (While the use of Arabic numerals is occasionally seen, such dice are less common.)
Opposite sides of a modern die traditionally add up to seven, requiring the 1, 2, and 3 faces to share a vertex. The faces of a die may be placed clockwise or counterclockwise about this vertex. If the 1, 2, and 3 faces run counterclockwise, the die is called "right-handed". If those faces run clockwise, the die is called "left-handed". Western dice are normally right-handed, and Chinese dice are normally left-handed.
The pips on standard six-sided dice are arranged in specific patterns as shown. Asian style dice bear similar patterns to Western ones, but the pips are closer to the center of the face; in addition, the pips are differently sized on Asian style dice, and the pips are colored red on the 1 and 4 sides. Red fours may be of Indian origin.
<gallery mode=packed>
File:Die Faces.svg|Typical facets showing the more compact pip arrangement of an Asian-style die (top) vs. a Western-style die (bottom)
</gallery>
Manufacturing
In general, dice are classified as either precision or non-precision. Precision dice (also known as perfect or gambling house dice) are used in casinos, while non-precision dice (also known as drugstore or candystore dice) are sold with social and board games. These types are easily distinguished with visual and tactile differences; precision dice generally are larger, translucent, and have flush markings, sharp corners and edges, while non-precision dice generally are smaller, opaque, and have recessed markings, rounded corners and edges.
The coloring for numbering is achieved by submerging the die entirely in paint, which is allowed to dry. The die is then polished via a tumble finishing process similar to rock polishing. The abrasive agent scrapes off all of the paint except for the indents of the numbering. A finer abrasive is then used to polish the die. This process also produces the smoother, rounded edges on the dice.
are made from translucent red cellulose acetate and flush pips.]]
Precision dice are generally made from bars of extruded cellulose acetate, sawed to the proper length to ensure that each face is as square as practical, generally with edges in length, with pips drilled deep and filled with opaque paint or epoxy which matches the density of cellulose, ensuring the dice remain balanced. The dice are buffed and polished to a gloss or sand finish after the pips are set, and the edges usually are left sharp, also called square or razor edge, although beveled or rounded edges, if performed evenly and consistently for each edge, are acceptable. Local regulations and the intended game may affect the allowable dimensions and tolerances; for example, New Jersey specifies the maximum size of a die is on a side, except for the dice used in pai gow, which range from on a side.
Precision backgammon dice are made the same way and also feature pips flush with the surface of each face; they tend to be slightly smaller and have rounded corners and edges, to allow better movement inside the dice cup and stop forceful rolls from damaging the playing surface.Etymology and termsThe word die comes from Old French dé; from Latin datum "something which is given or played".
While the terms ace, deuce, trey, cater, cinque and sice are generally obsolete, with the names of the numbers preferred, they are still used by some professional gamblers to designate different sides of the dice. Ace is from the Latin as, meaning "a unit"; the others are 2 to 6 in Old French.
When rolling two dice, certain combinations have slang names. The term snake eyes is a roll of one pip on each die. The Online Etymology Dictionary traces use of the term as far back as 1919.
The US term boxcars, also known as midnight, is a roll of six pips on each die. The pair of six pips resembles a pair of boxcars on a freight train. Many rolls have names in the game of craps.
Unicode representation
{| class=wikitable
|-
! Symbol
| style="font-size:250%" | ⚀
| style="font-size:250%" | ⚁
| style="font-size:250%" | ⚂
| style="font-size:250%" | ⚃
| style="font-size:250%" | ⚄
| style="font-size:250%" | ⚅
| style="font-size:250%" | 🎲
|-
! Unicode
| U+2680
| U+2681
| U+2682
| U+2683
| U+2684
| U+2685
| U+1F3B2
|-
! Decimal
| <nowiki>⚀</nowiki>
| <nowiki>⚁</nowiki>
| <nowiki>⚂</nowiki>
| <nowiki>⚃</nowiki>
| <nowiki>⚄</nowiki>
| <nowiki>⚅</nowiki>
| <nowiki>🎲</nowiki>
|}
Using Unicode characters, the faces can be shown in text using the range U+2680 to U+2685 or using decimal <code>⚀</code> to <code>⚅</code>, and the emoji using U+1F3B2 or <code>🎲</code> from the Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs block.
Loaded dice
A loaded, weighted, cheat, or crooked die is one that has been tampered with so that it will land with a specific side facing upwards more often or less often than a fair die would. There are several methods for making loaded dice, including rounded faces, off-square faces, and weights. Casinos and gambling halls frequently use transparent cellulose acetate dice, as tampering is easier to detect than with opaque dice.VariantsPolyhedral dice
Various shapes such as two-sided or four-sided dice are documented in archaeological findings; for example, from Ancient Egypt and the Middle East. While the cubical six-sided die became the most common type in many parts of the world, other shapes were always known, like 20-sided dice in Ptolemaic and Roman times.
The modern tradition of using sets of polyhedral dice started around the end of the 1960s when non-cubical dice became popular among players of wargames, and since have been employed extensively in role-playing games and trading card games. Dice using both the numerals 6 and 9, which are reciprocally symmetric through rotation, typically distinguish them with a dot or underline.
Some twenty-sided dice have a different arrangement used for the purpose of keeping track of an integer that counts down, such as health points. These spindown dice are arranged such that adjacent integers appear on adjacent faces, allowing the user to easily find the next lower number. They are commonly used with collectible card games.
Common variations
Isohedron}}
Dice are often sold in sets, matching in color, of six different shapes. Five of the dice are shaped like the Platonic solids, whose faces are regular polygons. Aside from the cube, the other four Platonic solids have 4, 8, 12, and 20 faces, allowing for those number ranges to be generated. The only other common non-cubical die is the 10-sided die, a pentagonal trapezohedron die, whose faces are ten kites, each with two different edge lengths, three different angles, and two different kinds of vertices.
Unlike other common dice, a four-sided (tetrahedral) die does not have a side that faces upward when it is at rest on a surface, so it must be read in a different way. On some four-sided dice, each face features multiple numbers, with the same number printed near each vertex on all sides. In this case, the number around the vertex pointing up is used. Alternatively, the numbers on a tetrahedral die can be placed at the middle of the edges, in which case the numbers around the base are used.
Normally, the faces on a die will be placed so opposite faces will add up to one more than the number of faces. (This is not possible with 4-sided dice and dice with an odd number of faces.) Some dice, such as those with 10 sides, are usually numbered sequentially beginning with 0, in which case the opposite faces will add to one less than the number of faces.
Using these dice in various ways, games can closely approximate a variety of probability distributions. The percentile dice system is used to produce a uniform distribution of random percentages, and summing the values of multiple dice will produce approximations to normal distributions.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Faces/sides
! colspan="2" | Shape
! Notes
|-
| 4 || Tetrahedron ||
| Each face has three numbers, arranged such that the upright number, placed either near the vertex or near the opposite edge, is the same on all three visible faces. The upright numbers represent the value of the roll. This die does not roll well and thus is usually thrown into the air instead.
|-
| 6 || Cube ||
| The most common variation of die. The sum of the numbers on opposite faces is 7.
|-
| 8 || Octahedron ||
| Each face is triangular and the die resembles two square pyramids attached base-to-base. Usually, the sum of the opposite faces is 9.
|-
| 10 || Pentagonal trapezohedron ||
| Each face is a kite. The die has two sharp corners, where five kites meet, and ten blunter corners, where three kites meet. Often, all odd numbered faces converge at one sharp corner, and the even ones at the other. The 10-sided die is usually numbered 0–9, though the 0 can also be read as a 10.
|-
| 12 || Dodecahedron ||
| Each face is a regular pentagon. The sum of the numbers on opposite faces is usually 13.
|-
| 20 || Icosahedron ||
| Faces are equilateral triangles. Icosahedra have been found dating to Roman/Ptolemaic times, but it is not known if they were used as gaming dice. Modern dice with 20 sides are sometimes numbered 0–9 twice as an alternative to 10-sided dice. The sum of the numbers on opposite faces is 21 if numbered 1–20.
|}
Rarer variations
"Uniform fair dice" are dice where all faces have an equal probability of outcome due to the symmetry of the die as it is face-transitive. In addition to the Platonic solids, these theoretically include:
* Catalan solids, the duals of the 13 Archimedean solids: 12, 24, 30, 48, 60, 120 sides
* Trapezohedra, the duals of the infinite set of antiprisms, with kite faces: any even number not divisible by 4 (so that a face will face up), starting from 6
* Bipyramids, the duals of the infinite set of prisms, with triangle faces: any multiple of 4 (so that a face will face up), starting from 8
* Disphenoids, an infinite set of tetrahedra made from congruent non-regular triangles: 4 sides. This is a less symmetric tetrahedron than the Platonic tetrahedron but still sufficiently symmetrical to be face-transitive. Similarly, pyritohedra and tetartoids are less symmetrical but still face-transitive dodecahedra: 12 sides.
Two other types of polyhedra are technically not face-transitive but are still fair dice due to symmetry:
* antiprisms: the basis of barrel dice
* prisms: the basis of long dice and teetotums
Long dice and teetotums can, in principle, be made with any number of faces, including odd numbers. Long dice are based on the infinite set of prisms. All the rectangular faces are mutually face-transitive, so they are equally probable. The two ends of the prism may be rounded or capped with a pyramid, designed so that the die cannot rest on those faces. 4-sided long dice are easier to roll than tetrahedra and are used in the traditional board games dayakattai and daldøs.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Faces/sides
! Shape
! Image
! Notes
|-
| 1
| Möbius strip or sphere
|
| Most commonly a joke die, this is either a sphere with a 1 marked on it or shaped like a Möbius strip. It entirely defies the aforementioned use of a die.
|-
| 2
| Flat Cylinder or Flat Prism
|
| A coin flip. Some coins with 1 marked on one side and 2 on the other are available, but most simply use a common coin.
|-
| 3
| Rounded-off triangular prism
|
| A long die intended to be rolled lengthwise. When the die is rolled, one edge (rather than a side) appears facing upwards. On either side of each edge the same number is printed (from 1 to 3). The numbers on either side of the up-facing edge are read as the result of the die roll.
|-
| 4
| Capped 4-sided long die
|
| A long die intended to be rolled lengthwise. It cannot stand on end as the ends are capped.
|-
| rowspan=3 | 5
|-
| Triangular prism
|
| A prism thin enough to land either on its "edge" or "face". When landing on an edge, the result is displayed by digits (2–4) close to the prism's top edge - similar to a 4-sided die. The triangular faces are labeled with the digits 1 and 5.
|-
| Capped 5-sided long die
|
| Five-faced long die for the Korean Game of Dignitaries; notches indicating values are cut into the edges, since in an odd-faced long die these land uppermost.
|-
| 6
| Capped 6-sided long die
|
| Two six-faced long dice are used to simulate the activity of scoring runs and taking wickets in the game of cricket. Originally played with labeled six-sided pencils, and often referred to as pencil cricket.
|-
| rowspan=2 | 7
| Pentagonal prism
|
| Similar in constitution to the 5-sided die. Seven-sided dice are used in a seven-player variant of backgammon. Seven-sided dice are described in the 13th century as having been invented by Alfonso X in order to speed up play in chess variants.
|-
| Truncated sphere
|
| A truncated sphere with seven landing positions.
|-
| 9
| Truncated sphere
|
| A truncated sphere with nine landing positions.
|-
| 10
| Decahedron
|
| A ten-sided die made by truncating two opposite vertices of an octahedron.
|-
| 11
| Truncated sphere
|
| A truncated sphere with eleven landing positions.
|-
| 12
| Rhombic dodecahedron
|
| Each face is a rhombus.
|-
| 13
| Truncated sphere
|
| A truncated sphere with thirteen landing positions.
|-
| rowspan=3 | 14
| Heptagonal trapezohedron
|
| Each face is a kite.
|-
| Truncated octahedron
|
| A truncated octahedron. Each face is either a square or a hexagon.
|-
| Truncated sphere
|
| A truncated sphere with fourteen landing positions. The design is based on the cuboctahedron.
|-
| 15
| Truncated sphere
|
| A truncated sphere with fifteen landing positions.
|-
| 16
| Octagonal bipyramid
|
| Each face is an isosceles triangle.
|-
| 17
| Truncated sphere
|
| A truncated sphere with seventeen landing positions.
|-
| 18
| Rounded rhombicuboctahedron
|
| Eighteen faces are squares. The eight triangular faces are rounded and cannot be landed on.
|-
| 19
| Truncated sphere
|
| A truncated sphere with nineteen landing positions.
|-
| 21
| Truncated sphere
|
| A truncated sphere with twenty-one landing positions.
|-
| 22
| Truncated sphere
|
| A truncated sphere with twenty-two landing positions.
|-
| rowspan=5 | 24
| Triakis octahedron
|
| Each face is an isosceles triangle.
|-
| Tetrakis hexahedron
|
| Each face is an isosceles triangle.
|-
| Deltoidal icositetrahedron
|
| Each face is a kite.
|-
| Pseudo-deltoidal icositetrahedron
|
| Each face is a kite.
|-
| Pentagonal icositetrahedron
|
| Each face is an irregular pentagon.
|-
| 26
| Truncated sphere
|
| A truncated sphere with twenty-six landing positions.
|-
| 28
| Truncated sphere
|
| A truncated sphere with twenty-eight landing positions.
|-
| 30
| Rhombic triacontahedron
|
| Each face is a rhombus.
|-
| 32
| Truncated sphere
|
| A truncated sphere with thirty-two landing positions. The design is similar to that of a truncated icosahedron.
|-
| 34
| Heptadecagonal trapezohedron
|
| Each face is a kite.
|-
| 36
| Truncated sphere
|
| A truncated sphere with thirty-six landing positions. Rows of spots are present above and below each number 1 through 36 so that this die can be used to roll two six-sided dice simultaneously.
|-
| 48
| Disdyakis dodecahedron
|
| Each face is a scalene triangle.
|-
| 50
| Icosipentagonal trapezohedron
|
| Each face is a kite.
|-
| rowspan=4 | 60
| Deltoidal hexecontahedron
|
| Each face is a kite.
|-
| Pentakis dodecahedron
|
| Each face is an isosceles triangle.
|-
| Pentagonal hexecontahedron
|
| Each face is an irregular pentagon.
|-
| Triakis icosahedron
|
| Each face is an isosceles triangle.
|-
| 100
| Zocchihedron
|
| A sphere containing another sphere with 100 facets flattened into it. Note that this design is not isohedral; it does not function as a uniform fair die as some results are more likely than others.
|-
| 120
| Disdyakis triacontahedron
|
| Each face is a scalene triangle.
|}
Non-numeric dice
]]
The faces of most dice are labelled using sequences of whole numbers, usually starting at one, expressed with either pips or digits. However, there are some applications that require results other than numbers. Examples include letters for Boggle, directions for Warhammer, Fudge dice, playing card symbols for poker dice, and instructions for sexual acts using sex dice.
Alternatively-numbered dice
Dice may have numbers that do not form a counting sequence starting at one. One variation on the standard die is known as the "average" die. These are six-sided dice with sides numbered <code>2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5</code>, which have the same arithmetic mean as a standard die (3.5 for a single die, 7 for a pair of dice), but have a narrower range of possible values (2 through 5 for one, 4 through 10 for a pair). They are used in some table-top wargames, where a narrower range of numbers is required.
Dice can be used for divination and using dice for such a purpose is called cleromancy. A pair of common dice is usual, though other forms of polyhedra can be used. Tibetan Buddhists sometimes use this method of divination. It is highly likely that the Pythagoreans used the Platonic solids as dice. They referred to such dice as "the dice of the gods" and they sought to understand the universe through an understanding of geometry in polyhedra.
Polyhedral dice are commonly used in role-playing games. The fantasy role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons (D&D) is largely credited with popularizing dice in such games. Some games use only one type, like Exalted which uses only ten-sided dice. Others use numerous types for different game purposes, such as D&D, which makes use of all common polyhedral dice. Dice are usually used to determine the outcome of events. Games typically determine results either as a total on one or more dice above or below a fixed number, or a certain number of rolls above a certain number on one or more dice. Due to circumstances or character skill, the initial roll may have a number added to or subtracted from the final result, or have the player roll extra or fewer dice. To keep track of rolls easily, dice notation is frequently used.
Astrological dice are a specialized set of three 12-sided dice for divination; the first die represents the planets, the Sun, the Moon, and the nodes of the Moon, the second die represents the 12 zodiac signs, and the third represents the 12 houses. A specialized icosahedron die provides the answers of the Magic 8 Ball, conventionally used to provide answers to yes-or-no questions.
Dice can be used to generate random numbers for use in passwords and cryptography applications. The Electronic Frontier Foundation describes a method by which dice can be used to generate passphrases. Diceware is a method recommended for generating secure but memorable passphrases, by repeatedly rolling five dice and picking the corresponding word from a pre-generated list.Notation
In many gaming contexts, especially tabletop role-playing games, shorthand notations are used to differentiate between different types of dice. The most commonly-used notation, considered the standard, is written as . In this expression, is the number of sides on on dice and is the number of rolls; if there is only one roll, the is omitted. As an illustration, the d20 (twenty-sided dice) is to Dungeons & Dragons what the d6 (six-sided dice) is to many board games. Monopoly uses 2d6 rolls (the total value of two six-sided dice) to determine player movement.
The notation also allows for adding or subtracting a constant amount c to the roll. When an amount is added, the notation is . For example, "3d6+4" instructs the player to roll three six-sided dice, calculate the total, and add four to it. When an amount is to be subtracted, the notation is . Thus, "3d6−4" instructs the player to subtract four from the total value of three six-sided dice. The notation is also sometimes used, with the modifier "L" (or less commonly "H") representing the lowest amount (or highest amount) of each roll combined. For instance, 4d6−L instructs the player to sum up the total of four six-sided dice and subtract the lowest value. If the result of a modified dice roll is negative, it is often taken to be zero or one; for instance, when the dice roll determines the amount of damage to a creature.
Role-playing sets and the percentile dice
A role-playing dice set typically come with seven dice: one each of d4, d6, d8, d12 and d20, and two d10, one labeled 0–9 and the other labeled in tens from 00–90; these two together are percentile dice. In standard dice notation, the percentile dice can be expressed as either "d100" or "d%".
A d100 roll is typically treated like a 2d10 roll, using both decahedral dice together. Adding the numbers showing gives a random number from 0 to 99; 0+00 can be read as either zero or 100.
The zocchihedron was invented as an alternative to the percentile dice. Unlike the percentile dice, the zocchihedron is a true d100 die, though no single die of 100 sides can be as consistently fair.
See also
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
References
Bibliography
* Diaconis, Persi; and Keller, Joseph B.; [http://www-stat.stanford.edu/~cgates/PERSI/papers/fairdice.pdf "Fair Dice"], , The American Mathematical Monthly, 96(4):337–339, 1989 (Discussion of dice that are fair "by symmetry" and "by continuity".)
* Iverson, G. R.; Longcour, W. H.; et al.; Bias and Runs in Dice Throwing and Recording: A Few Million Throws, Psychometrika, vol. 36, no. 1, March 1971
* Knizia, Reiner, Dice Games Properly Explained, Elliot Right Way Books, 1999,
External links
* analysis of dice probabilities, also featuring Uspenski's work on rolling multiple dice
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Gaming devices
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dice
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Dumpster diving
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]]
Dumpster diving (also totting, skipping, skip diving or skip salvage) is salvaging from large commercial, residential, industrial and construction containers for unused items discarded by their owners but deemed useful to the picker. It is not confined to dumpsters and skips specifically and may cover standard household waste containers, curb sides, landfills or small dumps.
Different terms are used to refer to different forms of this activity. For picking materials from the curbside trash collection, expressions such as curb shopping, trash picking or street scavenging are sometimes used. In the UK, if someone is primarily seeking recyclable metal, they are scrapping, and if they are picking the leftover food from farming left in the fields, they are gleaning.
People dumpster dive for items such as clothing, furniture, food, and similar items in good working condition. Some people do this out of necessity due to poverty;
Etymology
<!-- Please cite alternative terms with a reliable source -->
The term "dumpster diving" emerged in the 1980s, combining "diving" with "dumpster", a large commercial trash bin. The term "Dumpster" itself comes from the Dempster Dumpster, a brand of bins manufactured by Dempster Brothers beginning in 1937. "Dumpster" became genericized by the 1970s. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term "dumpster diving" is chiefly found in American English and first appeared in print in 1983, with the verb "dumpster-dive" appearing a few years later.
Alternative names for the practice include bin-diving, containering, D-mart, dumpstering, totting, In Australia, garbage picking is called "skip dipping." Some are scammers seeking for receipts to use in committing return fraud.
The karung guni, Zabbaleen, the rag and bone man, waste picker, junk man or bin hoker are terms for people who make their living by sorting and trading trash. A similar process known as gleaning was practised in rural areas and some ancient agricultural societies, where the residue from farmers' fields was collected.
Some dumpster divers, who self-identify as freegans, aim to reduce their ecological footprint by living from dumpster-dived-goods,
Students have been known to partake in dumpster diving to obtain high tech items for technical projects, or simply to indulge their curiosity for unusual items. Dumpster diving can additionally be used in support of academic research. Garbage picking serves as the main tool for garbologists, who study the sociology and archeology of trash in modern life. Private and government investigators may pick through garbage to obtain information for their inquiries. Illegal cigarette consumption may be deduced from discarded packages.
Dumpster diving can be hazardous, due to potential exposure to biohazardous matter, broken glass, and overall unsanitary conditions that may exist in dumpsters.
Arguments against garbage picking often focus on the health and cleanliness implications of people rummaging in trash. This exposes the dumpster divers to potential health risks, and, especially if the dumpster diver does not return the non-usable items to their previous location, may leave trash scattered around. Divers can also be seriously injured or killed by garbage collection vehicles; in January 2012, in La Jolla, Swiss-American man Alfonso de Bourbon was killed by a truck while dumpster diving. Dumpster diving with criminal intentions (Garbage theft) The unauthorized taking of materials from a dumpster or other waste disposal container is commonly referred to as "garbage theft". Dumpster diving is a different idiom. Due to the typical low value of the stolen goods, garbage theft is not typically recognized as a serious crime, with laws against it frequently focusing on combating identity theft instead. Depending on the state or nation's rules surrounding low-level crime, garbage theft may be considered a form of petty theft and subject to a penalty that often entails a brief period of incarceration, a modest fine, or both. As a privacy violation, discarded medical records as trash led to a $140,000 penalty against Massachusetts billing company Goldthwait Associates and a group of pathology offices in 2013 and a $400,000 settlement between Midwest Women's Healthcare Specialists and 1,532 clients in Kansas City in 2014.
Identity theft has historically been carried out through garbage theft, with thieves utilizing bank and credit card statements discovered in trash to assume the identity of a victim or access their credit.
Criminals have been known to dumpster dive for cash receipts as part of a scheme to steal items and return them for cash, a form of return fraud known as "shoplisting." Police investigating shoplifting in Bellingham, Washington, found dozens of receipts from retailers such as The Home Depot, Rite Aid and Fred Meyer, along with a list of items on the receipts. Suspects believed to have taken receipts from trash receptacles near Walmart locations were arrested for return fraud in 2016 in Madison, Wisconsin. Legal status Since dumpsters are usually located on private premises, divers may occasionally get in trouble for trespassing while dumpster diving, though the law is enforced with varying degrees of rigor. Canada In Ontario, Canada, the Trespass to Property Act—legislation dating back to the British North America Act 1867 Similar laws exist in Prince Edward Island and Saskatchewan. A recent case in Canada, which involved a police officer who retrieved a discarded weapon from a trash receptacle as evidence, created some controversy. The judge ruled the policeman's actions as legal although there was no warrant present, which led some to speculate the event as validation for any Canadian citizen to raid garbage disposals.
United Kingdom
Skipping in England and Wales may qualify as theft within the Theft Act 1968 or as common-law theft in Scotland, though there is very little enforcement in practice.
Germany
In Germany, dumpster diving is referred to as "containern", and a waste container's contents are regarded as the property of the container's owner. Therefore, taking items from such a container is viewed as theft. However, the police will routinely disregard the illegality of garbage picking since the items found are generally of low value. There has only been one known instance where people were prosecuted. In 2009 individuals were arrested on assumed burglary as they had surmounted a supermarket's fence which was then followed by a theft complaint by the owner; the case was suspended. United States In the United States, the fourth amendment protects against certain searches by the government without a warrant. The 1988 California v. Greenwood case in the U.S. Supreme Court held that there is no common law expectation of privacy for discarded materials, and that therefore the police did not require a warrant to search through trash.
There are, however, limits to what can legally be taken from a company's refuse. In a 1983 Minnesota case involving the theft of customer lists from a garbage can, Tennant Company v. Advance Machine Company (355 N.W.2d 720), the owner of the discarded information was awarded $500,000 in damages.
Items
, Sweden]]
Dumpster diving is practiced differently in developed countries than in developing countries.
* Food. In many developing countries, food is rarely thrown away unless it is rotten as food is scarce in comparison to developed nations. In countries like the United States, where 40 to 50 percent of food is wasted, the trash contains a lot more food to gather. In many countries, charities collect excess food from supermarkets and restaurants and distribute it to impoverished neighbourhoods. Trash pickers, Karung guni, Zabaleen, and rag and bone men in these countries may concentrate on looking for usable items or scrap materials to sell rather than food items. In the United States, Canada, and Europe, some bakeries, grocery stores, or restaurants will routinely donate food according to a Good Samaritan Food Donation Act, but more often, because of health laws or company policy, they are required to discard food items by the expiration date, because of overstock, being overly ripened, spoiled, cosmetically imperfect, or blemished.
* Books and periodicals. As proof to publishing houses of unsold merchandise, booksellers will routinely remove the front covers of printed materials to render them destroyed prior to disposing of their remains in the garbage. Though readable, many damaged publications have disclaimers and legal notices against their existence or sale.
* Irregular or damaged goods. Offices, factories, department stores, and other commercial establishments may equally throw out non-perishable items that are irregular, were returned, have minor damages, or are replaced by newer inventory. Many items tend to be in such a state of disrepair or cosmetically flawed that they will require some work to make the items functionally usable. For this reason, employees will at times intentionally destroy their items prior to being discarded to prevent them from being reused or resold.
* Returned items. Manufacturers often find it cheaper to routinely discard items returned as defective under warranty instead of repairing them, although a device is often repairable or usable as a source of spare parts to repair other, similar discarded devices.
* School supplies. At the end of each school year many perfectly useful supplies like pencils, pens, notebooks and art supplies are thrown away.
* Electronic waste. Some consumer electronics are dumped because of their rapid depreciation, obsolescence, cost to repair, or expense to upgrade. Owners of functional computers may find it easier to dump them rather than donate because many nonprofit organizations and schools are unable, or unwilling, to work with used equipment. Occasionally, vendors dispose of unsaleable, non-defective new merchandise as landfill. The Atari video game burial in Alamogordo, New Mexico, after the video game crash of 1983 is a well-known example; a 2014 excavation recovered about 1300 games for curation as museum exhibits or auction.
.]]
* Clothing. While thrift stores routinely refuse used goods which they cannot cheaply and easily resell, the items which they do accept cost them nothing. There is therefore no shrinkage cost associated with discarding mendable garments, repairable appliances or even working donated items which are overstock or find no buyer after some arbitrary length of time.
* Metal. Sometimes waste may contain recyclable metals and materials that can be reused or sold to recycling plants and scrap yards. The most common recyclable metals found are steel and aluminum.
* Wood. Called urban lumberjacking, to salvage wood either for home heating, or home construction projects.
* Empty cans and bottles. Several countries, particularly in Northern Europe have enforced a system in which empty cans and bottles can be returned to stores for money. Usually the amount received per can/bottle is relatively low, so many simply discard them in dumpsters.
* Personal Information: cyber attackers may engage in dumpster diving to gather sensitive data, including IP addresses, bank account details, and Social Security numbers, by sifting through discarded mail or retrieving items disposed of in bins. Moreover, perpetrators may endeavor to broaden their contact databases by resorting to dumpster diving at corporate premises, aiming to obtain access to confidential and sensitive data, including phone lists or records.
Other sources
* Residential buildings. Clothing, furniture, appliances, and other housewares may be found at residential buildings.
* College dormitories. Items may be found at colleges with dormitories at the end of the semester when students throw away many items such as furniture, clothes and electronics.
Notable instances
In the 1960s, Jerry Schneider, using recovered instruction manuals from The Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Company, used the company's own procedures to acquire hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of telephone equipment over several years until his arrest.
The Castle Infinity videogame, after its shutdown in 2005, was brought back from the dead by a fan rescuing its servers from the trash.
In October 2013, in North London, three men were arrested and charged under the 1824 Vagrancy Act when they were caught taking discarded food: tomatoes, mushrooms, cheese and cakes from bins behind an Iceland supermarket. The charges were dropped on 29 January 2014 after much public criticism as well as a request by Iceland's chief executive, Malcolm Walker.
In 1996, the source code for the Atari 7800 was discovered in the dumpster of the Atari office when the company closed.
In popular culture
Books
* Author John Hoffman wrote two books based on his own dumpster-diving exploits: The Art and Science of Dumpster Diving (1993; ) and ''Dumpster Diving: The Advanced Course: How to Turn Other People's Trash into Money, Publicity, and Power (2002; ), and was featured in the documentary DVD The Ultimate Dive, which was directed by Suzanne Girot and described by the Internet Movie Database as a "Tongue-in-cheek how-to film on the art and science of dumpster diving."
* In 2001, dumpster diving was popularized in the book Evasion, published by CrimethInc.
* In Kim Stanley Robinson's science fiction novel Fifty Degrees Below (2005), the character Frank Vanderwal joins, for a time, a group of freegans (referred to as "fregans" in the novel) who frequently prepare feasts culled from dumpsters; kind-hearted restaurateurs aid them by setting aside foods which have not been touched by the public.
* Jeff Ferrell, Professor of Sociology at Texas Christian University, is the author of Empire of Scrounge: Inside the Urban Underground of Dumpster Diving, Trash Picking, and Street Scavenging (2005; ).
* Cory Doctorow integrated garbage picking characters into the plots of his novels Someone Comes to Town, Someone Leaves Town and Pirate Cinema.
* David Boarder Gilles' [https://www.dukeupress.edu/a-mass-conspiracy-to-feed-people A Mass Conspiracy to Feed People: Food Not Bombs and the World-class Waste of Global Cities] (2021) is an ethnography of this global movement of grassroots soup kitchens that recover wasted grocery surpluses and redistribute them to those in need.
Television programs
* British television shows have featured home renovations and decoration using salvaged materials. Changing Rooms (1996–2004) is one such show, broadcast on BBC One.
* TLC's Extreme Cheapskates and Extreme Couponing featured people who regularly dumpster dive to avoid spending money on different items—in the case of the latter, unwanted newspapers and newspaper inserts containing coupons were the subject of dumpster diving. Films * Surfing the Waste: A Musical Documentary About Dumpster Diving, a film by Paul Aflalo, Sandra Lombardi and Tomoe Yoshihara, with music composed by Alden Penner and Nic Boshart.
* ''Dumpster Wars: Reno's Trash Politics'' (2008)
* I Love Trash (2007), a 30-minute documentary by David Brown and Greg Mann. OCLC's WorldCat provided a synopsis: "I Love Trash is a documentary about the art of dumpster diving. Starting with an empty apartment, only the clothes they were wearing and a flashlight, David and Greg find everything they might otherwise buy, in trash cans and dumpsters. All their food, clothes, electronics, art materials and entertainment, all out of the trash." Accolades: Skyfest Film and Script Festival, (won 2nd place for Documentary Films); and Lake Michigan Film Competition, (won 3rd place for Documentary films).
* The 2010 documentary film Dive!, a short documentary written and directed by Jeremy Seifert, investigates dumpster diving in the Los Angeles area. Dive! premiered in October 2009 at the Gig Harbor Film Festival, where it won the Audience Choice Award. It has gone on to win awards at many other film festivals, including Best Documentary at the DC Independent Film Festival and Best Film at the Dutch Environmental Film Festival.
* Spoils: Extraordinary Harvest. A short film/mystery film and documentary by Alex Mallis. (2012) Accolades: Official Selection, New Orleans Film Festival. Official Selection, Independent Film Festival of Boston. Official Selection, DOC NYC.
* The Leftovers: A Documentary about People Who Eat Trash (2008), a 28-minute Swedish documentary by Michael Cavanagh and Kerstin Übelacker. Mykel Bently, Paul Hood, Krystal Trickey, Nick Gill, and Sofia Arborelius (the latter two were exchange students) joined for this dumpster diver adventure.
* From Dumpster To Dinner Plate (2011), an award-winning New Zealand short documentary directed by Vanessa Hudson. "As the cost of food reaches record highs an underground movement of dumpster divers is rapidly gaining momentum fuelled by consumers who are forced to find creative ways to feed themselves." See also
References
Further reading
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* Art and Science of Dumpster Diving by John Hoffman;
* Dumpster Diving: The Advanced Course by John Hoffman (brings dumpster diving into the computer era) Paladin Press 2002;
* Evasion, (2003), CrimethInc. Far East, an autobiography detailing one anarchist's shoplifting- and dumpster-diving-supported travels.
* Mongo: Adventures in Trash by Ted Botha;
* Encyclopedia of Garbage by Steve Coffel, William L. Rathje;
*
External links
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Category:Poverty
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Digital synthesizer
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performing with a digital synth]]
A digital synthesizer is a synthesizer that uses digital signal processing (DSP) techniques to make musical sounds, in contrast to older analog synthesizers, which produce music using analog electronics, and samplers, which play back digital recordings of acoustic, electric, or electronic instruments. Some digital synthesizers emulate analog synthesizers, while others include sampling capability in addition to digital synthesis.
History
The very earliest digital synthesis experiments were made with computers, as part of academic research into sound generation.
In 1957, the first programming language for computer music, MUSIC, was developed by Max Mathews on an IBM 704 at Bell Labs in 1957. It generates digital audio waveforms through direct synthesis.
MUSYS-3 (1970) (based on )]]
, EMS MUSYS 3 system was developed by Peter Grogono (software), David Cockerell (hardware and interfacing) and Peter Zinovieff (system design and operation) at their London (Putney) Studio. The system ran on two mini-computers, Digital Equipment PDP-8's. These had a pair of fast D/A and A/D converters, 12,000 (12k) bytes of core memory (RAM), backed up by a hard drive of 32k and by tape storage (DecTape). <!-- EMS equipment was used to control the world's first digital studio (EMS London (Putney) Studio), and their --> The earliest digital sampling was done on that system during 1971–1972 for Harrison Birtwistle's "Chronometer" released in 1975.
In 1972–1974, Dartmouth Digital Synthesizer was developed by Dartmouth College Professors Jon Appleton and Frederick J. Hooven, in association with NED co-founders Sydney A. Alonso and Cameron W. Jones.
In 1977, Bell Labs Digital Synthesizer was developed by Hal Ales at Bell Labs.
In 1977, New England Digital (NED) released the Synclavier, the first commercial synthesizer to use purely digital sound generation and also the world's first commercial FM synthesizer.
]]
Early commercial digital synthesizers used simple hard-wired digital circuitry to implement techniques such as additive synthesis and FM synthesis. Two other early commercial digital synthesizers were the Fairlight CMI, introduced in 1979, and the New England Digital Synclavier II, introduced in 1979 as an upgrade to the original Synclavier. while the Synclavier originally used FM synthesis technology licensed from Yamaha, before adding the world's first 16-bit, real-time hard drive streaming sampler later in 1982.
In Japan
for programming it.]]
In 1973, the Japanese company Yamaha licensed the patent for frequency modulation synthesis (FM synthesis) from John Chowning, who had experimented with it at Stanford University since 1971. Yamaha's engineers began adapting Chowning's algorithm for use in a commercial digital synthesizer, adding improvements such as the "key scaling" method to avoid the introduction of distortion that normally occurred in analog systems during frequency modulation, though it would take several years before Yamaha were to release their FM digital synthesizers. In the 1970s, Yamaha were granted a number of patents, under the company's former name "Nippon Gakki Seizo Kabushiki Kaisha", evolving Chowning's early work on FM synthesis technology. Yamaha built the first prototype digital synthesizer in 1974. the Casio VL-1 was the first low budget digital synthesizer, selling for $69.95.
Introduced in 1983, the Yamaha DX7 was the breakthrough digital synthesizer to have a major impact, both innovative and affordable, and thus spelling the decline of analog synthesizers. It used FM synthesis and, although it was incapable of the sampling synthesis of the Fairlight CMI, its price was around $2,000, putting it within range of a much larger number of musicians. The DX-7 was also known for its "key scaling" method to avoid distortion and for its recognizably bright tonality that was partly due to its high sampling rate of 57 kHz. It became indispensable to many music artists of the 1980s, and would become one of the best-selling synthesizers of all time. of built-in digital effects (reverb., chorus, equalizer). Roland called this Linear Arithmetic (LA) synthesis. This instrument is responsible for some of the very recognisable preset synthesizer sounds of the late 1980s, such as the Pizzagogo sound used on Enya's "Orinoco Flow."
It gradually became feasible to include high quality samples of existing instruments as opposed to synthesizing them. In 1988, Korg introduced the last of the hugely popular trio of digital synthesizers of the 1980s after the DX7 and D50, the M1. This heralded both the increasing popularisation of digital sample-based synthesis, and the rise of 'workstation' synthesizers. After this time, many popular modern digital synthesizers have been described as not being full synthesizers in the most precise sense, as they play back samples stored in their memory. However, they still include options to shape the sounds through use of envelopes, LFOs, filters and effects such as reverb. The Yamaha Motif and Roland Fantom series of keyboards are typical examples of this type, described as 'ROMplers'; at the same time, they are also examples of "workstation" synthesizers.
As the cost of processing power and memory fell, new types of synthesizers emerged, offering a variety of novel sound synthesis options. The Korg Oasys was one such example, packaging multiple digital synthesizers into a single unit.
Analog vs. digital
An analog synthesizer creates sound using electronic circuitry, such as voltage-controlled oscillators and voltage-controlled filters. In contrast, a digital synthesizer generates a stream of numbers, often using some form of digital signal processor, which are then converted to sound using a digital-to-analog converter (DAC).
A digital synthesizer is in essence a computer with (often) a piano or organ keyboard and an LCD as a user interface. Because computer technology is rapidly advancing, it is often possible to offer more features in a digital synthesizer than in an analog synthesizer at a given price. However, both technologies have their own merit. Some forms of synthesis, such as, for instance, sampling and additive synthesis are not feasible in analog synthesizers, while on the other hand, many musicians prefer the character of analog synthesizers over their digital equivalent.
Usage
The new wave era of the 1980s first brought the digital synthesizer to the public ear. Bands like Talking Heads and Duran Duran used the digitally made sounds on some of their most popular albums. Other more pop-inspired bands like Hall & Oates began incorporating the digital synthesizer into their sound in the 1980s. Through breakthroughs in technology in the 1990s many modern synthesizers use DSP.
Digital synthesis
Working in more or less the same way, every digital synthesizer appears similar to a computer. At a steady sample rate, digital synthesis produces a stream of numbers. Sound from speakers is then produced by a conversion to analog form. Direct digital synthesis is the typical architecture for digital synthesizers. Through signal generation, voice and instrument-level processing, a signal flow is created and controlled either by MIDI capabilities or voice and instrument-level controls. References External links
* [http://www.vintagesynth.com Vintage Synth Explorer], a great resource on vintage analog and digital hardware synthesizers.
* [http://psycle.pastnotecut.org Psycle], a freely downloadable modular software synthesizer and sequencer/tracker (open source and totally free)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160214031056/http://www.buzzmachines.com/ Buzz], a freely downloadable modular software synthesizer (free but proprietary)
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Definition of music
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Organised Sound}}
A definition of music endeavors to give an accurate and concise explanation of music's basic attributes or essential nature and it involves a process of defining what is meant by the term music. Many authorities have suggested definitions, but defining music turns out to be more difficult than might first be imagined, and there is ongoing debate. A number of explanations start with the notion of music as organized sound, but they also highlight that this is perhaps too broad a definition and cite examples of organized sound that are not defined as music, such as human speech and sounds found in both natural and industrial environments . The problem of defining music is further complicated by the influence of culture in music cognition.
The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines music as "the art of combining vocal or instrumental sounds (or both) to produce beauty of form, harmony, and expression of emotion". However, some music genres, such as noise music and musique concrète, challenge these ideas by using sounds not widely considered as musical, beautiful or harmonious, like randomly produced electronic distortion, feedback, static, cacophony, and sounds produced using compositional processes which utilize indeterminacy.
An often-cited example of the dilemma in defining music is the work 4′33″ (1952) by the American composer John Cage (1912–1992). The written score has three movements and directs the performer(s) to appear on stage, indicate by gesture or other means when the piece begins, then make no sound throughout the duration of the piece, marking sections and the end by gesture. The audience hears only whatever ambient sounds may occur in the room. Some argue that 4′33″ is not music because, among other reasons, it contains no sounds that are conventionally considered "musical" and the composer and performer(s) exert no control over the organization of the sounds heard. Others argue it is music because the conventional definitions of musical sounds are unnecessarily and arbitrarily limited, and control over the organization of the sounds is achieved by the composer and performer(s) through their gestures that divide what is heard into specific sections and a comprehensible form.
Concepts of music
Because of differing fundamental concepts of music, the languages of many cultures do not contain a word that can be accurately translated as "music" as that word is generally understood by Western cultures. Inuit and most North American Indian languages do not have a general term for music. Among the Aztecs, the ancient Mexican theory of rhetoric, poetry, dance, and instrumental music used the Nahuatl term In xochitl-in kwikatl to refer to a complex mix of music and other poetic verbal and non-verbal elements, and reserved the word Kwikakayotl (or cuicacayotl) only for the sung expressions. There is no term for music in Nigerian languages Tiv, Yoruba, Igbo, Efik, Birom, Hausa, Idoma, Eggon or Jarawa. Many other languages have terms which only partly cover what Western culture typically means by the term music.() The Mapuche of Argentina do not have a word for music, but they do have words for instrumental versus improvised forms (kantun), European and non-Mapuche music (kantun winka), ceremonial songs (öl), and tayil.
While some languages in West Africa have no term for music, some West African languages accept the general concepts of music.() Musiqi is the Persian word for the science and art of music, muzik being the sound and performance of music,() though some things European-influenced listeners would include, such as Quran chanting, are excluded.
Music vs. noise
Ben Watson points out that Ludwig van Beethoven's Große Fuge (1825) "sounded like noise" to his audience at the time. Indeed, Beethoven's publishers persuaded him to remove it from its original setting as the last movement of a string quartet. He did so, replacing it with a sparkling Allegro. They subsequently published it separately. Musicologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez considers the difference between noise and music nebulous, explaining that "The border between music and noise is always culturally defined—which implies that, even within a single society, this border does not always pass through the same place; in short, there is rarely a consensus ... By all accounts there is no single and intercultural universal concept defining what music might be".
Definitions
Organized sound
An often-cited definition of music is that it is "organized sound", a term originally coined by modernist composer Edgard Varèse in reference to his own musical aesthetic. Varèse's concept of music as "organized sound" fits into his vision of "sound as living matter" and of "musical space as open rather than bounded". He conceived the elements of his music in terms of "sound-masses", likening their organization to the natural phenomenon of crystallization. Varèse thought that "to stubbornly conditioned ears, anything new in music has always been called noise", and he posed the question, "what is music but organized noises?"
The fifteenth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica states that "while there are no sounds that can be described as inherently unmusical, musicians in each culture have tended to restrict the range of sounds they will admit." A human organizing element is often felt to be implicit in music (sounds produced by non-human agents, such as waterfalls or birds, are often described as "musical", but perhaps less often as "music"). The composer R. Murray states that the sound of classical music "has decays; it is granular; it has attacks; it fluctuates, swollen with impurities—and all this creates a musicality that comes before any 'cultural' musicality." However, in the view of semiologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez, "just as music is whatever people choose to recognize as such, noise is whatever is recognized as disturbing, unpleasant, or both". (See "music as social construct" below.)
Language
Levi R. Bryant defines music not as a language, but as a marked-based, problem-solving method, comparable to mathematics.Musical universals
Most definitions of music include a reference to sound and a list of universals of music can be generated by stating the elements (or aspects) of sound: pitch, timbre, loudness, duration, spatial location and texture.). However, in terms more specifically relating to music: following Wittgenstein, cognitive psychologist Eleanor Rosch proposes that categories are not clean cut but that something may be more or less a member of a category. As such the search for musical universals would fail and would not provide one with a valid definition. This is primarily because other cultures have different understandings in relation to the sounds that English-language writers refer to as music.Social construct
Many people do, however, share a general idea of music. The Websters definition of music is a typical example: "the science or art of ordering tones or sounds in succession, in combination, and in temporal relationships to produce a composition having unity and continuity" (''Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, online edition).
Subjective experience
This approach to the definition focuses not on the construction but on the experience'' of music. An extreme statement of the position has been articulated by the Italian composer Luciano Berio: "Music is everything that one listens to with the intention of listening to music". This approach permits the boundary between music and noise to change over time as the conventions of musical interpretation evolve within a culture, to be different in different cultures at any given moment, and to vary from person to person according to their experience and proclivities. It is further consistent with the subjective reality that even what would commonly be considered music is experienced as non-music if the mind is concentrating on other matters and thus not perceiving the sound's essence as music.
Specific definitions
Clifton
In his 1983 book, Music as Heard, which sets out from the phenomenological position of Husserl, Merleau-Ponty, and Ricœur, Thomas Clifton defines music as "an ordered arrangement of sounds and silences whose meaning is presentative rather than denotative ... This definition distinguishes music, as an end in itself, from compositional technique, and from sounds as purely physical objects." More precisely, "music is the actualization of the possibility of any sound whatever to present to some human being a meaning which he experiences with his body—that is to say, with his mind, his feelings, his senses, his will, and his metabolism". It is therefore "a certain reciprocal relation established between a person, his behavior, and a sounding object".
Clifton accordingly differentiates music from non-music on the basis of the human behavior involved, rather than on either the nature of compositional technique or of sounds as purely physical objects. Consequently, the distinction becomes a question of what is meant by musical behavior: "a musically behaving person is one whose very being is absorbed in the significance of the sounds being experienced." However, "It is not altogether accurate to say that this person is listening to the sounds. First, the person is doing more than listening: he is perceiving, interpreting, judging, and feeling. Second, the preposition 'to' puts too much stress on the sounds as such. Thus, the musically behaving person experiences musical significance by means of, or through, the sounds".
In this framework, Clifton finds that there are two things that separate music from non-music: (1) musical meaning is presentative, and (2) music and non-music are distinguished in the idea of personal involvement. "It is the notion of personal involvement which lends significance to the word ordered in this definition of music". This is not to be understood, however, as a sanctification of extreme relativism, since "it is precisely the 'subjective' aspect of experience which lured many writers earlier in this century down the path of sheer opinion-mongering. Later on this trend was reversed by a renewed interest in 'objective,' scientific, or otherwise non-introspective musical analysis. But we have good reason to believe that a musical experience is not a purely private thing, like seeing pink elephants, and that reporting about such an experience need not be subjective in the sense of it being a mere matter of opinion".
Clifton's task, then, is to describe musical experience and the objects of this experience which, together, are called "phenomena", and the activity of describing phenomena is called "phenomenology". It is important to stress that this definition of music says nothing about aesthetic standards.
<blockquote>Music is not a fact or a thing in the world, but a meaning constituted by human beings. ... To talk about such experience in a meaningful way demands several things. First, we have to be willing to let the composition speak to us, to let it reveal its own order and significance. ... Second, we have to be willing to question our assumptions about the nature and role of musical materials. ... Last, and perhaps most important, we have to be ready to admit that describing a meaningful experience is itself meaningful.</blockquote>Nattiez"Music, often an art/entertainment, is a total social fact whose definitions vary according to era and culture", according to Jean Molino. It is often contrasted with noise. According to musicologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez: "The border between music and noise is always culturally defined—which implies that, even within a single society, this border does not always pass through the same place; in short, there is rarely a consensus ... By all accounts there is no single and intercultural universal concept defining what music might be". Given the above demonstration that "there is no limit to the number or the genre of variables that might intervene in a definition of the musical", an organization of definitions and elements is necessary.
Nattiez (1990, 17) describes definitions according to a tripartite semiological scheme similar to the following:
{|
|-
|colspan=3|Poietic Process
|colspan=2|Esthesic Process
|-
|Composer (Producer)
| →
|Sound (Trace)
| ←
|Listener (Receiver)
|}
There are three levels of description, the poietic, the neutral, and the esthesic:
*"<!-- If musical semiology's sole contribution were replacing what everybody calls "composition" and "perception" with barbarou neologisms like 'poietic' and 'esthesic', then semiology would entail risibly small profits. There is, of course, more to it than that. --> By 'poietic' I understand describing the link among the composer's intentions, his creative procedures, his mental schemas, and the result of this collection of strategies; that is, the components that go into the work's material embodiment. Poietic description thus also deals with a quite special form of hearing (Varese called it 'the interior ear'): what the composer hears while imagining the work's sonorous results, or while experimenting at the piano, or with tape."
*"By 'esthesic' I understand not merely the artificially attentive hearing of a musicologist, but the description of perceptive behaviors within a given population of listeners; that is how this or that aspect of sonorous reality is captured by their perceptive strategies".
*The neutral level is that of the physical "trace", (Saussere's sound-image, a sonority, a score), created and interpreted by the esthesic level (which corresponds to a perceptive definition; the perceptive and/or "social" construction definitions below) and the poietic level (which corresponds to a creative, as in compositional, definition; the organizational and social construction definitions below).
Table describing types of definitions of music:
{| class="wikitable"
!
!poietic level<br/>(choice of the composer)
!neutral level<br/>(physical definition)
!esthesic level<br/>(perceptive judgment)
|-
! music
| musical sound
| sound of the<br/>harmonic<br/>spectrum
| agreeable sound
|-
! non-music
| noise<br/>(nonmusical)
| noise<br/>(complex sound)
| disagreeable<br/>noise
|}
Because of this range of definitions, the study of music comes in a wide variety of forms. There is the study of sound and vibration or acoustics, the cognitive study of music, the study of music theory and performance practice or music theory and ethnomusicology and the study of the reception and history of music, generally called musicology.
Xenakis
Composer Iannis Xenakis in "Towards a Metamusic" (chapter 7 of Formalized Music) defined music in the following way:
#It is a sort of comportment necessary for whoever thinks it and makes it.
#It is an individual pleroma, a realization.
#It is a fixing in sound of imagined virtualities (cosmological, philosophical, ..., arguments)
#It is normative, that is, unconsciously it is a model for being or for doing by sympathetic drive.
#It is catalytic: its mere presence permits internal psychic or mental transformations in the same way as the crystal ball of the hypnotist.
#It is the gratuitous play of a child.
#It is a mystical (but atheistic) asceticism. Consequently, expressions of sadness, joy, love and dramatic situations are only very limited particular instances.
See also
* Zoomusicology
* Sound art
References
Sources
*|referenceAshby, Arved, ed. 2004. The Pleasure of Modernist Music: Listening, Meaning, Intention, Ideology. Eastman Studies in Music 29. Rochester, New York: University of Rochester Press. .}}
* |referenceBerio, Luciano, Rossana Dalmonte, and Bálint András Varga. 1985. Two Interviews, translated and edited by David Osmond-Smith. New York: Marion Boyars. .}}
* | reference Burton, Russell L. 2015. "The Elements of Music: What Are They, and Who Cares? In Music: Educating for Life: Adelaide, 30 September – 2 October 2015: ASME XXth National Conference Proceedings, edited by Jennifer Rosevear and Susan Harding, 22–28. Parkville, Victoria: The Australian Society for Music Education. .}}
*|referenceChou Wen-chung. 1966a. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/832383 "Open Rather Than Bounded"]. Perspectives of New Music 5, no. 1 (Autumn–Winter): 1–6.}}
*|referenceChou Wen-chung. 1966b. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/741034 "Varèse: A Sketch of the Man and His Music"]. The Musical Quarterly 52, no. 2 (April): 151–170.}}
*|referenceClifton, Thomas. 1983. Music as Heard: A Study in Applied Phenomenology. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. .}}
* |referenceThe Concise Oxford Dictionary. Allen, R. E., ed. 1992. Clarendon Press. Oxford: 781}}
* |referenceDodd, Julian. 2013. "[https://www.youtube.com/watch?vWTCVnKROlos&t13m38s Is John Cage's 4′33″ Music?]". You Tube/Tedx (accessed 14 July 2014).}}
* |referenceGann, Kyle. 2010. ''No Such Thing as Silence: John Cage's 4′33″. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. .}}
* |referenceGoldman, Richard Franko. 1961. "Varèse: Ionisation; Density 21.5; Intégrales; Octandre; Hyperprism; Poème Electronique. Instrumentalists, cond. Robert Craft. Columbia MS 6146 (stereo)" (in Reviews of Records). The Musical Quarterly 47, no. 1. (January):133–134.}}
*|referenceHegarty, Paul, 2007. Noise/Music: A History. Continuum International Publishing Group. London: 3-19}}
* |referenceKania, Andrew. 2014. "[http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2014/entries/music/ The Philosophy of Music]", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Spring 2014 edition, edited by Edward N. Zalta.}}
* |referenceLeon-Portilla, Miguel. 2007. "La música de los aztecas / Music Among Aztecs", Pauta, no. 103:7–19.}}
* |referenceLevitin, Daniel J. 2006. This Is Your Brain on Music: The Science of a Human Obsession. New York: Dutton. .}}
* |referenceMolino, Jean. 1975. "Fait musical et sémiologue de la musique", Musique en jeu, no. 17:37–62.}}
* |referenceNattiez, Jean-Jacques. 1990. Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music, translated by Carolyn Abbate. Princeton: Princeton University Press. .}}
*|referenceNettl, Bruno. 1989. Blackfoot Musical Thought: Comparative Perspectives. Ohio: The Kent State University Press. .}}
* |referenceNettl, Bruno. 2005. "The Art of Combining Tones: The Music Concept". The Study of Ethnomusicology. 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, pp. 26–37 .}}
* |referencePriest, Eldritch. 2013. Boring Formless Nonsense: Experimental Music and The Aesthetics of Failure. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing. .}}
* |referenceRobertson–de Carbo, Carol Elizabeth. 1976. "Tayil as Category and Communication among the Argentine Mapuche: A Methodological Suggestion". Yearbook of the International Folk Music Council 8:35–42.}}
* |referenceRosch, Eleanor. 1973. "Natural Categories". Cognitive Psychology 4, no. 3 (May): 328–350.}}
* |referenceSakata, Lorraine. 1983. Music in the Mind, The Concepts of Music and Musicians in Afghanistan. Kent: Kent State University Press. }}
* |referenceSchafer, R. Murray. 1996. "Music and the Soundscape", in Classic Essays on Twentieth-Century Music: A Continuing Symposium, edited by Richard Kostelanetz and Joseph Darby, with Matthew Santa, pp. 221-231 New York: Schirmer Books; London: Prentice Hall International. (pbk).}}
* |referenceVarèse, Edgard, and Chou Wen-chung. 1966. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/832385 "The Liberation of Sound"]. Perspectives of New Music 5, no. 1 (Autumn–Winter): 11–19.}}
* |referenceWatson, Ben. 2009. "Noise as Permanent Revolution". In Iles, Anthony (ed.). [https://blogs.audio-lab.org/audiolab/noise_capitalism.pdf Noise & Capitalism]. Arteleku Audiolab. pp. 104-121.}}
* |referenceXenakis, Iannis. 1971. Formalized Music: Thought and Mathematics in Composition. Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press.}}
Further reading
* Originally published in Southwest Review, 1991.
* Gutmann, P. (2015). [http://www.classicalnotes.net/columns/silence.html "John Cage and the Avant-Garde: The Sounds of Silence}, classicalnotes.net. Retrieved 2 December 2015.]
* Kennedy, Michael. 1985. The Oxford Dictionary of Music, revised and enlarged edition of The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music, third edition, 1980. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ; .
* List, George. 1985. "Hopi Melodic Concepts". Journal of the American Musicological Society 38, no. 1 (Spring): 143–152.
* Little, William, and C. T. Onions, eds. 1965. The Oxford Universal Dictionary Illustrated: An illustrated Edition of the Shorter Oxford Dictionary, third edition, revised, 2 vols. London: The Caxton Publishing Co.
* Merriam-webster.com,. (2015). [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/music music]: "sounds that are sung by voices or played on musical instruments." Retrieved 1 December 2015.}
* Nettl, Bruno. 2001. "Music". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.
* External links
* [http://www.cobussen.com/proefschrift/300_john_cage/310_what_is_music/what_is_music.htm What is Music?] A brief sketch of some definitions found throughout history by Marcel Cobussen
* [http://www.MusicNovatory.com MusicNovatory.com] (): The Science of Music, a generative music theory
Music
Category:Philosophy of music
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition_of_music
|
2025-04-05T18:28:31.986509
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8253
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Dayton, Ohio
|
| image_flag = Flag_of_Dayton,_Ohio.svg
| image_seal = Seal of Dayton, Ohio.png
| nickname = The Gem City, Birthplace of Aviation
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| government_type | leader_title Mayor
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Dayton () is a city in Montgomery County, Ohio, United States, and its county seat. As of the 2020 census, the city proper had a population of 137,644, making it the sixth-most populous city in Ohio. It anchors the state's fourth-largest metropolitan area, the Dayton metropolitan area, which had 814,049 residents. Dayton is located within Ohio's Miami Valley region, north of Cincinnati and west-southwest of Columbus.
Dayton was founded in 1796 along the Great Miami River and named after Jonathan Dayton, a Founding Father who owned a significant amount of land in the area. It later developed an industrialized economy and was home to the Dayton Project, a branch of the larger Manhattan Project, to develop polonium triggers used in early atomic bombs. With the decline of heavy manufacturing in the late 20th century, Dayton's businesses have diversified into a service economy.
Ohio's borders are within of roughly 60 percent of the country's population and manufacturing infrastructure, making Dayton a logistics hub. The city is home to Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, a significant contributor to research and development in the industrial, aeronautical, and astronautical engineering fields. Along with defense and aerospace, healthcare accounts for much of the Dayton area's economy. Significant institutions in Dayton include the Air Force Institute of Technology, Carillon Historical Park, Dayton Art Institute, Dayton Performing Arts Alliance, National Museum of the United States Air Force, and University of Dayton.
History
Dayton was founded on April 1, 1796, by 12 settlers known as the Thompson Party. They traveled in March from Cincinnati up the Great Miami River by pirogue and landed at what is now St. Clair Street, where they found two small camps of Native Americans. Among the Thompson Party was Benjamin Van Cleve, whose memoirs provide insights into the Ohio Valley's history. Two other groups traveling overland arrived several days later. The oldest surviving building is Newcom Tavern, which was used for various purposes, including housing Dayton's first church, which is still in existence.
In 1797, Daniel C. Cooper laid out Mad River Road, the first overland connection between Cincinnati and Dayton, opening the "Mad River Country" to settlement. Ohio was admitted into the Union in 1803, and the village of Dayton was incorporated in 1805 and chartered as a city in 1841. The city was named after Jonathan Dayton, a captain in the American Revolutionary War who signed the U.S. Constitution and owned a significant amount of land in the area. In 1827, construction on the Dayton–Cincinnati canal began, which provided a better way to transport goods from Dayton to Cincinnati and contributed significantly to Dayton's economic growth during the 1800s. NCR also helped develop the US Navy Bombe, a code-breaking machine that helped crack the Enigma machine cipher during World War II.
Dayton has been the home for many patents and inventions since the 1870s. According to the National Park Service, citing information from the U.S. Patent Office, Dayton had granted more patents per capita than any other U.S. city in 1890 and ranked fifth in the nation as early as 1870. The Wright brothers, inventors of the airplane, and Charles F. Kettering, world-renowned for his numerous inventions, hailed from Dayton. The city was also home to James Ritty's Incorruptible Cashier, the first mechanical cash register, and Arthur E. Morgan's hydraulic jump, a flood prevention mechanism that helped pioneer hydraulic engineering. Paul Laurence Dunbar, an African-American poet and novelist, penned his most famous works in the late 19th century and became an integral part of the city's history.Birthplace of aviationPowered aviation began in Dayton. Orville and Wilbur Wright were the first to construct and demonstrate powered flight. Although the first flight was in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, their Wright Flyer was built in and returned to Dayton for improvements and further flights at Huffman Field, a cow pasture northeast of Dayton, near the current Wright-Patterson Air Force Base.
When the government tried to move development to Langley Field in southern Virginia, six Dayton businessmen including Edward A. Deeds, formed the Dayton-Wright Airplane Company in Moraine and established a flying field. Deeds also opened a field to the north in the flood plain of the Great Miami River between the confluences of that river, the Stillwater River, and the Mad River (near downtown Dayton). Later named McCook Field for Alexander McDowell McCook, an American Civil War general, this became the Army Signal Corps' primary aviation research and training location. Wilbur Wright also purchased land near Huffman prairie to continue their research.
During World War I, the Army purchased 40 acres adjacent to Huffman Prairie for the Fairfield Aviation General Supply Depot. As airplanes developed more capability, they needed more runway space than McCook could offer, and a new location was sought. The Patterson family formed the Dayton Air Service Committee, Inc which held a campaign that raised $425,000 in two days and purchased northeast of Dayton, including Wilbur Wright Field and the Huffman Prairie Flying Field. Wright Field was "formally dedicated" on October 12, 1927. After World War II, Wright Field and the adjacent Patterson Field, Dayton Army Air Field, and Clinton Army Air Field were merged as the Headquarters, Air Force Technical Base. On January 13, 1948, the facility was renamed Wright-Patterson Air Force Base.Great Dayton Flood
, 1913]]
A catastrophic flood in March 1913, known as the Great Dayton Flood, led to the creation of the Miami Conservancy District, a series of dams as well as hydraulic pumps installed around Dayton, in 1914.Contribution in World War TwoLike other cities across the country, Dayton was heavily involved in the war effort during World War II. Several locations around the city hosted the Dayton Project, a branch of the larger Manhattan Project, to develop polonium triggers used in early atomic bombs. The war efforts led to a manufacturing boom throughout the city, including high-demand for housing and other services. At one point, emergency housing was put into place due to a housing shortage in the region, much of which is still in use today.
Alan Turing is widely considered to be the father of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence. He visited the National Cash Register (NCR) company in Dayton in December 1942. He was able to show that it was not necessary to build 336 Bombes, so the initial order was scaled down to 96 machines to decipher German Enigma-machine-encrypted secret messages during World War II.
Post-war Dayton
Between the 1940s and the 1970s, the city saw significant growth in suburban areas from population migration. Veterans were returning from military service in large numbers seeking industrial and manufacturing jobs, a part of the local industry that was expanding rapidly. Advancements in architecture also contributed to the suburban boom. New, modernized shopping centers and the Interstate Highway System allowed workers to commute greater distances and families to live further from the downtown area. More than 127,000 homes were built in Montgomery County during the 1950s.
During this time, the city was the site of several race riots, including one in 1955 following the murder of Emmett Till, the 1966 Dayton race riot, two in 1967 (following a speech by civil rights activist H. Rap Brown and another following the police killing of an African American man), and one in 1968 as part of the nationwide King assassination riots.
Since the 1980s, however, Dayton's population has declined, mainly due to the loss of manufacturing jobs and decentralization of metropolitan areas, as well as the national housing crisis that began in 2008. While much of the state has suffered for similar reasons, the impact on Dayton has been greater than most. Dayton had the third-greatest percentage loss of population in the state since the 1980s, behind Cleveland and Youngstown.
Peace accords
In 1995, the Dayton Agreement, a peace accord between the parties to the hostilities of the conflict in Bosnia-Herzegovina and the former Yugoslavia, was negotiated at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, near Fairborn, Ohio, from November 1 to 21. The agreement formally ended the conflict in the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on December 14, 1995.
Richard Holbrooke wrote about these events in his memoirs:
<blockquote> There was also a real Dayton out there, a charming Ohio city, famous as the birthplace of the Wright brothers.<!-- Not a proper name; should be "Wright brothers." Preserved Holbrooke's capitalization usage in a quote. --> Its citizens energized us from the outset. Unlike the population of, say, New York City, Geneva or Washington, which would scarcely notice another conference, Daytonians were proud to be part of history. Large signs at the commercial airport hailed Dayton as the "temporary center of international peace." The local newspapers and television stations covered the story from every angle, drawing the people deeper into the proceedings. When we ventured into a restaurant or a shopping center downtown, people crowded around, saying that they were praying for us. Warren Christopher was given at least one standing ovation in a restaurant. Families on the airbase placed "candles of peace" in their front windows, and people gathered in peace vigils outside the base. One day they formed a "peace chain," although it was not large enough to surround the sprawling eight-thousand-acre base. Ohio's famous ethnic diversity was on display.</blockquote>
2000s initiatives
Downtown expansion that began in the 2000s has helped revitalize the city and encourage growth. Day Air Ballpark, home of the Dayton Dragons, was built in 2000. The highly successful minor league baseball team has been an integral part of Dayton's culture. In 2001, the city's public park system, Five Rivers MetroParks, built RiverScape MetroPark, an outdoor entertainment venue that attracts more than 400,000 visitors each year. A new performance arts theater, the Schuster Center, opened in 2003. A large health network in the region, Premier Health Partners, expanded its Miami Valley Hospital with a 12-story tower addition.
In 2010, the Downtown Dayton Partnership, in cooperation with the City of Dayton and community leaders, introduced the Greater Downtown Dayton Plan. It focuses on job creation and retention, infrastructure improvements, housing, recreation, and collaboration. The plan is to be implemented through the year 2020.Nicknames
Dayton is known as the "Gem City". The nickname's origin is uncertain, but several theories exist. In the early 19th century, a well-known racehorse named Gem hailed from Dayton. In 1845, an article published in the Cincinnati Daily Chronicle by an author known as T stated:
In the late 1840s, Major William D. Bickham of the Dayton Journal began a campaign to nickname Dayton the "Gem City." The name was adopted by the city's Board of Trade several years later.
</poem></blockquote>
Dayton also plays a role in a nickname given to the state of Ohio, "Birthplace of Aviation." Dayton is the hometown of the Wright brothers, aviation pioneers who are credited with inventing and building the first practical airplane in history. After their first manned flights in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, which they had chosen due to its ideal weather and climate conditions, the Wrights returned to Dayton and continued testing at nearby Huffman Prairie.
Additionally, Dayton is colloquially referred to as "Little Detroit". This nickname comes from Dayton's prominence as a Midwestern manufacturing center.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.
Climate
Dayton's climate features warm, muggy summers and cold, dry winters, and is classified as a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfa). Unless otherwise noted, all normal figures quoted within the text below are from the official climatology station, Dayton International Airport, at an elevation of about to the north of downtown Dayton, which lies within the valley of the Miami River; thus temperatures there are typically cooler than in downtown.
At the airport, monthly mean temperatures range from in January to in July. The highest temperature ever recorded in Dayton was on July 22, 1901, and the coldest was on February 13 during the Great Blizzard of 1899. On average, there are 14 days of + highs and 4.5 nights of sub- lows annually. Snow is moderate, with a normal seasonal accumulation of , extremes 1893–present
|collapsed = Y
|single line = Y
|Jan record high F = 75
|Feb record high F = 76
|Mar record high F = 87
|Apr record high F = 90
|May record high F = 98
|Jun record high F = 102
|Jul record high F = 108
|Aug record high F = 103
|Sep record high F = 102
|Oct record high F = 94
|Nov record high F = 79
|Dec record high F = 72
|year record high F = 108
|Jan avg record high F = 58.6
|Feb avg record high F = 63.0
|Mar avg record high F = 71.9
|Apr avg record high F = 80.4
|May avg record high F = 86.6
|Jun avg record high F = 91.9
|Jul avg record high F = 92.7
|Aug avg record high F = 91.8
|Sep avg record high F = 89.4
|Oct avg record high F = 82.3
|Nov avg record high F = 69.7
|Dec avg record high F = 61.3
|year avg record high F = 94.1
|Jan high F = 37.1
|Feb high F = 41.2
|Mar high F = 51.5
|Apr high F = 64.5
|May high F = 74.2
|Jun high F = 82.6
|Jul high F = 85.9
|Aug high F = 84.6
|Sep high F = 78.6
|Oct high F = 66.2
|Nov high F = 52.7
|Dec high F = 41.5
|year high F = 63.4
|Jan mean F = 29.4
|Feb mean F = 32.8
|Mar mean F = 42.1
|Apr mean F = 53.7
|May mean F = 64.0
|Jun mean F = 72.7
|Jul mean F = 76.0
|Aug mean F = 74.5
|Sep mean F = 67.7
|Oct mean F = 56.0
|Nov mean F = 44.1
|Dec mean F = 34.3
|year mean F = 53.9
|Jan low F = 21.8
|Feb low F = 24.5
|Mar low F = 32.7
|Apr low F = 42.9
|May low F = 53.8
|Jun low F = 62.7
|Jul low F = 66.1
|Aug low F = 64.3
|Sep low F = 56.8
|Oct low F = 45.9
|Nov low F = 35.4
|Dec low F = 27.1
|year low F = 44.5
|Jan avg record low F = −1.7
|Feb avg record low F = 4.0
|Mar avg record low F = 13.4
|Apr avg record low F = 25.2
|May avg record low F = 37.4
|Jun avg record low F = 48.7
|Jul avg record low F = 53.9
|Aug avg record low F = 52.1
|Sep avg record low F = 41.9
|Oct avg record low F = 30.2
|Nov avg record low F = 19.4
|Dec avg record low F = 7.4
|year avg record low F = -4.6
|Jan record low F = −25
|Feb record low F = −28
|Mar record low F = −7
|Apr record low F = 15
|May record low F = 26
|Jun record low F = 40
|Jul record low F = 44
|Aug record low F = 40
|Sep record low F = 30
|Oct record low F = 18
|Nov record low F = −2
|Dec record low F = −20
|year record low F = -28
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation inch = 3.08
|Feb precipitation inch = 2.35
|Mar precipitation inch = 3.50
|Apr precipitation inch = 4.46
|May precipitation inch = 4.51
|Jun precipitation inch = 4.14
|Jul precipitation inch = 3.95
|Aug precipitation inch = 2.96
|Sep precipitation inch = 3.31
|Oct precipitation inch = 2.95
|Nov precipitation inch = 3.07
|Dec precipitation inch = 3.05
|year precipitation inch = 41.33
|Jan snow inch = 8.3
|Feb snow inch = 6.6
|Mar snow inch = 3.9
|Apr snow inch = 0.4
|May snow inch = 0.0
|Jun snow inch = 0.0
|Jul snow inch = 0.0
|Aug snow inch = 0.0
|Sep snow inch = 0.0
|Oct snow inch = 0.2
|Nov snow inch = 0.8
|Dec snow inch = 4.8
|year snow inch = 25.0
|unit precipitation days = 0.01 in
|Jan precipitation days = 13.4
|Feb precipitation days = 11.3
|Mar precipitation days = 12.1
|Apr precipitation days = 13.0
|May precipitation days = 14.1
|Jun precipitation days = 11.9
|Jul precipitation days = 10.6
|Aug precipitation days = 8.1
|Sep precipitation days = 8.6
|Oct precipitation days = 9.5
|Nov precipitation days = 9.9
|Dec precipitation days = 11.8
|year precipitation days = 134.3
|unit snow days = 0.1 in
|Jan snow days = 7.6
|Feb snow days = 6.4
|Mar snow days = 3.2
|Apr snow days = 1.0
|May snow days = 0.0
|Jun snow days = 0.0
|Jul snow days = 0.0
|Aug snow days = 0.0
|Sep snow days = 0.0
|Oct snow days = 0.2
|Nov snow days = 1.2
|Dec snow days = 4.9
|year snow days = 24.5
|Jan humidity = 72.7
|Feb humidity = 72.0
|Mar humidity = 69.5
|Apr humidity = 64.2
|May humidity = 65.1
|Jun humidity = 66.0
|Jul humidity = 68.8
|Aug humidity = 71.5
|Sep humidity = 71.9
|Oct humidity = 69.3
|Nov humidity = 73.3
|Dec humidity = 75.8
|year humidity = 70.0
|Jan sun = 134.0
|Feb sun = 136.6
|Mar sun = 178.4
|Apr sun = 213.2
|May sun = 263.1
|Jun sun = 293.7
|Jul sun = 296.2
|Aug sun = 277.4
|Sep sun = 237.6
|Oct sun = 192.9
|Nov sun = 115.7
|Dec sun = 99.9
|Jan percentsun = 45
|Feb percentsun = 46
|Mar percentsun = 48
|Apr percentsun = 54
|May percentsun = 59
|Jun percentsun = 65
|Jul percentsun = 65
|Aug percentsun = 65
|Sep percentsun = 64
|Oct percentsun = 56
|Nov percentsun = 39
|Dec percentsun = 34
|year percentsun = 55
|source 1 NOAA (relative humidity and sun 1961–1990)
|date=February 2012
}}
extremes 1893–present, less than from the banks of the Miami River.}}
|collapsed = Y
|single line = Y
|Jan record high F = 75
|Feb record high F = 77
|Mar record high F = 88
|Apr record high F = 90
|May record high F = 98
|Jun record high F = 103
|Jul record high F = 108
|Aug record high F = 105
|Sep record high F = 102
|Oct record high F = 93
|Nov record high F = 81
|Dec record high F = 72
|year record high F = 108
|Jan avg record high F = 60.8
|Feb avg record high F = 65.8
|Mar avg record high F = 74.9
|Apr avg record high F = 83.7
|May avg record high F = 90.5
|Jun avg record high F = 95.5
|Jul avg record high F = 96.9
|Aug avg record high F = 95.9
|Sep avg record high F = 93.1
|Oct avg record high F = 85.0
|Nov avg record high F = 72.1
|Dec avg record high F = 63.4
|year avg record high F = 98.0
|Jan high F = 36.3
|Feb high F = 40.2
|Mar high F = 50.7
|Apr high F = 64.3
|May high F = 74.9
|Jun high F = 83.6
|Jul high F = 86.7
|Aug high F = 85.8
|Sep high F = 79.2
|Oct high F = 66.1
|Nov high F = 52.0
|Dec high F = 40.9
|year high F = 63.4
|Jan mean F = 28.2
|Feb mean F = 31.4
|Mar mean F = 40.6
|Apr mean F = 52.9
|May mean F = 63.9
|Jun mean F = 73.0
|Jul mean F = 76.2
|Aug mean F = 74.8
|Sep mean F = 67.5
|Oct mean F = 54.8
|Nov mean F = 42.6
|Dec mean F = 33.2
|year mean F = 53.3
|Jan low F = 20.1
|Feb low F = 22.6
|Mar low F = 30.6
|Apr low F = 41.4
|May low F = 52.9
|Jun low F = 62.4
|Jul low F = 65.7
|Aug low F = 63.9
|Sep low F = 55.8
|Oct low F = 43.5
|Nov low F = 33.1
|Dec low F = 25.6
|year low F = 43.1
|Jan avg record low F = 1.7
|Feb avg record low F = 7.2
|Mar avg record low F = 15.2
|Apr avg record low F = 27.5
|May avg record low F = 39.2
|Jun avg record low F = 51.0
|Jul avg record low F = 57.0
|Aug avg record low F = 55.5
|Sep avg record low F = 44.5
|Oct avg record low F = 31.9
|Nov avg record low F = 21.8
|Dec avg record low F = 10.6
|year avg record low F = −0.7
|Jan record low F = −21
|Feb record low F = −28
|Mar record low F = 0
|Apr record low F = 15
|May record low F = 28
|Jun record low F = 37
|Jul record low F = 45
|Aug record low F = 37
|Sep record low F = 29
|Oct record low F = 18
|Nov record low F = 0
|Dec record low F = −16
|year record low F = -28
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation inch = 3.17
|Feb precipitation inch = 2.35
|Mar precipitation inch = 3.54
|Apr precipitation inch = 4.45
|May precipitation inch = 4.38
|Jun precipitation inch = 4.41
|Jul precipitation inch = 4.03
|Aug precipitation inch = 3.12
|Sep precipitation inch = 3.03
|Oct precipitation inch = 3.00
|Nov precipitation inch = 3.04
|Dec precipitation inch = 3.13
|year precipitation inch = 41.65
|Jan snow inch = 6.9
|Feb snow inch = 1.5
|Mar snow inch = 1.7
|Apr snow inch = 0.0
|May snow inch = 0.0
|Jun snow inch = 0.0
|Jul snow inch = 0.0
|Aug snow inch = 0.0
|Sep snow inch = 0.0
|Oct snow inch = 0.0
|Nov snow inch = 0.1
|Dec snow inch = 2.1
|year snow inch = 12.3
|unit precipitation days = 0.01 in
|Jan precipitation days = 12.2
|Feb precipitation days = 10.1
|Mar precipitation days = 11.4
|Apr precipitation days = 13.0
|May precipitation days = 13.5
|Jun precipitation days = 12.1
|Jul precipitation days = 10.0
|Aug precipitation days = 8.3
|Sep precipitation days = 8.0
|Oct precipitation days = 9.3
|Nov precipitation days = 9.5
|Dec precipitation days = 11.0
|year precipitation days = 128.4
|unit snow days = 0.1 in
|Jan snow days = 4.1
|Feb snow days = 2.3
|Mar snow days = 0.8
|Apr snow days = 0.0
|May snow days = 0.0
|Jun snow days = 0.0
|Jul snow days = 0.0
|Aug snow days = 0.0
|Sep snow days = 0.0
|Oct snow days = 0.0
|Nov snow days = 0.2
|Dec snow days = 2.3
|year snow days = 9.7
|source 1 NOAA
}}
Ecology
The Dayton Audubon Society is the National Audubon Society's local chapter. The Dayton chapter manages local activities contributing to the annual, hemisphere-wide Christmas Bird Count. The Chapter began participation in the National Count in 1924. The local Count was initially coordinated by Ben Blincoe, who was succeeded by Jim Hill in 1970. In the mid-1960s, the freezing of Lake Erie and associated marshlands led species of waterfowl to appear in the Dayton-area, where surface waters remained unfrozen. Nine varieties of birds have been observed every year in the Dayton area: downy woodpecker, Carolina chickadee, tufted titmouse, brown creeper, northern cardinal, dark-eyed junco, American tree sparrow, song sparrow and American crow.<!-- citation covers this paragraph -->
Cityscape
Architecture
Unlike many Midwestern cities its age, Dayton has very broad and straight downtown streets (generally two or three full lanes in each direction) that improved access to the downtown even after the automobile became popular. The main reason for the broad streets was that Dayton was a marketing and shipping center from its beginning; streets were broad to enable wagons drawn by teams of three to four pairs of oxen to turn around. Also, some of today's streets were once barge canals flanked by draw-paths.
, built in 1847, and the current courthouse behind it.]]
A courthouse building was built in downtown Dayton in 1888 to supplement Dayton's original Neoclassical courthouse, which still stands. This second, "new" courthouse has since been replaced with new facilities as well as a park. The Old Court House has been a favored political campaign stop. On September 17, 1859, Abraham Lincoln delivered an address on its steps. Eight other presidents have visited the courthouse, either as presidents or during presidential campaigns: Andrew Johnson, James Garfield, John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, Ronald Reagan, and Bill Clinton.
The Dayton Arcade, which opened on March 3, 1904, was built in the hopes of replacing open-air markets throughout the city. Throughout the decades, the Arcade has gone through many transformations but has retained its charm. Some of its main features include a Flemish facade at the Third Street entrance, a glass dome above the Arcade rotunda, and a chateau roof line above the Third Street facade. The Dayton Arcade is currently under renovations with no official completion date set.
In 2009, the CareSource Management Group finished construction of a $55 million corporate headquarters in downtown Dayton. The , 10-story building was downtown's first new office tower in more than a decade.
Dayton's two tallest buildings are the Kettering Tower at and the KeyBank Tower at . Kettering Tower was originally Winters Tower, the headquarters of Winters Bank. The building was renamed after Virginia Kettering when Winters was merged into Bank One. KeyBank Tower was known as the MeadWestvaco Tower before KeyBank gained naming rights to the building in 2008.
Ted Rall said in 2015 that over the last five decades Dayton has been demolishing some of its architecturally significant buildings to reduce the city's rental vacancy rate and thus increase the occupancy rate.
Neighborhoods
in Grafton Hill]]
Dayton's ten historic neighborhoods—Oregon District, Wright Dunbar, Dayton View, Grafton Hill, McPherson Town, Webster Station, Huffman, Kenilworth, St. Anne's Hill, and South Park—feature mostly single-family houses and mansions in the Neoclassical, Jacobethan, Tudor Revival, English Gothic, Chateauesque, Craftsman, Queen Anne, Georgian Revival, Colonial Revival, Renaissance Revival Architecture, Shingle Style Architecture, Prairie, Mission Revival, Eastlake/Italianate, American Foursquare, and Federal styles. Downtown Dayton is also a large area that encompasses several neighborhoods itself and has seen a recent uplift and revival.
Suburbs
Dayton's suburbs with a population of 10,000 or more include Beavercreek, Centerville, Clayton, Englewood, Fairborn, Harrison Township, Huber Heights, Kettering, Miami Township, Miamisburg, Oakwood, Riverside, Springboro, Trotwood, Vandalia, Washington Township, West Carrollton, and Xenia.
In the federal government's National Urban Policy and New Community Development Act of 1970, funding was provided for thirteen "new towns" or planned cities throughout the country. One location was set to become a suburb of Dayton and was known variously as Brookwood or Newfields. The goal was to have an entirely new suburb that would eventually house about 35,000 residents. The new town was to be located between Trotwood and Brookville, and modeled on the ideas of Ian McHarg. The project was abandoned in 1978 and most of the land became Sycamore State Park. Demographics
</small>
!Race / Ethnicity <small>(NH = Non-Hispanic)</small>
!Pop 2000
!Pop 2010
!
!% 2000
!% 2010
!
|-
|White alone (NH)
|87,487
|71,458
|style='background: #ffffe6; |64,020
|52.65%
|50.49%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |46.51%
|-
|Black or African American alone (NH)
|71,291
|60,342
|style='background: #ffffe6; |55,620
|42.90%
|42.64%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |40.41%
|-
|Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH)
|475
|373
|style='background: #ffffe6; |305
|0.29%
|0.26%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |0.22%
|-
|Asian alone (NH)
|1,041
|1,195
|style='background: #ffffe6; |1,922
|0.63%
|0.84%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |1.40%
|-
|Pacific Islander alone (NH)
|55
|47
|style='background: #ffffe6; |73
|0.03%
|0.03%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |0.05%
|-
|Some Other Race alone (NH)
|411
|265
|style='background: #ffffe6; |837
|0.25%
|0.19%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |0.61%
|-
|Mixed Race or Multi-Racial (NH)
|2,793
|3,667
|style='background: #ffffe6; |7,008
|1.68%
|2.59%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |5.09%
|-
|Hispanic or Latino (any race)
|2,626
|4,180
|style='background: #ffffe6; |7,859
|1.58%
|2.95%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |5.71%
|-
|Total
|166,179
|141,527
|style='background: #ffffe6; |137,644
|100.00%
|100.00%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |100.00%
|}
As of the census of 2020, there were 137,644 people living in the city, for a population density of 2,466.47 people per square mile (952.31/km<sup>2</sup>). There were 68,899 housing units. The racial makeup of the city (including Hispanics in the racial counts) was 47.6% White, 40.7% Black or African American, 0.4% Native American, 1.4% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 3.3% from some other race, and 6.6% from two or more races. Separately, 5.7% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 63,308 households, out of which 22.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 24.5% were married couples living together, 30.9% had a male householder with no spouse present, and 38.2% had a female householder with no spouse present. 47.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.6% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.95, and the average family size was 2.83. there were 141,759 people, 58,404 households, and 31,064 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 74,065 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 51.7% White, 42.9% African American, 0.3% Native American, 0.9% Asian, 1.3% from other races, and 2.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino residents of any race were 3.0% of the population.
There were 58,404 households, of which 28.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 25.9% were married couples living together, 21.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 46.8% were non-families. 38.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26, and the average family size was 3.03.
The median age in the city was 34.4 years. 22.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 14.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25.3% were from 25 to 44; 25.8% were from 45 to 64, and 11.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.7% male and 51.3% female.
Crime
Dayton's crime declined between 2003 and 2008 in key categories according to FBI Uniform Crime Reports and Dayton Police Department data. In 2009, crime continued to fall in the city of Dayton. Crime in the categories of forcible rape, aggravated assault, property crime, motor vehicle theft, robbery, burglary, theft and arson all showed declines for 2009. Overall, crime in Dayton dropped 40% over the previous year. The Dayton Police Department reported a total of 39 murders in 2016, which marked a 39.3% increase in homicides from 2015.
John Dillinger, a bank robber during the early 1930s, was captured and arrested by Dayton city police while visiting his girlfriend at a high-class boarding house in downtown Dayton.
On August 4, 2019, a mass shooting took place in Dayton. Ten people were killed, including the perpetrator, and twenty-seven were injured.
Economy
at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base]]
Dayton's economy is relatively diversified and vital to the overall economy of the state of Ohio. In 2008 and 2009, Site Selection magazine ranked Dayton the #1 medium-sized metropolitan area in the U.S. for economic development. Dayton is also among the top 100 metropolitan areas in both exports and export-related jobs, ranked 16 and 14 respectively by the Brookings Institution. The 2010 report placed the value of exports at $4.7 billion and the number of export-related jobs at 44,133. The Dayton Metropolitan Statistical Area ranks 4th in Ohio's Gross Domestic Product with a 2008 industry total of $33.78 billion. Additionally, Dayton ranks third among 11 major metropolitan areas in Ohio for exports to foreign countries. The Dayton Development Coalition is attempting to leverage the region's large water capacity, estimated to be 1.5 trillion gallons of renewable water aquifers, to attract new businesses. Moody's Investment Services revised Dayton's bond rating from A1 to the stronger rating of Aa2 as part of its global recalibration process. Standard & Poor's upgraded Dayton's rating from A+ to AA− in the summer of 2009.
Bloomberg Businessweek ranked Dayton in 2010 as one of the best places in the U.S. for college graduates looking for a job. Companies such as Reynolds and Reynolds, Stratacache, CareSource, DP&L (soon AES inc), LexisNexis, Kettering Health Network, Premier Health Partners, and Standard Register have their headquarters in Dayton. It is also the former home of the Speedwell Motor Car Company, MeadWestvaco (formerly known as the Mead Paper Company), and NCR. NCR was headquartered in Dayton for over 125 years and was a major innovator in computer technology.
Research and development
, Dayton's tallest high-rise]]
The Dayton region gave birth to aviation and is known for its high concentration of aerospace and aviation technology. In 2009, Governor Ted Strickland designated Dayton as Ohio's aerospace innovation hub, the state's first such technology hub. Two major United States research and development organizations have leveraged Dayton's historical leadership in aviation and maintain their headquarters in the area: The National Air and Space Intelligence Center (NASIC) and the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL). Both have their headquarters at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base.
Several research organizations support NASIC, AFRL, and the Dayton community. The Advanced Technical Intelligence Center is a confederation of government, academic, and industry partners. The University of Dayton Research Institute (UDRI) is led by the University of Dayton. The Cognitive Technologies Division (CTD) of Applied Research Associates, Inc., which carries out human-centered research and design, is headquartered in the Dayton suburb of Fairborn. The city of Dayton has started Tech Town, a development project to attract technology-based firms and revitalize the downtown area. Tech Town is home to the world's first RFID business incubator. The University of Dayton–led Institute for Development & Commercialization of Sensor Technologies (IDCAST) at TechTown is a center for remote sensing and sensing technology. It is one of Dayton's technology business incubators housed in The Entrepreneurs Center building.
Healthcare
, part of the Premier Health Partners network]]
The Kettering Health Network and Premier Health Partners have a major role on the Dayton area's economy. Hospitals in the Greater Dayton area have an estimated combined employment of nearly 32,000 and a yearly economic impact of $6.8 billion. The most notable hospitals are Miami Valley Hospital and Kettering Medical Center.
The Dayton region has several key institutes and centers for health care. The Center for Tissue Regeneration and Engineering at Dayton focuses on the science and development of human tissue regeneration. The National Center for Medical Readiness (NCMR) is also in the Dayton area. The center includes Calamityville, which is a disaster training facility. Over five years, Calamityville is estimated to have a regional economic impact of $374 million. Also, the Neurological Institute at Miami Valley Hospital is an institute focused on the diagnosis, treatment, and research of neurological disorders.Top employersAccording to the city's 2019 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city proper are:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Rank
! Employer
! Employees<br />(2019)
! Employees<br />(2018)
! Employees<br />(2017)
|-
|1
|Premier Health Partners
|12,425
|12,138
|13,858
|-
|2
|Kettering Health Network
|9,319
|8,909
|8,415
|-
|3
|Montgomery County
|4,284
|4,366
|4,383
|-
|4
|Dayton Children's Hospital
|3,341
|2,974
|2,467
|-
|5
|Sinclair Community College
|3,163
|3,085
|3,094
|-
|6
|CareSource
|3,021
|2,800
|2,200
|-
|7
|University of Dayton
|3,000
|3,028
|2,964
|-
|8
|Dayton Veterans Affairs Medical Center
|2,425
|2,403
|2,268
|-
|9
|Dayton Public Schools
|2,062
|2,062
|2,062
|-
|10
|City of Dayton
|1,963
|1,972
|1,900
|}
Arts and culture
Fine arts
]]
The Dayton Region ranked within the top 10% in the nation in arts and culture. In a 2012 readers' poll by American Style magazine, Dayton ranked #2 in the country among mid-size cities as an arts destination, ranking higher than larger cities such as Atlanta, St. Louis, and Cincinnati. Dayton is the home of the Dayton Art Institute.
The Benjamin and Marian Schuster Performing Arts Center in downtown Dayton is a world-class performing arts center and the home venue of the Dayton Philharmonic Orchestra, Dayton Opera, and the Dayton Ballet. In addition to philharmonic and opera performances, the Schuster Center hosts concerts, lectures, and traveling Broadway shows, and is a popular spot for weddings and other events. The historic Victoria Theatre in downtown Dayton hosts concerts, traveling Broadway shows, ballet, a summertime classic film series, and more. The Loft Theatre, also downtown, is the home of the Human Race Theatre Company. The Dayton Playhouse, in West Dayton, is the site of numerous plays and theatrical productions. Between 1957 and 1995, the Kenley Players presented live theater productions in Dayton. In 2013, John Kenley was inducted into the Dayton Theatre Hall of Fame. Dayton is also home to the Winter Guard International world finals, hosting finals for winter guard, indoor percussion, and indoor winds.
Dayton is the home to several ballet companies including:
* The Dayton Ballet, one of the oldest professional dance companies in the United States. The Dayton Ballet runs the Dayton Ballet School, the oldest dance school in Dayton and one of the oldest in the country. It is the only ballet school in the Miami Valley associated with a professional dance company.
* The Dayton Contemporary Dance Company (established in 1968), which hosts the largest repertory of African-American-based contemporary dance in the world. The company travels nationally and internationally and has been recognized by critics worldwide.
Front Street, the largest artists' collective in Dayton, is housed in three industrial buildings on East Second Street.Entertainment
at the 2009 Dayton Air Show]]
The Vectren Dayton Air Show is an annual air show that takes place at the Dayton International Airport. The Vectren Dayton Airshow is one of the largest air shows in the United States.
The Dayton area is served by Five Rivers MetroParks, encompassing over 23 facilities for year-round recreation, education, and conservation. In cooperation with the Miami Conservancy District, the MetroParks maintains over of paved, multi-use scenic trails that connect Montgomery County with Greene, Miami, Warren, and Butler counties.
Dayton was home to a thriving funk music scene from the 1970s to the early 1980s, that included bands such as Ohio Players, Roger Troutman & Zapp, Lakeside, Sun, Dayton, Heatwave, and Slave.
Dayton was also the birthplace to several influential indie and punk bands such as The Breeders, Guided by Voices, and Brainiac.
From 1996 to 1998, Dayton hosted the National Folk Festival. Since then, the annual Cityfolk Festival has continued to bring folk, ethnic, and world music and arts to Dayton. The Five Rivers MetroParks also owns and operates the PNC Second Street Market near downtown Dayton.
The Dayton area hosts several arenas and venues. South of Dayton in Kettering is the Fraze Pavilion, whose notable performances have included the Backstreet Boys, Boston, and Steve Miller Band. South of downtown, on the banks of the Great Miami River, is the University of Dayton Arena, home venue for the University of Dayton Flyers basketball teams and the location of various other events and concerts. It also hosts the Winter Guard International championships, at which hundreds of percussion and color guard ensembles from around the world compete. In addition, the Dayton Amateur Radio Association hosts the annual Dayton Hamvention, North America's largest hamfest, at the Greene County Fairgrounds in nearby Xenia. The Nutter Center, which is just east of Dayton in the suburb of Fairborn, is the home arena for athletics of Wright State University and the former Dayton Bombers hockey team. This venue is used for many concerts, community events, and various national traveling shows and performances.
The Oregon District is a historic residential and commercial district in southeast downtown Dayton. The district is populated with art galleries, specialty shops, pubs, nightclubs, and coffee houses.
The city of Dayton is also host to yearly festivals, such as the Dayton Celtic Festival, the Dayton Blues Festival, Dayton Music Fest, Urban Nights, Women in Jazz, the African American and Cultural Festival, the Dayton Reggae Fest, and the Dayton Hispanic Heritage Festival.CuisineThe city's fine dining restaurants include The Pine Club, a nationally known steakhouse.
Dayton is home to a variety of pizza chains that have become woven into local culture, the most notable of which are Cassano's and Marion's Piazza, both of which produce Dayton-style pizza, which has a thin, crisp, salty crust dusted on the bottom with cornmeal and topped with a thin layer of thick unsweetened sauce. Cheese and other topping ingredients are heavily distributed and spread edge-to-edge with no outer rim of crust, and the finished pizza is cut into bite-size squares.
Notable Dayton-based restaurant chains include Hot Head Burritos.
In addition to restaurants, the city is also home to Esther Price Candies, a candy and chocolate company, and Mike-sells, the oldest potato chip company in the United States.
The city began developing a reputation for its number of breweries and craft beer venues by the late 2010s.
Religion
Many major religions are represented in Dayton. Christianity is represented in Dayton by dozens of denominations and their respective churches. Notable Dayton churches include the First Lutheran Church, Sacred Heart Church, and Ginghamsburg Church. Dayton's Muslim community is largely represented by the Islamic Society of Greater Dayton (ISGD), a Muslim community that includes a mosque on Josie Street. Dayton is also home to the United Theological Seminary, one of 13 seminaries affiliated with the United Methodist Church. Judaism is represented by Temple Israel. Hinduism is represented by the Hindu Temple of Dayton. Old North Dayton also has a number of Catholic churches built by immigrants from Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, and Germany.Tourism
]]
Tourism also accounts for one out of every 14 private sector jobs in the county. Tourism in the Dayton region is led by the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, the largest and oldest military aviation museum in the world. The museum draws over 1.3 million visitors per year and is one of the most-visited tourist attractions in Ohio. The museum houses the National Aviation Hall of Fame.
Other museums also play significant roles in the tourism and economy of the Dayton area. The Dayton Art Institute, a museum of fine arts, owns collections containing more than 20,000 objects spanning 5,000 years of art and archaeological history. The Dayton Art Institute was rated one of the top 10 best art museums in the United States for children. The Boonshoft Museum of Discovery is a children's museum of science with numerous exhibits, one of which includes an indoor zoo with nearly 100 different animals.
There are also some notable historical museums in the region. The Dayton Aviation Heritage National Historical Park, operated by the National Park Service, commemorates the lives and achievements of Dayton natives Orville and Wilbur Wright and Paul Laurence Dunbar. The Wright brothers' famous Wright Flyer III aircraft is housed in a museum at Carillon Historical Park. Dayton is also home to America's Packard Museum, which contains many restored historical Packard vehicles. SunWatch Indian Village/Archaeological Park, a partially reconstructed 12th-century prehistoric American Indian village, is on the south end of Dayton; it is organized around a central plaza dominated by wood posts forming an astronomical calendar. The park includes a museum where visitors can learn about the Indian history of the Miami Valley.
Parks and recreation
Dayton was named National Geographic's outdoor adventure capital of the Midwest in 2019 due in large part to the metropolitan area's revitalized Five Rivers MetroPark, extensive bicycle and jogging trail system, urban green spaces, lakes and camping areas.
In cooperation with the Miami Conservancy District, Five Rivers MetroParks hosts 340 miles of paved trails, the largest network of paved off-street trails in the United States. In 2010, the city of Troy was named "bike friendly" by the League of American Bicyclists, which gave the city the organization's bronze designation. The honorable mention made Dayton one of two cities in Ohio to receive the award, the other being Columbus, and one of 15 cities nationwide. The Dayton Dragons 815 consecutive sellouts surpassed the NBA's Portland Trail Blazers for the longest sellout streak across all professional sports in the U.S.
during a Dayton Flyers men's basketball game in 2016]]
The University of Dayton and Wright State University both host NCAA basketball. The University of Dayton Arena has hosted more games in the NCAA men's basketball tournament over its history than any other venue. UD Arena is also the site of the First Round games of the NCAA Tournament. In 2012, eight teams competed for the final four spots in the NCAA basketball tournament. Wright State University's NCAA men's basketball is the Wright State Raiders and the University of Dayton's NCAA men's basketball team is the Dayton Flyers.
The Dayton Gems were a minor league ice hockey team in the International Hockey League from 1964 to 1977, 1979 to 1980, and most recently 2009 to 2012. The Dayton Bombers were an ECHL ice hockey team from 1991 to 2009. They most recently played the North Division of the ECHL's American Conference. In June 2009, it was announced the Bombers would turn in their membership back to the league.
Despite the folding of the Bombers, hockey remained in Dayton as the Dayton Gems of the International Hockey League were formed in the fall of 2009 at Hara Arena. The Gems folded after the 2011–12 season. Shortly after the Gems folded, it was announced a new team, the Dayton Demonz, would begin play in 2012 in the Federal Hockey League (FHL). The Demonz folded in 2015 and were immediately replaced by the Dayton Demolition, also in the FHL. However, the Demolition would cease operations after only one season when Hara Arena decided to close due to financial difficulties.
Dayton hosted the first American Professional Football Association game (precursor to the NFL). The game was played at Triangle Park between the Dayton Triangles and the Columbus Panhandles on October 3, 1920, and is considered one of the first professional football games ever played. Football teams in the Dayton area include the Dayton Flyers and the Dayton Sharks.
The Dayton region is also known for the many golf courses and clubs that it hosts. The Miami Valley Golf Club, Moraine Country Club, NCR Country Club, and the Pipestone Golf Course are some of the more notable courses. Also, several PGA Championships have been held at area golf courses. The Miami Valley Golf Club hosted the 1957 PGA Championship, the Moraine Country Club hosted the 1945 PGA Championship, and the NCR Country club hosted the 1969 PGA Championship. Additionally, NCR CC hosted the 1986 U.S. Women's Open, the 2005 U.S. Senior Open, the 2013 State Team Championships and most recently the 2022 Senior Women's Open. Other notable courses include the Yankee Trace Golf Club, the Beavercreek Golf Club, Dayton Meadowbrook Country Club, Sycamore Creek Country Club, Heatherwoode Golf Club, Community Golf Course, and Kitty Hawk Golf Course.
The city of Dayton is the home to the Dayton Area Rugby Club which hosts their home games at the [https://www.google.com/maps/place/Dayton+Rugby+Grounds/@39.8240283,-84.2286685,17z/data!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x884081cca0a9e807:0x6cc508b8ef9ae78c!8m2!3d39.8240242!4d-84.2264798 Dayton Rugby Grounds]. As of 2018, the club fields two men's and one women's side for Rugby Union and several Rugby Sevens sides. The club also hosts the annual Gem City 7's tournament.Government
The Dayton City Commission is composed of the mayor and four city commissioners. Each city commission member is elected at-large on a non-partisan basis for four-year, overlapping terms. All policy items are decided by the city commission, which is empowered by the City Charter to pass ordinances and resolutions, adopt regulations, and appoint the city manager. The city manager is responsible for budgeting and implementing policies and initiatives. Dayton was the first large American city to adopt the city manager (Henry Matson Waite) form of municipal government, in 1913.
Education
Public schools
Dayton Public Schools operates 34 schools that serve 16,855 students, including:
* Belmont High
* Meadowdale High
* Paul Laurence Dunbar High
* Ponitz Career Technology Center
* Stivers School for the Arts
* Thurgood Marshall High
Private schools
The city of Dayton has more than 35 private schools within the city, including:
* Archbishop Alter High School
* Carroll High School
* Chaminade Julienne Catholic High School
* Dayton Christian School
* Dominion Academy of Dayton
* The Miami Valley School
* Spring Valley Academy
Charter schools
Dayton has 33 charter schools. Three of the top five charter schools named in 2011 are K–8 schools managed by National Heritage Academies. Notable charter schools include:
* Dayton Early College Academy
* Emerson Academy
* North Dayton School of Discovery
* Pathway School of Discovery
* Richard Allen Schools
Colleges and universities
The Dayton area was ranked tenth for higher education among metropolitan areas in the United States by Forbes in 2009. The city is home to two major universities. The University of Dayton is a private, Catholic institution founded in 1850 by the Marianist order. It has the only American Bar Association (ABA)-approved law school in the Dayton area. The University of Dayton is Ohio's largest private university and is also home to the University of Dayton Research Institute, which ranks third in the nation for sponsored materials research, and the Center for Tissue Regeneration and Engineering at Dayton, which focuses on human tissue regeneration.
The public Wright State University became a state university in 1967. Wright State University established the National Center for Medical Readiness, a national training program for disaster preparedness and relief. Wright State's Boonshoft School of Medicine is the Dayton area's only medical school and is a leader in biomedical research.
Dayton is also home to Sinclair Community College, the largest community college at a single location in Ohio and one of the nation's largest community colleges. Sinclair is acclaimed as one of the country's best community colleges. Sinclair was founded as the YMCA college in 1887.
Other schools just outside Dayton that shape the educational landscape are Antioch College and Antioch University, both in Yellow Springs, Central State University in Wilberforce, Kettering College of Medical Arts and School of Advertising Art in Kettering, DeVry University in Beavercreek, Cedarville University, Clark State Community College and Wittenberg University in Springfield. The Air Force Institute of Technology, which was founded in 1919 and serves as a graduate school for the United States Air Force, is at the nearby Wright-Patterson Air Force Base.
Institutions
* Boonshoft School of Medicine
* Dayton Art Institute
* Ohio Institute of Photography and Technology
* School of Advertising Art
* Wright State University
Media
Print
Dayton is served in print by The Dayton Daily News, the city's sole remaining daily newspaper. The Dayton Daily News is owned by Cox Enterprises. The Dayton region's main business newspaper is the Dayton Business Journal. The Dayton City Paper, a community paper focused on music, art, and independent thought ceased operation in 2018. The Dayton Weekly News has been published since 1993, providing news and information to Dayton's African-American community.
There are numerous magazines produced in and for the Dayton region. The Dayton Magazine provides insight into arts, food, and events. Focus on Business is published by the Chamber of Commerce to provide awareness of companies and initiatives affecting the regional economy
Television
Nielsen Media Research ranked the 11-county Dayton television market as the No. 62 market in the United States. The market is served by stations affiliated with major American networks including: WDTN, channel 2 – NBC, operated by Nexstar Media Group; WHIO-TV, channel 7 – CBS, operated by Cox Media Group; WPTD, channel 16 – PBS, operated by ThinkTV, which also operates WPTO, assigned to Oxford; WKEF, channel 22 – ABC/Fox, operated by Sinclair Broadcasting; WBDT, channel 26 – The CW, operated by Vaughan Media (a shell corporation of Nexstar), assigned to Springfield; WKOI-TV, channel 43 – Ion Television, assigned to Richmond, Indiana; and WRGT-TV, channel 45 – My Network TV, operated under a local marketing agreement by Sinclair Broadcasting. The nationally syndicated morning talk show The Daily Buzz originated from WBDT, the former ACME Communications property in Miamisburg, before moving to its current home in Florida.RadioDayton is also served by 42 AM and FM radio stations directly, and numerous other stations are heard from elsewhere in southwest Ohio, which serve outlying suburbs and adjoining counties.
Transportation
Public transit
The Greater Dayton Regional Transit Authority (RTA) operates public bus routes in the Dayton metro area. In addition to routes covered by traditional diesel-powered buses, RTA has several electric trolley bus routes. The Dayton trolleybus system is the second longest-running of the four remaining trolleybus systems in the U.S., having entered service in 1933. It is the present manifestation of an electric transit service that has operated continuously in Dayton since 1888.
Dayton operates a Greyhound Station which provides inter-city bus transportation to and from Dayton. The hub is in the Greater Dayton Regional Transit Authority North-West hub in Trotwood.Airports
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Dayton International Airport lies in a northern exclave of the city and offers service to 21 markets through 10 airlines. In 2008, it served 2.9 million passengers. The Dayton International Airport is also a significant regional air freight hub hosting FedEx Express, UPS Airlines, United States Postal Service, and major commercial freight carriers.
The Dayton area also has several regional airports. The Dayton–Wright Brothers Airport is a general aviation airport owned by the City of Dayton south of the central business district of Dayton on Springboro Pike in Miami Township. It serves as the reliever airport for Dayton International Airport. The airport primarily serves corporate and personal aircraft users. The Dahio Trotwood Airport, also known as Dayton-New Lebanon Airport, is a privately owned, public-use airport west of the central business district of Dayton. The Moraine Airpark is a privately owned, public-use airport southwest of the city of Dayton.
Major highways
The Dayton region is primarily served by three interstates:
* Interstate 75 runs north to south through the city of Dayton and many of Dayton's north and south suburbs, including Kettering and Centerville south of Dayton and Vandalia, Tipp City, and Troy north of Dayton.
* Interstate 70 is a major east–west interstate that runs through many of Dayton's east and west suburbs, including Huber Heights, Butler Township, Englewood, and Brookville, and intersects with I-75 in Vandalia, Ohio, just north of the city. This intersection of I-70 and I-75 is also known as "Freedom Veterans Crossroads", which was officially named by the U.S. Department of Transportation in 2004. I-70 is the major route to the airport.
* Interstate 675 is a partial interstate ring on the southeastern and eastern suburbs of Dayton. It runs northeast to south and connects to I-70 to the northeast and I-75 to the south.
Other major routes for the region include:
* US 35 is a major limited access east–west highway that bisects the city. It is most widely used between Drexel and Xenia.
* Route 40 is a major east–west highway that runs parallel to (and 2 miles north of) I-70
* State Route 4 is a freeway that is most heavily traveled between I-75 and I-70.
* State Route 444 is north–south state highway. Its southern terminus is at its interchange with Route 4, and its northern terminus is at Interstate 675. This limited-access road serves Dayton and Fairborn and is a significant route to access points serving Wright-Patterson Air Force Base.
From 2010 through 2017, the Ohio Department of Transportation (ODOT) performed a $533 million construction project to modify, reconstruct and widen I-75 through downtown Dayton, from Edwin C Moses Blvd. to Stanley Avenue.
Rail
Dayton hosts several inter-modal freight railroad terminals. Two Class I railroads, CSX and Norfolk Southern Railway, operate switching yards in the city.
Formerly the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, New York Central Railroad and the Pennsylvania Railroad, and afterward, Amtrak made long-distance passenger train stops at Dayton Union Station on S. Sixth Street. The last train leaving there was the National Limited in October 1979.Sister cities
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Dayton's sister cities are:
* Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Augsburg, Germany
* Holon, Israel
* Monrovia, Liberia
* Ōiso, Japan
* Rushmoor, England
Notable people
See also
* List of mayors of Dayton, Ohio
* List of people from Dayton, Ohio
* List of U.S. cities with large Black populations
* National Aviation Hall of Fame
* Politics of Dayton, Ohio
* USS Dayton, 2 ships
* Delco Electronics Corporation
* National Cash Register Corporation
Explanatory notes
References
Further reading
* Conover, Charlotte Reeve. Dayton, Ohio : an intimate history (1995) [https://archive.org/details/daytonohiointima0000cono online]
* Drury, Augustus Waldo. History of the City of Dayton and Montgomery County, Ohio (S. J. Clarke Publishing Company, 1909). [https://archive.org/search.php?query=title%3A%28DAYTON%29%20AND%20creator%3A%28DRURY%29 online]
* Funk, Nellis R. A Pictorial History of the Great Dayton Flood, March 25, 26, 27, 1913 (1913) [https://archive.org/details/apictorialhisto00funkgoog/page/n4/mode/2up online]; a primary source
* Millsap, Adam. "How the Gem city lost its luster and how it can get it back: A case study of Dayton, Ohio." Mercatus Research Paper (2017). [https://www.mercatus.org/system/files/millsap-dayton-ohio-case-study-mr-mercatus-v3.pdf online]
* Pocock, Emil. "Popular Roots of Jacksonian Democracy: The Case of Dayton, Ohio, 1815-1830." Journal of the Early Republic 9.4 (1989): 489–515. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3123753 online]
* Sealander, Judith. ''Grand Plans: Business Progressivism and Social Change in Ohio's Miami Valley, 1890-1929 (1988) on Dayton and surrounding region.
* Sharts, Joseph W. Biography Of Dayton - An Economic Interpretation of Local History (1922) [https://archive.org/details/ShartsBiographyOfDayton1922 online]
* Walker, John T. "Socialism in Dayton, Ohio, 1912 to 1925: Its membership, organization, and demise." Labor History 26.3 (1985): 384–404.
* Watras, Joseph. "The Racial Desegregation of Dayton, Ohio, Public Schools, 1966–2008." Ohio History'' 117.1 (2010): 93–107. [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/392726/summary online]
External links
* [http://www.cityofdayton.org/ City website]
* [http://www.daytonchamber.org/ Dayton Area Chamber of Commerce]
* [http://www.daytoncvb.com/ Greater Dayton CVB]
Category:1796 establishments in the Northwest Territory
Category:Cities in Greene County, Ohio
Category:Cities in Montgomery County, Ohio
Category:Cities in Ohio
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Category:Jonathan Dayton
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Category:Wright brothers
Category:World War II Heritage Cities
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Diode
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thumb|Various semiconductor diodes. Left: A four-diode bridge rectifier. Next to it is a 1N4148 signal diode. On the far right is a Zener diode. In most diodes, a white or black painted band identifies the cathode into which electrons will flow when the diode is conducting. Electron flow is the reverse of conventional current flow.
A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily in one direction (asymmetric conductance). It has low (ideally zero) resistance in one direction and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other.
A semiconductor diode, the most commonly used type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p–n junction connected to two electrical terminals. It has an exponential current–voltage characteristic. Semiconductor diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of asymmetric electrical conduction across the contact between a crystalline mineral and a metal was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. Today, most diodes are made of silicon, but other semiconducting materials such as gallium arsenide and germanium are also used.
The obsolete thermionic diode is a vacuum tube with two electrodes, a heated cathode and a plate, in which electrons can flow in only one direction, from the cathode to the plate.
Among many uses, diodes are found in rectifiers to convert alternating current (AC) power to direct current (DC), demodulation in radio receivers, and can even be used for logic or as temperature sensors. A common variant of a diode is a light-emitting diode, which is used as electric lighting and status indicators on electronic devices.
Main functions
Unidirectional current flow
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking it in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Its hydraulic analogy is a check valve. This unidirectional behavior can convert alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a process called rectification. As rectifiers, diodes can be used for such tasks as extracting modulation from radio signals in radio receivers.
Threshold voltage
thumb|Forward current–voltage curve of 4 common diodes.
A diode's behavior is often simplified as having a forward threshold voltage or turn-on voltage or cut-in voltage, above which there is significant current and below which there is almost no current, which depends on a diode's composition:
+Forward threshold voltage for various semiconductor diodesDiode TypeForward threshold voltageSilicon Schottky0.15 V to 0.45 VGermanium p–n0.25 V to 0.3 VSilicon p–n0.6 V to 0.7 VInfrared (GaAs) p–n~1.2 VLight-emitting diodes (LEDs)1.6 V (red) to 4 V (violet). has a complete list.
This voltage may loosely be referred to simply as the diode's forward voltage drop or just voltage drop, since a consequence of the steepness of the exponential is that a diode's voltage drop will not significantly exceed the threshold voltage under normal forward bias operating conditions. Datasheets typically quote a typical or maximum forward voltage (VF) for a specified current and temperature (e.g. 20 mA and 25 °C for LEDs), so the user has a guarantee about when a certain amount of current will kick in. At higher currents, the forward voltage drop of the diode increases. For instance, a drop of 1 V to 1.5 V is typical at full rated current for silicon power diodes. (See also: )
However, a semiconductor diode's exponential current–voltage characteristic is really more gradual than this simple on–off action. Although an exponential function may appear to have a definite "knee" around this threshold when viewed on a linear scale, the knee is an illusion that depends on the scale of y-axis representing current. In a semi-log plot (using a logarithmic scale for current and a linear scale for voltage), the diode's exponential curve instead appears more like a straight line.
Since a diode's forward-voltage drop varies only a little with the current, and is more so a function of temperature, this effect can be used as a temperature sensor or as a somewhat imprecise voltage reference.
Reverse breakdown
A diode's high resistance to current flowing in the reverse direction suddenly drops to a low resistance when the reverse voltage across the diode reaches a value called the breakdown voltage. This effect is used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes) or to protect circuits from high voltage surges (avalanche diodes).
Other functions
A semiconductor diode's current–voltage characteristic can be tailored by selecting the semiconductor materials and the doping impurities introduced into the materials during manufacture. Until the 1950s, vacuum diodes were used more frequently in radios because the early point-contact semiconductor diodes were less stable. In addition, most receiving sets had vacuum tubes for amplification that could easily have the thermionic diodes included in the tube (for example the 12SQ7 double diode triode), and vacuum-tube rectifiers and gas-filled rectifiers were capable of handling some high-voltage/high-current rectification tasks better than the semiconductor diodes (such as selenium rectifiers) that were available at that time.
In 1873, Frederick Guthrie observed that a grounded, white-hot metal ball brought in close proximity to an electroscope would discharge a positively charged electroscope, but not a negatively charged electroscope. In 1880, Thomas Edison observed unidirectional current between heated and unheated elements in a bulb, later called Edison effect, and was granted a patent on application of the phenomenon for use in a DC voltmeter. About 20 years later, John Ambrose Fleming (scientific adviser to the Marconi Company and former Edison employee) realized that the Edison effect could be used as a radio detector. Fleming patented the first true thermionic diode, the Fleming valve, in Britain on 16 November 1904 (followed by in November 1905). Throughout the vacuum tube era, valve diodes were used in almost all electronics such as radios, televisions, sound systems, and instrumentation. They slowly lost market share beginning in the late 1940s due to selenium rectifier technology and then to semiconductor diodes during the 1960s. Today they are still used in a few high power applications where their ability to withstand transient voltages and their robustness gives them an advantage over semiconductor devices, and in musical instrument and audiophile applications.
In 1874, German scientist Karl Ferdinand Braun discovered the "unilateral conduction" across a contact between a metal and a mineral. Indian scientist Jagadish Chandra Bose was the first to use a crystal for detecting radio waves in 1894. The crystal detector was developed into a practical device for wireless telegraphy by Greenleaf Whittier Pickard, who invented a silicon crystal detector in 1903 and received a patent for it on 20 November 1906. Other experimenters tried a variety of other minerals as detectors. Semiconductor principles were unknown to the developers of these early rectifiers. During the 1930s understanding of physics advanced and in the mid-1930s researchers at Bell Telephone Laboratories recognized the potential of the crystal detector for application in microwave technology. Researchers at Bell Labs, Western Electric, MIT, Purdue and in the UK intensively developed point-contact diodes (crystal rectifiers or crystal diodes) during World War II for application in radar. During the early 1950s, junction diodes were developed.
Etymology
At the time of their invention, asymmetrical conduction devices were known as rectifiers. In 1919, the year tetrodes were invented, William Henry Eccles coined the term diode from the Greek roots di (from δί), meaning 'two', and ode (from οδός), meaning 'path'. The word diode however was already in use, as were triode, tetrode, pentode, hexode, as terms of multiplex telegraphy.
Although all diodes rectify, "rectifier" usually applies to diodes used for power supply, to differentiate them from diodes intended for small signal circuits.
Vacuum tube diodes
A thermionic diode is a thermionic valve device consisting of a sealed, evacuated glass or metal envelope containing two electrodes: a cathode and a plate. The cathode is either indirectly heated or directly heated. If indirect heating is employed, a heater is included in the envelope.
In operation, the cathode is heated to red heat, around . A directly heated cathode is made of tungsten wire and is heated by a current passed through it from an external voltage source. An indirectly heated cathode is heated by infrared radiation from a nearby heater that is formed of Nichrome wire and supplied with current provided by an external voltage source.
thumb|upright|100px|left|A vacuum tube containing two power diodes
The operating temperature of the cathode causes it to release electrons into the vacuum, a process called thermionic emission. The cathode is coated with oxides of alkaline earth metals, such as barium and strontium oxides. These have a low work function, meaning that they more readily emit electrons than would the uncoated cathode.
The plate, not being heated, does not emit electrons; but is able to absorb them.
The alternating voltage to be rectified is applied between the cathode and the plate. When the plate voltage is positive with respect to the cathode, the plate electrostatically attracts the electrons from the cathode, so a current of electrons flows through the tube from cathode to plate. When the plate voltage is negative with respect to the cathode, no electrons are emitted by the plate, so no current can pass from the plate to the cathode.
Semiconductor diodes
thumb|upright=0.75|Close-up of an EFD108 germanium point-contact diode in DO7 glass package, showing the sharp metal wire (cat whisker) that forms the semiconductor junction.
Point-contact diodes
Point-contact diodes were developed starting in the 1930s, out of the early crystal detector technology, and are now generally used in the 3 to 30 gigahertz range. Point-contact diodes use a small diameter metal wire in contact with a semiconductor crystal, and are of either non-welded contact type or welded contact type. Non-welded contact construction utilizes the Schottky barrier principle. The metal side is the pointed end of a small diameter wire that is in contact with the semiconductor crystal. In the welded contact type, a small P region is formed in the otherwise N-type crystal around the metal point during manufacture by momentarily passing a relatively large current through the device. Point contact diodes generally exhibit lower capacitance, higher forward resistance and greater reverse leakage than junction diodes.
Junction diodes
p–n junction diode
A p–n junction diode is made of a crystal of semiconductor, usually silicon, but germanium and gallium arsenide are also used. Impurities are added to it to create a region on one side that contains negative charge carriers (electrons), called an n-type semiconductor, and a region on the other side that contains positive charge carriers (holes), called a p-type semiconductor. When the n-type and p-type materials are attached together, a momentary flow of electrons occurs from the n to the p side resulting in a third region between the two where no charge carriers are present. This region is called the depletion region because there are no charge carriers (neither electrons nor holes) in it. The diode's terminals are attached to the n-type and p-type regions. The boundary between these two regions, called a p–n junction, is where the action of the diode takes place. When a sufficiently higher electrical potential is applied to the P side (the anode) than to the N side (the cathode), it allows electrons to flow through the depletion region from the N-type side to the P-type side. The junction does not allow the flow of electrons in the opposite direction when the potential is applied in reverse, creating, in a sense, an electrical check valve.
Schottky diode
Another type of junction diode, the Schottky diode, is formed from a metal–semiconductor junction rather than a p–n junction, which reduces capacitance and increases switching speed.
Current–voltage characteristic
A semiconductor diode's behavior in a circuit is given by its current–voltage characteristic. The shape of the curve is determined by the transport of charge carriers through the so-called depletion layer or depletion region that exists at the p–n junction between differing semiconductors. When a p–n junction is first created, conduction-band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (vacant places for electrons) with which the electrons "recombine". When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, both hole and electron vanish, leaving behind an immobile positively charged donor (dopant) on the N side and negatively charged acceptor (dopant) on the P side. The region around the p–n junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator.
However, the width of the depletion region (called the depletion width) cannot grow without limit. For each electron–hole pair recombination made, a positively charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is created in the P-doped region. As recombination proceeds and more ions are created, an increasing electric field develops through the depletion zone that acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this point, there is a "built-in" potential across the depletion zone.
thumb|upright=2.8|none|A p–n junction diode in low forward bias mode. The depletion width decreases as voltage increases. Both p and n junctions are doped at a 1e15/cm3 doping level, leading to built-in potential of ~0.59V. Observe the different quasi Fermi levels for conduction band and valence band in n and p regions (red curves).
Reverse bias
If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator, preventing any significant electric current flow (unless electron–hole pairs are actively being created in the junction by, for instance, light; see photodiode).
Forward bias
However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed, resulting in a substantial electric current through the p–n junction (i.e. substantial numbers of electrons and holes recombine at the junction) that increases exponentially with voltage.
Operating regions
thumb|upright=1.4|Current–voltage characteristic of a p–n junction diode showing three regions: breakdown, reverse biased, forward biased. The exponential's "knee" is at Vd. The leveling off region which occurs at larger forward currents is not shown.
A diode's current–voltage characteristic can be approximated by four operating regions. From lower to higher bias voltages, these are:
Breakdown: At very large reverse bias, beyond the peak inverse voltage (PIV), a process called reverse breakdown occurs that causes a large increase in current (i.e., a large number of electrons and holes are created at, and move away from the p–n junction) that usually damages the device permanently. The avalanche diode is deliberately designed for use in that manner. In the Zener diode, the concept of PIV is not applicable. A Zener diode contains a heavily doped p–n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type material, such that the reverse voltage is "clamped" to a known value (called the Zener voltage), and avalanche does not occur. Both devices, however, do have a limit to the maximum current and power they can withstand in the clamped reverse-voltage region. Also, following the end of forwarding conduction in any diode, there is reverse current for a short time. The device does not attain its full blocking capability until the reverse current ceases.
Reverse biased: For a bias between breakdown and 0 V, the reverse current is very small and asymptotically approaches -Is. For a normal P–N rectifier diode, the reverse current through the device is in the micro-ampere (μA) range. However, this is temperature dependent, and at sufficiently high temperatures, a substantial amount of reverse current can be observed (mA or more). There is also a tiny surface leakage current caused by electrons simply going around the diode as though it were an imperfect insulator.right|thumb|500x500px|Semi-log I–V (logarithmic current vs. linear voltage) graph of various diodes.
Forward biased: The current–voltage curve is exponential, approximating the Shockley diode equation. When plotted using a linear current scale, a smooth "knee" appears, but no clear threshold voltage is visible on a semi-log graph.
Leveling off: At larger forward currents the current–voltage curve starts to be dominated by the ohmic resistance of the bulk semiconductor. The curve is no longer exponential, it is asymptotic to a straight line whose slope is the bulk resistance. This region is particularly important for power diodes and can be modeled by a Shockley ideal diode in series with a fixed resistor.
Shockley diode equation
The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law (named after the bipolar junction transistor co-inventor William Bradford Shockley) models the exponential current–voltage (I–V) relationship of diodes in moderate forward or reverse bias. The article Shockley diode equation provides details.
Small-signal behavior
At forward voltages less than the saturation voltage, the voltage versus current characteristic curve of most diodes is not a straight line. The current can be approximated by I = I_\text{S} e^{V_\text{D}/(n V_\text{T})} as explained in the Shockley diode equation article.
In detector and mixer applications, the current can be estimated by a Taylor's series. The odd terms can be omitted because they produce frequency components that are outside the pass band of the mixer or detector. Even terms beyond the second derivative usually need not be included because they are small compared to the second order term. A certain amount of "reverse recovery time" r (on the order of tens of nanoseconds to a few microseconds) may be required to remove the reverse recovery charge r from the diode. During this recovery time, the diode can actually conduct in the reverse direction. This might give rise to a large current in the reverse direction for a short time while the diode is reverse biased. The magnitude of such a reverse current is determined by the operating circuit (i.e., the series resistance) and the diode is said to be in the storage-phase. In certain real-world cases it is important to consider the losses that are incurred by this non-ideal diode effect. However, when the slew rate of the current is not so severe (e.g. Line frequency) the effect can be safely ignored. For most applications, the effect is also negligible for Schottky diodes.
The reverse current ceases abruptly when the stored charge is depleted; this abrupt stop is exploited in step recovery diodes for the generation of extremely short pulses.
Types of semiconductor diode
thumb|upright=1.4|Current–voltage curves of several types of diodes
Normal (p–n) diodes, which operate as described above, are usually made of doped silicon or germanium. Before the development of silicon power rectifier diodes, cuprous oxide and later selenium was used. Their low efficiency required a much higher forward voltage to be applied (typically 1.4 to 1.7 V per "cell", with multiple cells stacked so as to increase the peak inverse voltage rating for application in high voltage rectifiers), and required a large heat sink (often an extension of the diode's metal substrate), much larger than the later silicon diode of the same current ratings would require. The vast majority of all diodes are the p–n diodes found in CMOS integrated circuits, which include two diodes per pin and many other internal diodes.
Avalanche diodes
These are diodes that conduct in the reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage. These are electrically very similar to Zener diodes (and are often mistakenly called Zener diodes), but break down by a different mechanism: the avalanche effect. This occurs when the reverse electric field applied across the p–n junction causes a wave of ionization, reminiscent of an avalanche, leading to a large current. Avalanche diodes are designed to break down at a well-defined reverse voltage without being destroyed. The difference between the avalanche diode (which has a reverse breakdown above about 6.2 V) and the Zener is that the channel length of the former exceeds the mean free path of the electrons, resulting in many collisions between them on the way through the channel. The only practical difference between the two types is they have temperature coefficients of opposite polarities.
Constant-current diodes
These are actually JFETs with the gate shorted to the source, and function like a two-terminal current-limiting analog to the voltage-limiting Zener diode. They allow a current through them to rise to a certain value, and then level off at a specific value. Also called CLDs, constant-current diodes, diode-connected transistors, or current-regulating diodes.
Crystal rectifiers or crystal diodes
These are point-contact diodes.
Gunn diodes
These are similar to tunnel diodes in that they are made of materials such as GaAs or InP that exhibit a region of negative differential resistance. With appropriate biasing, dipole domains form and travel across the diode, allowing high frequency microwave oscillators to be built.
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
In a diode formed from a direct band-gap semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide, charge carriers that cross the junction emit photons when they recombine with the majority carrier on the other side. Depending on the material, wavelengths (or colors) from the infrared to the near ultraviolet may be produced. The first LEDs were red and yellow, and higher-frequency diodes have been developed over time. All LEDs produce incoherent, narrow-spectrum light; "white" LEDs are actually a blue LED with a yellow scintillator coating, or combinations of three LEDs of a different color. LEDs can also be used as low-efficiency photodiodes in signal applications. An LED may be paired with a photodiode or phototransistor in the same package, to form an opto-isolator.
Laser diodes
When an LED-like structure is contained in a resonant cavity formed by polishing the parallel end faces, a laser can be formed. Laser diodes are commonly used in optical storage devices and for high speed optical communication.
Thermal diodes
This term is used both for conventional p–n diodes used to monitor temperature because of their varying forward voltage with temperature, and for Peltier heat pumps for thermoelectric heating and cooling. Peltier heat pumps may be made from semiconductors, though they do not have any rectifying junctions, they use the differing behavior of charge carriers in N and P-type semiconductor to move heat.
Photodiodes
All semiconductors are subject to optical charge carrier generation. This is typically an undesired effect, so most semiconductors are packaged in light-blocking material. Photodiodes are intended to sense light (photodetector), so they are packaged in materials that allow light to pass, and are usually PIN (the kind of diode most sensitive to light). A photodiode can be used in solar cells, in photometry, or in optical communications. Multiple photodiodes may be packaged in a single device, either as a linear array or as a two-dimensional array. These arrays should not be confused with charge-coupled devices.
PIN diodes
A PIN diode has a central un-doped, or intrinsic, layer, forming a p-type/intrinsic/n-type structure. They are used as radio frequency switches and attenuators. They are also used as large-volume, ionizing-radiation detectors and as photodetectors. PIN diodes are also used in power electronics, as their central layer can withstand high voltages. Furthermore, the PIN structure can be found in many power semiconductor devices, such as IGBTs, power MOSFETs, and thyristors.
Schottky diodes
Schottky diodes are constructed from metal to semiconductor contact. They have a lower forward voltage drop than p–n junction diodes. Their forward voltage drop at forward currents of about 1 mA is in the range 0.15 V to 0.45 V, which makes them useful in voltage clamping applications and prevention of transistor saturation. They can also be used as low loss rectifiers, although their reverse leakage current is in general higher than that of other diodes. Schottky diodes are majority carrier devices and so do not suffer from minority carrier storage problems that slow down many other diodes—so they have a faster reverse recovery than p–n junction diodes. They also tend to have much lower junction capacitance than p–n diodes, which provides for high switching speeds and their use in high-speed circuitry and RF devices such as switched-mode power supply, mixers, and detectors.
Super barrier diodes
Super barrier diodes are rectifier diodes that incorporate the low forward voltage drop of the Schottky diode with the surge-handling capability and low reverse leakage current of a normal p–n junction diode.
Gold-doped diodes
As a dopant, gold (or platinum) acts as recombination centers, which helps the fast recombination of minority carriers. This allows the diode to operate at higher signal frequencies, at the expense of a higher forward voltage drop. Gold-doped diodes are faster than other p–n diodes (but not as fast as Schottky diodes). They also have less reverse-current leakage than Schottky diodes (but not as good as other p–n diodes). A typical example is the 1N914.
Snap-off or step recovery diodes
The term step recovery relates to the form of the reverse recovery characteristic of these devices. After a forward current has been passing in an SRD and the current is interrupted or reversed, the reverse conduction will cease very abruptly (as in a step waveform). SRDs can, therefore, provide very fast voltage transitions by the very sudden disappearance of the charge carriers.
Stabistors or forward reference diodes
The term stabistor refers to a special type of diodes featuring extremely stable forward voltage characteristics. These devices are specially designed for low-voltage stabilization applications requiring a guaranteed voltage over a wide current range and highly stable over temperature.
Transient voltage suppression diode (TVS)
These are avalanche diodes designed specifically to protect other semiconductor devices from high-voltage transients. Their p–n junctions have a much larger cross-sectional area than those of a normal diode, allowing them to conduct large currents to ground without sustaining damage.
Tunnel diodes or Esaki diodes
These have a region of operation showing negative resistance caused by quantum tunneling, allowing amplification of signals and very simple bistable circuits. Because of the high carrier concentration, tunnel diodes are very fast, may be used at low (mK) temperatures, high magnetic fields, and in high radiation environments. Because of these properties, they are often used in spacecraft.
Varicap or varactor diodes
These are used as voltage-controlled capacitors. These are important in PLL (phase-locked loop) and FLL (frequency-locked loop) circuits, allowing tuning circuits, such as those in television receivers, to lock quickly on to the frequency. They also enabled tunable oscillators in the early discrete tuning of radios, where a cheap and stable, but fixed-frequency, crystal oscillator provided the reference frequency for a voltage-controlled oscillator.
Zener diodes
These can be made to conduct in reverse bias (backward), and are correctly termed reverse breakdown diodes. This effect called Zener breakdown, occurs at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a precision voltage reference. The term Zener diodes is colloquially applied to several types of breakdown diodes, but strictly speaking, Zener diodes have a breakdown voltage of below 5 volts, whilst avalanche diodes are used for breakdown voltages above that value. In practical voltage reference circuits, Zener and switching diodes are connected in series and opposite directions to balance the temperature coefficient response of the diodes to near-zero. Some devices labeled as high-voltage Zener diodes are actually avalanche diodes (see above). Two (equivalent) Zeners in series and in reverse order, in the same package, constitute a transient absorber (or Transorb, a registered trademark).
Graphic symbols
The symbol used to represent a particular type of diode in a circuit diagram conveys the general electrical function to the reader. There are alternative symbols for some types of diodes, though the differences are minor. The triangle in the symbols points to the forward direction, i.e. in the direction of conventional current flow.
File:Diode symbol.svg|Diode
File:LED symbol.svg|Light-emitting diode (LED)
File:Photodiode symbol.svg|Photodiode
File:Schottky diode symbol.svg|Schottky diode
File:Transient voltage suppression diode symbol.svg|Transient-voltage-suppression diode (TVS)
File:Tunnel diode symbol.svg|Tunnel diode
File:Varicap symbol.svg|Varicap
File:Zener diode symbol.svg|Zener diode
File:Diode pinout en fr.svg|Typical diode packages in same alignment as diode symbol. The thin bar depicts the cathode.
Numbering and coding schemes
There are a number of common, standard and manufacturer-driven numbering and coding schemes for diodes; the two most common being the EIA/JEDEC standard and the European Pro Electron standard:
EIA/JEDEC
The standardized 1N-series numbering EIA370 system was introduced in the US by EIA/JEDEC (Joint Electron Device Engineering Council) about 1960. Most diodes have a 1-prefix designation (e.g., 1N4003). Among the most popular in this series were: 1N34A/1N270 (germanium signal), 1N914/1N4148 (silicon signal), 1N400x (silicon 1A power rectifier), and 1N580x (silicon 3A power rectifier).
JIS
The JIS semiconductor designation system has all semiconductor diode designations starting with "1S".
Pro Electron
The European Pro Electron coding system for active components was introduced in 1966 and comprises two letters followed by the part code. The first letter represents the semiconductor material used for the component (A germanium and B silicon) and the second letter represents the general function of the part (for diodes, A low-power/signal, B variable capacitance, X multiplier, Y rectifier and Z = voltage reference); for example:
AA-series germanium low-power/signal diodes (e.g., AA119)
BA-series silicon low-power/signal diodes (e.g., BAT18 silicon RF switching diode)
BY-series silicon rectifier diodes (e.g., BY127 1250V, 1A rectifier diode)
BZ-series silicon Zener diodes (e.g., BZY88C4V7 4.7V Zener diode)
Other common numbering/coding systems (generally manufacturer-driven) include:
GD-series germanium diodes (e.g., GD9)this is a very old coding system
OA-series germanium diodes (e.g., OA47)a coding sequence developed by Mullard, a UK company
Related devices
Rectifier
Transistor
Thyristor or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)
TRIAC
DIAC
Varistor
In optics, an equivalent device for the diode but with laser light would be the optical isolator, also known as an optical diode, that allows light to only pass in one direction. It uses a Faraday rotator as the main component.
Applications
Radio demodulation
thumb|300x300px|A simple envelope demodulator circuit.
The first use for the diode was the demodulation of amplitude modulated (AM) radio broadcasts. The history of this discovery is treated in depth in the crystal detector article. In summary, an AM signal consists of alternating positive and negative peaks of a radio carrier wave, whose amplitude or envelope is proportional to the original audio signal. The diode rectifies the AM radio frequency signal, leaving only the positive peaks of the carrier wave. The audio is then extracted from the rectified carrier wave using a simple filter and fed into an audio amplifier or transducer, which generates sound waves via audio speaker.
In microwave and millimeter wave technology, beginning in the 1930s, researchers improved and miniaturized the crystal detector. Point contact diodes (crystal diodes) and Schottky diodes are used in radar, microwave and millimeter wave detectors. and CY7 cryogenic temperature sensor.
Current steering
Diodes will prevent currents in unintended directions. To supply power to an electrical circuit during a power failure, the circuit can draw current from a battery. An uninterruptible power supply may use diodes in this way to ensure that the current is only drawn from the battery when necessary. Likewise, small boats typically have two circuits each with their own battery/batteries: one used for engine starting; one used for domestics. Normally, both are charged from a single alternator, and a heavy-duty split-charge diode is used to prevent the higher-charge battery (typically the engine battery) from discharging through the lower-charge battery when the alternator is not running.
Diodes are also used in electronic musical keyboards. To reduce the amount of wiring needed in electronic musical keyboards, these instruments often use keyboard matrix circuits. The keyboard controller scans the rows and columns to determine which note the player has pressed. The problem with matrix circuits is that, when several notes are pressed at once, the current can flow backward through the circuit and trigger "phantom keys" that cause "ghost" notes to play. To avoid triggering unwanted notes, most keyboard matrix circuits have diodes soldered with the switch under each key of the musical keyboard. The same principle is also used for the switch matrix in solid-state pinball machines.
Waveform clipper
Diodes can be used to limit the positive or negative excursion of a signal to a prescribed voltage.
Clamper
150px|thumb|This simple diode clamp will clamp the negative peaks of the incoming waveform to the common rail voltage
A diode clamp circuit can take a periodic alternating current signal that oscillates between positive and negative values, and vertically displace it such that either the positive or the negative peaks occur at a prescribed level. The clamper does not restrict the peak-to-peak excursion of the signal, it moves the whole signal up or down so as to place the peaks at the reference level.
Computing exponentials and logarithms
The diode's exponential current–voltage relationship is exploited to evaluate exponentiation and its inverse function the logarithm using analog voltage signals (see ).
Oscillator
It is possible to modify a regular semiconductor diode like 1N4148 to give it a negative differential resistance by injection of calibrated current pulses ,the diode being reversely biased near its avalanche zone .After this treatment the diode associated with an L/C circuit can oscillate , the frequency set by the L/C circuit .The maximum frequency depends on the diode used .With a 1N4148 oscillation can go up to 100 Mhz (see https://www.researchgate.net/publication/384043395_Another_way_to_create_negative_differential_resistance_Author)
Abbreviations
Diodes are usually referred to as D for diode on PCBs. Sometimes the abbreviation CR for crystal rectifier is used.
See also
Active rectification
Diode-connected transistor
Diode modelling
Fast/ultrafast diode
Flame rectification
Lambda diode
Lr-diode
p–n junction
Small-signal model
References
Further reading
Historical circuit books
50 Simple LED Circuits; 1st Ed; R.N. Soar; Babani Press; 62 pages; 1977; . (archive)
38 Practical Tested Diode Circuits For the Home Constructor; 1st Ed; Bernard Babani; Krisson Printing; 48 pages; 1972. (archive)
Diode Circuits Handbook; 1st Ed; Rufus Turner; Howard Sams & Co; 128 pages; 1963; LCCN 63-13904. (archive)
40 Uses for Germanium Diodes; 2nd Ed; Sylvania Electric Products; 47 pages; 1949. (archive)
Historical periodicals
Rectifier Applications Handbook; On Semiconductor; 270 pages; 2001. (archive)
Silicon Rectifier Handbook; 1st Ed; Bob Dale; Motorola; 213 pages; 1966. (archive)
Electronic Rectification; F.G. Spreadbury; D. Van Nostrand Co; 1962.
Zener Diode Handbook; International Rectifier; 96 pages; 1960.
F.T. Selenium Rectifier Handbook; 2nd Ed; Federal Telephone and Radio; 80 pages; 1953. (archive)
S.T. Selenium Rectifier Handbook; 1st Ed; Sarkes Tarzian; 80 pages; 1950. (archive)
Historical databooks
Discrete Databook; 1989; National Semiconductor (now Texas Instruments)
Discrete Databook; 1985; Fairchild (now ON Semiconductor)
Discrete Databook; 1982; SGS (now STMicroelectronics)
Semiconductor Databook; 1965; Motorola (now ON Semiconductor)
External links
Category:1904 introductions
Category:Semiconductor devices
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode
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Drexel University
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| image = Drexel University seal.svg
| image_upright = .7
| motto "Ambition Can't Wait"<br>On seal: "Art, Science, Industry"
| established
| founder = Anthony Joseph Drexel
| type = Private research university
| accreditation = MSCHE
| academic_affiliations
| endowment $966 million (2023)
| president = Denis O'Brien
| vice-president | provost Paul E. Jensen
| students 24,205
| undergrad 15,346 <br>
| sporting_affiliations =
| athletics_nickname = Dragons
| mascot = Mario the Magnificent
| free_label = Other campuses
| free =
| free_label2 = Newspaper
| free2 = The Triangle
| website =
| logo = Drexel University logo.svg
| logo_upright = 0.7
| footnotes =
}}
Drexel University is a private research university with its main campus in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Drexel's undergraduate school was founded in 1891 by Anthony J. Drexel, a financier and philanthropist. Founded as Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry, it was renamed Drexel Institute of Technology in 1936, before assuming its current name in 1970. , more than 24,000 students were enrolled in over 70 undergraduate programs and more than 100 master's, doctoral, and professional programs at the university.History19th century
by Moses J. Ezekiel, which was completed in 1904 and moved to the Drexel campus in 1966]]
and sculpture by Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse, which was donated to the university in 1912]]
Drexel University was founded in 1891 as the Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry by Anthony J. Drexel, a Philadelphia financier and philanthropist. The original mission of the institution was to provide educational opportunities in the "practical arts and sciences" for women and men of all backgrounds.
Drexel can now trace its roots to 1812 as in 2011 Drexel took over the management of what is now named Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University which Academy was formed in the winter of 1812. In April 1817, the legislature of Commonwealth of Pennsylvania incorporated the organization under the name "Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia".
20th century
In 1936, the institution was renamed as the Drexel Institute of Technology. It eventually gained university status and was finally named Drexel University in 1970.21st centuryIn 2002, Drexel University acquired and assumed management of the former Medical College of Pennsylvania (MCP) Hahnemann University, creating the Drexel University College of Medicine. In 2006, the university established the Thomas R. Kline School of Law, and in 2011 the School of Law achieved full accreditation by the American Bar Association.
Constantine Papadakis died of pneumonia in April 2009 while still employed as the university's president. His successor, John Anderson Fry, was previously the president of Franklin & Marshall College and executive vice president of the University of Pennsylvania.
Under Fry's leadership, Drexel has continued its expansion, including the July 2011 acquisition of The Academy of Natural Sciences.
In 2024, Drexel has acquired Salus University which has multiple programs in health related fields.
Fry announced his resignation in July 2024 to become President of Temple University upon the death of acting President JoAnne Epps. Denis O'Brien is appointed as interim president until Fry's successor, Antonio Merlo, assumes the presidency on July 1, 2025.AcademicsSchools and collegesCollege of Arts and Sciences
The College of Arts and Sciences was formed in 1990 when Drexel merged the two existing College of Sciences and College of Humanities together.
Antoinette Westphal College of Media Arts and Design
The College of Media Arts and Design "fosters the study, exploration and management of the arts: media, design, the performing and visual". The college offers 18 undergraduate programs and nine graduate programs, in modern art and design fields that range from architecture, graphic design and dance to fashion design and television management. Its wide range of programs has helped the college earn full accreditation from the National Association of Schools of Art and Design, the National Architectural Accrediting Board, and the Council for Interior Design Accreditation.
Bennett S. LeBow College of Business
]]
The Bennett S. LeBow College of Business history dates to the founding in 1891 of the Drexel Institute, that later became Drexel University, and of its Business Department in 1896. Today LeBow offers thirteen undergraduate majors, eight graduate programs, and two doctoral programs; 22 percent of Drexel University's undergraduate students are enrolled in a LeBow College of Business program.
The LeBow College of Business has been ranked as the 38th best private business school in the nation. Its online MBA program is ranked 14th in the world by the Financial Times; the publication also ranks the undergraduate business program at LeBow as 19th in the United States. The part-time MBA program ranks 1st in academic quality in the 2015 edition of ''Business Insider's rankings. Undergraduate and graduate entrepreneurship programs are ranked 19th in the country by the Princeton Review.School of EconomicsEconomics programs at the LeBow College of Business are housed within the School of Economics. In addition to the undergraduate program in economics, the school is home to an M.S. in Economics program as well as a PhD program in economics. Faculty members in the School of Economics have been published in the American Economic Review, RAND Journal of Economics, and Review of Economics and Statistics.'' The school has been ranked among the best in the world for its extensive research into matters of international trade.College of Engineering
on Market Street]]
Drexel's College of Engineering is one of its oldest and largest academic colleges and served as the original focus of the career-oriented school upon its founding in 1891. The College of Engineering is home to several notable alumni, including two astronauts; financier Bennett S. LeBow, for whom the university's College of Business is named; and Paul Baran, inventor of the packet-switched network. Today, Drexel University's College of Engineering, which is home to 19 percent of the undergraduate student body, is known for creating the world's first engineering degree in appropriate technology. The college is also one of only 17 U.S. universities to offer a bachelor's degree in architectural engineering, and only one of five private institutions to do so.Drexel Engineering Curriculum (tDEC)The engineering curriculum used by the school was originally called E4 (Enhanced Educational Experience for Engineers) which was established in 1986 and funded in part by the Engineering Directorate of the National Science Foundation.
In 1988, the program evolved into tDEC (the Drexel Engineering Curriculum)College of Medicine
The Drexel University College of Medicine was added to the colleges and schools of the university in 2002, having been formed upon the acquisition of MCP Hahnemann University. In addition to its M.D. program, the College of Medicine offers more than 40 graduate programs in its Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Professional Studies.
Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Professional Studies
The Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Professional studies offers both Master of Science and Doctor of Philosophy degree programs in fields like biochemistry, biotechnology, clinical research, and forensic science. The school also serves as the center for biomedical research at Drexel University.
School of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Health Systems
Founded in 1961 as the United States' first Biomedical Engineering and Science Institute, the School of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Health Systems focuses on the emerging field of biomedical science at the undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral levels. Primary research areas within the school include bioinformatics, biomechanics, biomaterials, neuroengineering, and cardiovascular engineering.
College of Nursing and Health Professions
Formed in 2002 along with the College of Medicine, Drexel's College of Nursing and Health Professions offers more than 25 programs to undergraduate and graduate students in the fields of nursing, nutrition, health sciences, health services, and radiologic technology. The college's research into matters of nutrition and rehabilitation have garnered approximately $2.9 million in external research funding on an annual basis. The physician assistant program at Drexel's College of Nursing and Health Professions is ranked in the top 15 such programs in the United States; its anesthesia programs and physical therapy programs are, respectively, ranked as top-50 programs nationwide.Pennoni Honors College
The Pennoni Honors College, named for Drexel alumnus and trustee Dr. C.R. "Chuck" Pennoni '63, '66, Hon. '92, and his wife Annette, recognizes and promotes excellence among Drexel students. Students admitted to the Honors College live together and take many of the same classes; the college provides these students with access to unique cultural and social activities and a unique guest speaker series. Students are also involved in the university's Honors Student Advisory Committee and have the opportunity to take part in Drexel's "Alternative Spring Break", an international study tour held each spring.
Thomas R. Kline School of Law
]]
Upon its founding in 2006, the Thomas R. Kline School of Law, originally known as the Earle Mack School of Law, was the first law school founded in Philadelphia in more than three decades. The School of Law offers L.L.M. and Master of Legal Studies degrees, in addition to the flagship Juris Doctor program, and uniquely offers cooperative education as part of its curriculum across all programs. In 2015, Bloomberg Business ranked the Kline School of Law as the second most underrated law school in the United States.School of Education
]]
One of the oldest schools within Drexel University, the modern School of Education dates back to the 1891 founding of the school. Originally, the Department of Education offered teacher training to women as one of its original, career-focused degree programs. Today, the School of Education offers a coeducational approach to teacher training at the elementary and secondary levels for undergraduates. Other undergraduate programs include those focused on the intersection between learning and technology, teacher certification for non-education majors, and a minor in education for students with an interest in instruction. Graduate degrees offered by the School of Education include those in administration and leadership, special education, higher education, mathematics education, international education, and educational creativity and innovation. Doctoral degrees are offered in educational leadership and learning technologies.
Dornsife School of Public Health
The School of Public Health states that its mission is to "provide education, conduct research, and partner with communities and organizations to improve the health of populations". To that end, the school offers both a B.S. and a minor in public health for undergraduate students as well as several options for students pursuing graduate and doctoral degrees in the field. At the graduate level, the Dornsife School offers both a Master of Public Health and an Executive Master of Public Health, as well as an M.S. in biostatistics and an M.S. in epidemiology. Two Doctor of Public Health degrees are also offered, as isa Doctor of Philosophy in epidemiology. The school's graduate and doctoral students are heavily invested in the research activities of the Dornsife School of Public Health, which has helped the school attract annual funding for its four research centers.
Center for Hospitality and Sport Management
The Center for Hospitality and Sport Management was formed in 2013, in an effort to house and consolidate academic programs in hospitality, tourism management, the culinary arts, and sport management. Academic programs combine the unique skills required of the sports and hospitality industries with the principles and curriculum espoused by the management programs within Drexel's LeBow College of Business.
Charles D. Close School of Entrepreneurship
Focusing specifically on the skills required to successfully start and launch a business, The Charles D. Close School of Entrepreneurship is the first and only freestanding school of entrepreneurship in the United States. Undergraduate students take part in a B.A. program in entrepreneurship and innovation, while graduate students a combined Master of Science degree in biomedicine and entrepreneurship. Minors in entrepreneurship are also offered to undergraduate students.
Laurence A. Baiada Institute for Entrepreneurship
Housed within the Close School is the Baiada Institute for Entrepreneurship. The institute serves as an incubator for Drexel student startups, providing resources and mentorships to students and some post-graduates who are starting their own business while enrolled in one of the Close School's degree programs or academic minors.
Online education
Drexel University launched its first Internet-based education program, a master's degree in Library & Information Science, in 1996. In 2001, Drexel created its wholly owned, for-profit online education subsidiary, Drexel e-Learning, Inc., better known as Drexel University Online. It was announced in October 2013 that Drexel University Online would no longer be a for-profit venture, but rather become an internal division within the university to better serve its online student population. Although headquartered in Philadelphia, Drexel announced a new Washington, D.C., location in December 2012 to serve as both an academic and outreach center, catering to the online student population.
Drexel University Online founded the National Distance Learning Week, in conjunction with the United States Distance Learning Association, in 2007. In September 2010, Drexel University Online received the Sloan-C award for institution-wide excellence in online education indicating that it had exceptional programs of "demonstrably high quality" at the regional and national levels and across disciplines. Drexel University Online won the 2008 United States Distance Learning Association's Best Practices Awards for Distance Learning Programming. In 2007, the online education subsidiary had a revenue of $40 million. In March 2013, Drexel Online had more than 7,000 unique students from all 50 states and more than 20 countries pursuing a bachelor's, master's, or certificate. , Drexel University Online offers more than 100 fully accredited master's degrees, bachelor's degrees and certificate programs.Cooperative education programDrexel's longstanding cooperative education, or "co-op" program is one of the largest and oldest in the United States. Drexel has a fully internet-based job database, where students can submit résumés and request interviews with any of the thousands of companies that offer positions. Students also have the option of obtaining a co-op via independent search. A student graduating from Drexel's 5-year degree program typically has a total of 18 months of co-op with up to three different companies. The majority of co-ops are paid, averaging $18,720 per 6-month period, however this figure changes with major. About one third of Drexel graduates are offered full-time positions by their co-op employers right after graduation.
Research activity
Drexel is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very High Research Activity". The university was ranked 51st in the 2018 edition of the "Top 100 Worldwide Universities Granted U.S. Utility Patents" list released by the National Academy of Inventors and the Intellectual Property Owners Association.
Rankings
{|class"wikitable floatright" style"width: 22em;"
|+USNWR graduate school rankings
|-
| Education
| 178
|-
| Engineering
| 74
|-
| Law
| 93
|-
| Medicine: Primary Care
| 94–122
|-
| Medicine: Research
| 91
|-
| Nursing: Master's
| 89
|}
{|class"wikitable floatright" style"width: 22em;"
|+USNWR departmental rankings The Wall Street Journal ranked Drexel 54th among 400 institutions in the United States.
In its 2018 rankings, Times Higher Education World University Rankings and The Wall Street Journal ranked Drexel 74th among national universities and 351st-400th among international universities.
In its 2018 rankings, Forbes ranked Drexel 24th among STEM universities. In 2025, it also ranked Drexel 146th among 500 national universities, liberal arts colleges and service academies, 107th among research universities, 82nd among private universities, and 64th among universities in the Northeast.
In 2024, Washington Monthly ranked Drexel 143rd among 438 national universities in the U.S. based on Drexel's contribution to the public good, as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service.
In 2016, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked the undergraduate business program 78th in the country. In 2014, Business Insider ranked Drexel's graduate business school 19th in the country for networking.
Campuses
Drexel University's programs are divided across three Philadelphia-area campuses: the University City Campus, the Center City Campus and the Queen Lane College of Medicine Campus.
University City Main Campus
The University City Main Campus of Drexel University is located just west of the Schuylkill River in the University City district of Philadelphia. It is Drexel's largest and oldest campus; the campus contains the university's administrative offices and serves as the main academic center for students. The northern, residential portion of the main campus is located in the Powelton Village section of West Philadelphia. The two prominent performing stages at Drexel University are the Mandell Theater and the Main Auditorium. The Main Auditorium dates back to the founding of Drexel and construction of its main hall. It features over 1000 seats, and a pipe organ installed in 1928. The organ was purchased by Saturday Evening Post publisher Cyrus H. K. Curtis after he had donated a similar organ, the Curtis Organ, to nearby University of Pennsylvania and it was suggested that he do the same for Drexel. The 424-seat Mandell Theater was built in 1973 and features a more performance-oriented stage, including a full fly system, modern stage lighting facilities, stadium seating, and accommodations for wheelchairs. It is used for the semiannual spring musical, as well as various plays and many events.Queen Lane CampusThe Queen Lane Campus was purchased by Drexel University as part of its acquisition of MCP Hahnemann University. It is located in the East Falls neighborhood of northwest Philadelphia and is primarily utilized by first- and second-year medical students, and researchers. A free shuttle is available, connecting the Queen Lane Campus to the Center City Hahnemann and University City Main campuses.
Center City Campus
The Center City Campus is in the middle of Philadelphia, straddling the Vine Street Expressway between Broad and 15th Streets. Shuttle service is offered between the Center City Campus and both the University City and Queen Lane campuses of the university.
Academy of Natural Sciences
'' fossil on display with other dinosaur specimens at the Academy of Natural Sciences]]
In 2011, The Academy of Natural Sciences entered into an agreement to become a subsidiary of Drexel University. Founded in 1812, the Academy of Natural Sciences is America's oldest natural history museum and is a world leader in biodiversity and environmental research.
Drexel University Sacramento
On January 5, 2009, Drexel University opened the Center for Graduate Studies in Sacramento, California. Eventually renamed Drexel University Sacramento upon the addition of an undergraduate program in business administration, the campus also offered an Ed.D. program in Educational Leadership and Management and master's degree programs in Business Administration, Finance, Higher Education, Human Resource Development, Public Health, and Interdepartmental Medical Science. On March 5, 2015, Drexel University announced the closure of the Sacramento campus, with an 18-month "phase out" period designed to allow current students to complete their degrees.
Student life
Graduate Students Association
s]]
The Graduate Student Association "advocates the interests and addresses concerns of graduate students at Drexel; strives to enhance graduate student life at the University in all aspects, from academic to campus security; and provides a formal means of communication between graduate students and the University community".
Jewish life on campus
Drexel has an approximate Jewish population of 5% and has both a Chabad House and a Hillel. Both provide services to Jewish and non-Jewish students at Drexel. Due to an increase in the number of Orthodox Jewish students, the Hillel offers hot kosher food Monday through Thursday. There is also an eruv which is jointly managed by Jewish students from Drexel and the University of Pennsylvania. Television DUTV is Drexel's Philadelphia cable television station. The student operated station is part of the Paul F. Harron Studios at Drexel University. The purpose of DUTV is to provide "the people of Philadelphia with quality educational television, and providing Drexel students the opportunity to gain experience in television management and production". The Programing includes an eclectic variety of shows from a bi-monthly news show, DNews, to old films, talk shows dealing with important current issues and music appreciation shows. Over 75 percent of DUTV's programming is student produced. General Column Writing (2000), and third place in Sports Column Writing (2001). In December 2019 The Triangle announced the creation of their podcasting division, "Tri-Pod,", which debuted on January 10, 2020. Tri-Pod had two podcasts, "Last Call". and "Mark and Jair Explain Sports".
The school yearbook was first published in 1911 and named the Lexerd in 1913. Prior to the publishing of a campus-wide yearbook in 1911 The Hanseatic and The Eccentric were both published in 1896 as class books.Housing
]]
Drexel requires all non-commuting first- and second-year students to live in one of its ten residence halls or in "university approved housing".
Second-year students have the option of living in a residence hall designated for upperclassmen, or "university approved housing". The residence halls for upperclassmen are North and Caneris Halls. North Hall operates under the For Students By Students Residential Experience Engagement Model, developed by the Residential Living Office. There are many apartments that are university approved that second-year students can choose to live in. Three of the largest apartment buildings that fit this description are Chestnut Square, University Crossings, and The Summit, all owned by American Campus Communities. Many other students live in smaller apartment buildings or individual townhouse-style apartments in Powelton Village. A second-year student can choose one of the already listed university approved housing options or petition the university to add a new property to the approved list.
Student organizations
Drexel University recognizes over 250 student organizations in the following categories:
* Academic
* Club Sports
* Community Service/Social Action
* Cultural
* Fraternity & Sorority Life
* General Interest
* Honorary
* Media
* Performing and Fine Arts
* Political
* Spiritual & Religious
Fraternities and sororities
Approximately 12 percent of Drexel's undergraduate population are members of a social fraternities and sororities. There are currently fourteen Interfraternity Council (IFC) chapters, seven Panhellenic Council (PHC) chapters and thirteen Multi-cultural Greek Council (MGC) chapters. Alpha Pi Lambda was established at Drexel in 1935.
Athletics
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Drexel's school mascot is a dragon known as "Mario the Magnificent", named in honor of alumnus and Board of Trustees member Mario V. Mascioli after he attended every Drexel basketball for over 20 years. The Dragon has been the mascot of the school since around the mid-1920s; the first written reference to the Dragons occurred in 1928, when the football team was called "The Dragons in The Triangle". Before becoming known as the Dragons, the athletic teams had been known by such names as the Blue & Gold, the Engineers, and the Drexelites. They do not currently field a varsity football team.
In addition to its NCAA Division I teams, Drexel University is home to 33 active club teams including men's ice hockey, lacrosse, water polo, squash, triathlon, and cycling. Other club teams include soccer, baseball, rugby, field hockey, and roller hockey. The club teams operate under the direction of the Club Sports Council and the Recreational Sports Office.
Alumni
<gallery class"center" classes"center" mode="nolines">
File:Paul_Baran.jpg|Paul Baran, engineer, inventor of packet switching
File:Malik Rose cropped.jpg|Malik Rose, former NBA player
File:The Gong Show Chuck Barris 1976.jpg|Chuck Barris, game show host
File:Jessie Willcox Smith, photograph estimate 1880-1910.jpg|Jessie Willcox Smith, illustrator
File:Christopher Ferguson in 2018.jpg|Christopher Ferguson, retired NASA astronaut
File: Lex Fridman teaching at MIT in 2018.png|Lex Fridman, computer scientist and podcaster
File: Tom Fulp (cropped).jpg|Tom Fulp, programmer and creator of Newgrounds
</gallery>
Since its founding the university has graduated over 100,000 alumni. Certificate-earning alumni such as artist Violet Oakley and illustrator Frank Schoonover reflect the early emphasis on art as part of the university's curriculum. With World War II, the university's technical programs swelled, and as a result Drexel graduated alumni such as Paul Baran, one of the founding fathers of the Internet and one of the inventors of the packet switching network, and Norman Joseph Woodland, the inventor of barcode technology. In addition to its emphasis on technology Drexel has graduated several notable athletes such as National Basketball Association (NBA) basketball players Michael Anderson, Damion Lee, and Malik Rose, and several notable business people such as Raj Gupta, former president and Chief executive officer (CEO) of Rohm and Haas, and Kenneth C. Dahlberg, former CEO of Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC). Alassane Dramane Ouattara President of the Republic of Ivory Coast. In 2018, Tirthak Saha -a 2016 graduate of the ECE school - was named to the Forbes 30 Under 30 list for achievements in the energy field.
In 1991, the university's centennial anniversary, Drexel created an association called the Drexel 100, for alumni who have demonstrated excellence work, philanthropy, or public service. After the creation of the association 100 alumni were inducted in 1992 and since then the induction process has been on a biennial basis. In 2006 164 total alumni had been inducted into the association.
Awards
Drexel University created the annual $100,000 Anthony J. Drexel Exceptional Achievement Award to recognize a faculty member from a U.S. institution whose work transforms both research and the society it serves. The first recipient was bioengineer James J. Collins of Boston University (now at MIT) and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute.
In 2004, in conjunction with BAYADA Home Health Care, Drexel University's College of Nursing and Health Professions created the BAYADA Award for Technological Innovation in Nursing Education and Practice. The award honors nursing educators and practicing nurses whose innovation leads to improved patient care or improved nursing education.See also
* Association of Independent Technological Universities
Notes
External links
*
* [http://www.drexeldragons.com/ Drexel Athletics website]
*
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Daedalus
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In Greek mythology, Daedalus (, ; Greek: Δαίδαλος; Latin: Daedalus; Etruscan: Taitale) was a skillful architect and craftsman, seen as a symbol of wisdom, knowledge and power. He is the father of Icarus, the uncle of Perdix, and possibly also the father of Iapyx. Among his most famous creations are the wooden cow for Pasiphaë, the Labyrinth for King Minos of Crete which imprisoned the Minotaur, and wings that he and his son Icarus used to attempt to escape Crete. It was during this escape that Icarus did not heed his father's warnings and flew too close to the sun; the wax holding his wings together melted and Icarus fell to his death.
Epigraphic evidence
The name Daidalos seems to be attested in Linear B, a writing system used to record Mycenaean Greek. The name appears in the form da-da-re-jo-de, possibly referring to a sanctuary.
Family
Daedalus's parentage was supplied as a later addition, with various authors attributing different parents to him. His father is claimed to be either Eupalamus, Metion, or Palamaon. Similarly, his mother was either Alcippe, Iphinoe, Phrasmede or Merope, daughter of King Erechtheus. Daedalus had two sons: Icarus and Iapyx, along with a nephew named either Talos, Calos, or Perdix.
The Athenians rewrote the Cretan-born Daedalus as an Athenian himself, the grandson of the ancient king Erechtheus who only fled to Crete after killing his nephew.
Inventor, architect, artist
A mythical craftsman named Daedalus is first mentioned in roughly 1400 BC on the Knossian Linear B tablets. He is later mentioned by Homer as the creator of a dancing floor for Ariadne, similar to that which Hephaestus placed on the Shield of Achilles. It is clear that this Daedalus was not an original character of Homer's. Rather, Homer was referencing mythology that his audience was already familiar with.
left|thumb|Upper body of a Daedalic statue of a Kore, poros stone. Eleutherna, archaic period, 7th century BC.
Daedalus is not mentioned again in literature until the fifth century BC, but he is widely praised as an inventor, artist, and architect, though classical sources disagree on which inventions exactly are attributable to him. In Pliny's Natural History (7.198) he is credited with inventing carpentry, including tools like the axe, saw, glue, and more. Supposedly, he first invented masts and sails for ships for the navy of King Minos. He is also said to have carved statues so spirited they appeared to be living and moving. Pausanias, in traveling around Greece, attributed to Daedalus numerous archaic wooden cult figures (see xoana) that impressed him. In fact, so many other statues and artworks are attributed to Daedalus by Pausanias and various other sources that likely many of them were never made by him.
In his Socratic dialogue with Meno, Plato cites Daedalus's handiwork as a metaphor for genuine understanding of truth, as opposed to belief that coincidentally happens to be true. Socrates argues that while truth, like one of Daedalus's "moving" statues, is inherently valuable, their animacy would mean they are worthless if the owner cannot shackle them in place to stop them from wandering off.
Daedalus gave his name, eponymously, to many Greek craftsmen and many Greek contraptions and inventions that represented dextrous skill. A specific sort of early Greek sculptures are named Daedalic sculpture in his honor. In Boeotia there was a festival, the Daedala, in which a temporary wooden altar was fashioned and an effigy was made from an oak-tree and dressed in bridal attire. It was carried in a cart with a woman who acted as bridesmaid. The image was called daedala. Some sources claim that the daedala did not receive their name from Daedalus, but the opposite. Pausanias claims that Daedalus was not the name given to the inventor at birth, but that he was named so later after the daedala.
Some of the functions of Daedalus overlapped with those of Aristaeus (Aristaeos), another famous Greek inventor god. But Aristaeos mostly concerned himself with the rural and agricultural arts.
Mythology
Nephew
thumb|367x367px|Perdix (Talus) changed into a partridge when thrown from the Acropolis by an envious Daedalus (1602–1607)
Daedalus was so proud of his achievements that he could not bear the idea of a rival. His sister had placed her son under his charge to be taught the mechanical arts as an apprentice. His nephew is named variously as Perdix, Talos, or Calos, although some sources say that Perdix was the name of Daedalus' sister. The nephew showed striking evidence of ingenuity. Finding the spine of a fish on the seashore, he took a piece of iron and notched it on the edge, and thus invented the saw. He put two pieces of iron together, connecting them at one end with a rivet, and sharpening the other ends, and made a pair of compasses. Daedalus was so envious of his nephew's accomplishments that he attempted to murder him by throwing him down from the Acropolis in Athens. Athena saved his nephew and turned him into a partridge. Tried and convicted for this murder attempt, Daedalus left Athens and fled to Crete.
The Labyrinth
Daedalus created the Labyrinth on Crete, in which the Minotaur was kept.
left|thumb|Daedalus and Pasiphaë. Roman fresco in the House of the Vettii, Pompeii, first century AD
Poseidon had given a white bull to King Minos to use it as a sacrifice. Instead, the king kept the bull for himself and sacrificed another. As revenge, Poseidon, with the help of Aphrodite, made King Minos's wife, Pasiphaë, lust for the bull. Pasiphaë asked Daedalus to help her. Daedalus built a hollow, wooden cow, covered in real cow hide for Pasiphaë, so she could mate with the bull. As a result, Pasiphaë gave birth to the Minotaur, a creature with the body of a man, but the head and tail of a bull. King Minos ordered the Minotaur to be imprisoned and guarded in the Labyrinth built by Daedalus for that purpose.
thumb|231x231px|Daedalus escapes (iuvat evasisse) by Johann Christoph Sysang (1703–1757)
In the story of the Labyrinth as told by the Hellenes, the Athenian hero Theseus is challenged to kill the Minotaur, finding his way back out with the help of Ariadne's thread. It is Daedalus himself who gives Ariadne the clue as to how to escape the labyrinth.
Ignoring Homer, later writers envisaged the Labyrinth as an edifice rather than a single dancing path to the center and out again, and gave it numerous winding passages and turns that opened into one another, seeming to have neither beginning nor end. Ovid, in his Metamorphoses, suggests that Daedalus constructed the Labyrinth so cunningly that he himself could barely escape it after he built it.
Icarus
thumb|Print of Icarus falling after his wings were broken.
The most familiar literary telling explaining Daedalus' wings is a late one by Ovid in his Metamorphoses.thumb| Daedalus and Icarus, c. 1645, by Charles Le Brun (1619–1690) |leftAfter Theseus and Ariadne eloped together, Daedalus and his son Icarus were imprisoned by King Minos in the labyrinth that he had built. He could not leave Crete by sea, as King Minos kept a strict watch on all vessels, permitting none to sail without being carefully searched. Since Minos controlled the land routes as well, Daedalus set to work to make wings for himself and his son Icarus. Using bird feathers of various sizes, thread, and beeswax, he shaped them to resemble a bird's wings. When both were prepared for flight, Daedalus warned Icarus not to fly too high, because the heat of the sun would melt the beeswax that held his feathers together, nor too low, because the sea foam would soak the feathers and make them heavy and he would fall. After Daedalus and Icarus had passed Samos, Delos, and Lebynthos, Icarus disobeyed his father and began to soar upward toward the sun. Without any warning, the sun melted the beeswax (which held the feathers together). Icarus was flapping his "wings". But he realized he had no feathers left and was flapping his featherless arms. And he plunged into the sea and drowned. Seeing Icarus' wings floating, Daedalus wept, cursed his art, and after finding Icarus's body on an island shore buried him there. Then he named the island Icaria in the memory of his child. The southeast end of the Aegean Sea where Icarus fell into the water was also called "Mare Icarium" or the Icarian Sea.thumb|The Lament for Icarus by H. J. Draper (1898) In a twist of fate, a partridge, presumably the nephew Daedalus murdered, mocked Daedalus as he buried his son. The fall and death of Icarus is seemingly portrayed as punishment for Daedalus's murder of his nephew.
The shell riddle
After burying Icarus, Daedalus traveled to Camicus in Sicily, where he stayed as a guest under the protection of King Cocalus. There Daedalus built a temple to Apollo, and hung up his wings as an offering to the god. In an invention of Virgil (Aeneid VI), Daedalus flies to Cumae and founds his temple there, rather than in Sicily.
Minos, meanwhile, searched for Daedalus by traveling from city to city asking a riddle. He presented a spiral seashell and asked for a string to be run through it. When he reached Camicus, King Cocalus, knowing Daedalus would be able to solve the riddle, accepted the shell and gave it to Daedalus. Daedalus tied the string to an ant which, lured by a drop of honey at one end, walked through the seashell stringing it all the way through. With the riddle solved, Minos realized that Daedalus was in the court of King Cocalus and insisted he be handed over. Cocalus agreed to do so, but convinced Minos to take a bath first. In the bath, Cocalus' daughters killed Minos, possibly by pouring boiling water over his body. In some versions, it is Cocalus that kills Minos in the bath. Other variants say that Daedalus himself poured the boiling water, or that he had built the pipes that could supply hot water to the bath and this was used to instead pour boiling water on him.
Death
At least two locations are associated with the death of Daedalus. One version of the story says he retired to the Cretan colony of Telmessos, ruled by Minos's estranged brother Sarpedon, and while wandering outside the city, he was bitten by a snake and died. A town on this site, Daidala, is said to be named after him, and is mentioned in Roman sources. Another version of the story places his death on a small island in the Nile river, where he was later worshipped. Yet another version has him dying after being bitten by a water snake in Lycia (western Asia Minor).
The anecdotes are literary and late. However, in the founding tales of the Greek colony of Gela, founded in the 680s BC on the southwest coast of Sicily, a tradition was preserved that the Greeks had seized cult images wrought by Daedalus from their local predecessors, the Sicani.
Later depictions in art and literature
Daedalus and the myths associated with him are often depicted in paintings, sculptures, and more by later artists. The myth about his flight and the fall of Icarus is especially popular in depictions. A few noteworthy pieces are included below.
File:DEDAL ZA JASNA (Small).JPG|Small bronze sculpture of Daedalus, 3rd century BC; found on Plaoshnik, North Macedonia
File:Pompeya Villa Imperiale 08.jpg|Daedalus and Icarus, fresco in Pompeii, 1st century AD
File:Dedalo e Pasifae.JPG|Daedalus and Pasiphaë, fresco in Pompeii, 1st century AD
File:PBrueghelElderIcarus.jpg|Landscape with the Fall of Icarus (detail) by Peter Brueghel the Elder, ca. 1558.
File:Fall of Icarus Blondel decoration Louvre INV2624.jpg|The Fall of Icarus by Merry-Josoph Blondel (1819) (Louvre)
File:Lord Frederick Leighton FLL006.jpg|Daedalus and Icarus, by Frederick Leighton, c. 1869
File:Daedalus und Ikarus MK1888.png|Daedalus constructs wings for his son, Icarus, after a Roman relief in the Villa Albani, Rome (Meyers Konversationslexikon, 1888)
File:Dædalus and Icarus.gif|Dædalus and Icarus by H.A.Guerber (1896)
There are also a number of adaptations of the myth of Daedalus and Icarus in modern literature and film, including a poem by Edward Field.
Notes
References
Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History translated by Charles Henry Oldfather. Twelve volumes. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. Vol. 3. Books 4.59–8. Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site
Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. Vol 1-2. Immanel Bekker. Ludwig Dindorf. Friedrich Vogel. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1888–1890. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Hyginus, Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
Maurus Servius Honoratus, In Vergilii carmina comentarii. Servii Grammatici qui feruntur in Vergilii carmina commentarii; recensuerunt Georgius Thilo et Hermannus Hagen. Georgius Thilo. Leipzig. B. G. Teubner. 1881. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library
Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Ovid, Metamorphoses, Brookes More, Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Suida, Suda Encyclopedia translated by Ross Scaife, David Whitehead, William Hutton, Catharine Roth, Jennifer Benedict, Gregory Hays, Malcolm Heath Sean M. Redmond, Nicholas Fincher, Patrick Rourke, Elizabeth Vandiver, Raphael Finkel, Frederick Williams, Carl Widstrand, Robert Dyer, Joseph L. Rife, Oliver Phillips and many others. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
Tzetzes, John, Book of Histories, Book I translated by Ana Untila from the original Greek of T. Kiessling's edition of 1826. Online version at theio.com
External links
Thomas Bulfinch's Mythology
"Daedalus" at the Encyclopædia Britannica
Andrew Stewart, One Hundred Greek Sculptors: Their Careers and Extant Works. Begins with Daedalus.
Peter Hunt, "Ekphrasis or Not? Ovid (Met. 8.183-235 ) in Pieter Bruegel the Elder's Landscape with the Fall of Icarus". Archived from the original 10 July 2009.
Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (images of Daedalus and Icarus)
J. B. S. Haldane (1924). Daedalus; or, Science and the future, E. P. Dutton
Category:Ancient Greek architects
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Category:Mythological people from Attica
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Category:Cretan mythology
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Deception Pass
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| area =
| created =
| operator = Washington State Parks
| visitation_num = 2,000,000+ annually
| status | open Year-round
| website = [http://parks.state.wa.us/497/Deception-Pass Deception Pass State Park]
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Deception Pass (; ) is a strait separating Whidbey Island from Fidalgo Island, in the northwest part of the U.S. state of Washington. It connects Skagit Bay, part of Puget Sound, with the Strait of Juan de Fuca. A pair of bridges known collectively as Deception Pass Bridge cross Deception Pass. The bridges were added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.HistoryThe Deception Pass area has been home to various Coast Salish tribes for thousands of years. The first Europeans to see Deception Pass were members of the 1790 expedition of Manuel Quimper on the Princesa Real. The Spanish gave it the name Boca de Flon.
A group of sailors led by Joseph Whidbey, part of the Vancouver Expedition, found and mapped Deception Pass on June 7, 1792. George Vancouver gave it the name "Deception" because it had misled him into thinking Whidbey Island was a peninsula. The "deception" was heightened due to Whidbey's failure to find the strait at first. In May 1792, Vancouver was anchored near the southern end of Whidbey Island. He sent Joseph Whidbey to explore the waters east of Whidbey Island, now known as Saratoga Passage, using small boats. Whidbey reached the northern end of Saratoga Passage and explored eastward into Skagit Bay, which is shallow and difficult to navigate. He returned south to rejoin Vancouver without having found Deception Pass. It appeared that Skagit Bay was a dead-end and that Whidbey Island and Fidalgo Island were a long peninsula attached to the mainland. In June, the expedition sailed north along the west coast of Whidbey Island. Vancouver sent Joseph Whidbey to explore inlets leading to the east. The first inlet turned out to be a "very narrow and intricate channel, which...abounded with rocks above and beneath the surface of the water".
In the waters of Deception Pass, just east of the present-day Deception Pass Bridge, is a small island known as Ben Ure Island. The island became infamous for its activity of human smuggling of migrant Chinese people for local labor. Ben Ure and his partner Lawrence "Pirate" Kelly were quite profitable at their human smuggling business and played hide-and-seek with the United States Customs Department for years. Ure's own operation at Deception Pass in the late 1880s consisted of Ure and his Native-American wife. Local tradition has it that his wife would camp on the nearby Strawberry Island (which was visible from the open sea) and signal him with a fire on the island's summit to alert him to whether or not it was safe to attempt to bring the human cargo he illegally transported ashore. For transport, Ure would tie the people up in burlap bags so that if customs agents approached he could toss the bagged people overboard. The tidal currents carried the entrapped drowned migrants' bodies to San Juan Island to the north and west of the pass; many ended up in Dead Man's Bay.
Between 1910 and 1914, a prison rock quarry was operated on the Fidalgo Island side of the pass. Nearby barracks housed some 40 prisoners, members of an honors program out of Walla Walla State Penitentiary and the prison population was made up of several types of prisoners, including those convicted of murder. Guards stood watch at the quarry as prisoners cut the rock into gravel and loaded it onto barges at the base of the cliff atop the pass's waters. The quarried rock was then barged to the Seattle waterfront. The camp was dismantled in 1924 and although abandoned as a quarry, the remains of the camp can still be found. The location is hazardous; over the years there have been several fatal accidents when visitors have ventured onto the steep cliffs.
Upon completion on July 31, 1935, the span Deception Pass Bridge connected Whidbey Island to the tiny Pass Island, and Pass Island to Fidalgo Island. Prior to the bridge, travelers used an inter-island ferry to commute between Fidalgo and Whidbey islands.CurrentsDeception Pass is a dramatic seascape where the tidal flow and whirlpools beneath the twin bridges connecting Fidalgo Island to Whidbey Island move quickly. During ebb and flood tide current speed reaches about , flowing in opposite directions between ebb and flood. This swift current can lead to standing waves, large whirlpools, and roiling eddies. This swift current phenomenon can be viewed from the twin bridges' pedestrian walkways or from the trail leading below the larger south bridge from the parking lot on the Whidbey Island side. Boats can be seen waiting on either side of the pass for the current to stop or change direction before going through. Thrill-seeking kayakers go there during large tide changes to surf the standing waves and brave the class 2 and 3 rapid conditions.Scuba divingDiving Deception Pass is dangerous and only for the most competent and prepared divers. There are a few times each year that the tides are right for a drift dive from the cove, under the bridge, and back to the cove as the tide changes. These must be planned well in advance by divers who know how to read currents and are aware of the dangerous conditions. However, because of the large tidal exchange, Deception Pass hosts some of the most spectacular colors and life in the Pacific Northwest. The walls and bottom are covered in colorful invertebrates, lingcod, greenlings, and barnacles everywhere.State parkDeception Pass is surrounded by Deception Pass State Park, one of the most visited Washington state parks with over two million annual visitors. Seattle shoegaze act The Sight Below filmed the 2008 video for their track "Further Away" at Deception Pass, with Deception Island's scenic imagery prominently featured. Seattle grunge band Mudhoney named a song on their 1993 EP Five Dollar Bob's Mock Cooter Stew "Deception Pass." Seattle progressive rock band Queensrÿche filmed scenes of their video "Anybody Listening" near Deception Pass and Deception Island.
See also
* Juan Carrasco (explorer)
* Deception Pass ferry
References
External links
* [http://parks.state.wa.us/497/Deception-Pass Deception Pass State Park] Washington State Parks and Recreation Commission
* [http://www.deceptionpassfoundation.org Deception Pass Park Foundation]
Category:Straits of Washington (state)
Category:Landforms of Puget Sound
Category:State parks of Washington (state)
Category:Protected areas established in 1922
Category:Parks in Island County, Washington
Category:Parks in Skagit County, Washington
Category:Civilian Conservation Corps in Washington (state)
Category:Bodies of water of Island County, Washington
Category:Bodies of water of Skagit County, Washington
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Dominoes
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Dominoes is a family of tile-based games played with gaming pieces. Each domino is a rectangular tile, usually with a line dividing its face into two square ends. Each end is marked with a number of spots (also called pips or dots) or is blank. The backs of the tiles in a set are indistinguishable, either blank or having some common design. The gaming pieces make up a domino set, sometimes called a deck or pack. The traditional European domino set consists of 28 tiles, also known as pieces, bones, rocks, stones, men, cards or just dominoes, featuring all combinations of spot counts between zero and six. A domino set is a generic gaming device, similar to playing cards or dice, in that a variety of games can be played with a set. Another form of entertainment using domino pieces is the practice of domino toppling.
The earliest mention of dominoes is from Song dynasty China found in the text Former Events in Wulin by Zhou Mi (1232–1298). Modern dominoes first appeared in Italy during the 18th century, but they differ from Chinese dominoes in a number of respects, and there is no confirmed link between the two. European dominoes may have developed independently, or Italian missionaries in China may have brought the game to Europe.
The name "domino" is probably derived from the resemblance to a kind of carnival costume worn during the Venetian Carnival, often consisting of a black-hooded robe and a white mask. Despite the coinage of the word "polyomino" as a generalization, there is no connection between the word "domino" and the number 2 in any language.
The most commonly played domino games are Domino Whist, Matador, and Muggins (All Fives). Other popular forms include Texas 42, Chicken Foot, Concentration, Double Fives, and Mexican Train.
Construction and composition of domino sets
European-style dominoes are traditionally made of bone, silver lip ocean pearl oyster shell (mother of pearl), ivory, or a dark hardwood such as ebony, with contrasting black or white pips (inlaid or painted). Some sets feature the top half thickness in MOP, ivory, or bone, with the lower half in ebony. Alternatively, domino sets have been made from many different natural materials: stone (e.g., marble, granite or soapstone); other woods (e.g., ash, oak, redwood, and cedar); metals (e.g., brass or pewter); ceramic clay, or even frosted glass or crystal. These sets have a more novel look, and the often heavier weight makes them feel more substantial; also, such materials and the resulting products are usually much more expensive than polymer materials.
Modern commercial domino sets are usually made of synthetic materials, such as ABS or polystyrene plastics, or Bakelite and other phenolic resins; many sets approximate the look and feel of ivory while others use colored or even translucent plastics to achieve a more contemporary look. Modern sets also commonly use a different color for the dots of each different end value (one-spots might have black pips while two-spots might be green, three red, etc.) to facilitate finding matching ends. Occasionally, one may find a domino set made of card stock like that for playing cards. Such sets are lightweight, compact, and inexpensive, and like cards are more susceptible to minor disturbances such as a sudden breeze. Sometimes, the tiles have a metal pin (called a spinner or pivot) in the middle.
The traditional domino set contains one unique piece for each possible combination of two ends with zero to six spots, and is known as a double-six set because the highest-value piece has six pips on each end (the "double six"). The spots from one to six are generally arranged as they are on six-sided dice, but because blank ends having no spots are used, seven faces are possible, allowing 28 unique pieces in a double-six set.
However, this is a relatively small number, especially when playing with more than four people, so many domino sets are "extended" by introducing ends with greater numbers of spots, which increases the number of unique combinations of ends and thus of pieces. Each progressively larger set increases the maximum number of pips on an end by three; so the common extended sets are double-nine (55 tiles), double-12 (91 tiles), double-15 (136 tiles), and double-18 (190 tiles), which is the maximum in practice. As the set becomes larger, identifying the number of pips on each domino becomes more difficult, so some large domino sets use more readable Arabic numerals instead of pips.
History
Chinese dominoes
In China, early "domino" tiles were functionally identical to playing cards. An identifiable version of Chinese dominoes developed in the 12th or 13th century.
The oldest written mention of domino tiles in China dates to the 13th century and comes from Hangzhou where pupai (gambling plaques or tiles) and dice are listed as items sold by peddlers during the reign of Emperor Xiaozong of Song (r. 1162–1189).
The traditional 32-piece Chinese domino set, made to represent each possible face of two thrown dice and thus having no blank faces, differs from the 28-piece domino set found in the West during the mid 18th century, although Chinese dominoes with blank faces were known during the 17th century.
Each domino originally represented one of the 21 results of throwing two six-sided dice (2d6). One half of each domino is set with the pips from one die and the other half contains the pips from the second die. Chinese sets also introduce duplicates of some throws and divide the tiles into two suits: military and civil. Chinese dominoes are also longer than typical European ones. Dominoes in Europe and North America
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Modern dominoes first appeared in Italy during the 18th century, but they differ from Chinese dominoes in a number of respects, and there is no confirmed link between the two. European dominoes may have developed independently, or Italian missionaries in China may have brought the game to Europe. The way by which this word became the name of the game of domino remains unclear. The earliest game rules in Europe describe a simple block game for two or four players. Later French rules add the variant of Domino à la Pêche ("Fishing Domino"), an early draw game as well as a three-hand game with a pool.
From France, the game was introduced to England by the late 1700s, and, in 1797, "Domino" is recorded in Sheridan's dictionary as both "the habit of a Venetian nobleman, a dress much used at masquerades" and "a sort of game."}} purportedly brought in by French prisoners-of-war. The early forms of the game in England were the Block Game and Draw Game. The rules for these games were reprinted, largely unchanged, for over half a century. In 1863, a new game variously described as All Fives, Fives or Cribbage Dominoes appeared for the first time in both English and American sources; this was the first scoring game and it borrowed the counting and scoring features of cribbage, but 5 domino spots instead of 15 card points became the basic scoring unit, worth 1 game point. The game was played to 31 and employed a cribbage board to keep score.
In 1864, The American Hoyle describes three new variants: Muggins, Bergen and Rounce; alongside the Block Dominoes and Draw Dominoes. In Muggins, the cribbage board was dropped, 5 spots scored 5 points, and game was now 200 for two players and 150 for three or four. Despite the name, there was no 'muggins rule' as in cribbage to challenge a player who fails to declare his scoring combinations. This omission was rectified in the 1868 edition of The Modern Pocket Hoyle, but reprints of both rule sets continued to be produced in parallel for around twenty years before the version with the muggins rule prevailed. From around 1871, however, the names of All Fives and Muggins, became conflated and many publications issued rules for 'Muggins or All Fives' or 'Muggins or Fives' without making any distinction between the two. This confusion continues to the present day with some publications equating the names and others describing All Fives as a separate game.
In 1889, dominoes was described as having spread worldwide, "but nowhere is it more popular than in the cafés of France and Belgium. From the outset, the European game was different from the Chinese one. European domino sets contain neither the military-civilian suit distinctions of Chinese dominoes nor the duplicates that went with them. Moreover, according to Michael Dummett, in the Chinese games it is only the identity of the tile that matters; there is no concept of matching. Instead, the basic set of 28 unique tiles contains seven additional pieces, six of them representing the values that result from throwing a single die with the other half of the tile left blank, and the seventh domino representing the blank-blank (0–0) combination. Subsequently 45-piece (double eight) sets appeared in Austria and, in recent times, 55-piece (double nine) and 91-piece (double twelve) sets have been produced.
All the early games are still played today alongside games that have sprung up in the last 60 years such as Five Up, Mexican Train and Chicken Foot, the last two taking advantage of the larger domino sets available.
Some modern descriptions of All Fives are quite different from the original, having lost much of their cribbage character and incorporating a single spinner, making it identical, or closely related, to Sniff. Most published rule sets for Muggins include the rule that gives the game its name, but some modern publications omit it even though the muggins rule has been described as the unique feature of this game.
Dominoes is now played internationally. It is recognized as an "ingrained cultural activity within the Caribbean" but is also popular with the Windrush generation (who have Caribbean heritage) in the UK.
In the U.S. state of Alabama, although rarely prosecuted, it was illegal to play dominoes on Sunday within the state until the relevant section of the Alabama Criminal Code was repealed, effective April 21, 2015.
Tiles and suits
Dominoes (also known as bones, cards, men, pieces or tiles), are normally twice as long as they are wide, which makes it easier to re-stack pieces after use. A domino usually features a line in the middle to divide it visually into two squares, called ends. The value of either side is the number of spots or pips. In the most common variant (double-six), the values range from six pips down to none or blank. The sum of the two values, i.e. the total number of pips, may be referred to as the rank or weight of a tile; a tile may be described as "heavier" than a "lighter" one that has fewer (or no) pips.
Tiles are generally named after their two values. For instance, the following are descriptions of the tile bearing the values two and five:
* Deuce-five
* Five-deuce
* 2–5
* 5–2
A tile that has the same pips-value on each end is called a double or doublet, and is typically referred to as double-zero , double-one , and so on.
:<math>\frac{(n+1)(n+2)}{2}</math>
which is also the (n+1)th triangular number, as in the following table.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center; margin:0 auto;"
|+ Relationship between the maximum number of pips on an end and the triangular numbers<br />(values in bold are common)
! n
| 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5
! 6
| 7 || 8
! 9
| 10 || 11
! 12
| 13 || 14
! 15
| 16 || 17
! 18
| 19 || 20 || 21
|-
! T<sub>n+1</sub>
| 1 || 3 || 6 || 10 || 15 || 21
! 28
| 36 || 45
! 55
| 66 || 78
! 91
| 105 || 120
! 136
| 153 || 161
! 190
| 210 || 231 || 253
|}
This formula can be simplified a little bit when <math>n</math> is made equal to the total number of doubles in the domino set:
<math>\frac{(n)(n+1)}{2}</math>
The total number of pips in a double-n set is found by:
<math>\frac{n(n+1)(n+2)}{2}</math> i.e. the number of tiles multiplied by the maximum pip-count (n)
e.g. a 6-6 set has (7 × 8) / 2 56/2 28 tiles, the average number of pips per tile is 6 (range is from 0 to 12), giving a total pip count of 6 × 28 168 Rules
The most popular type of play are layout games, which fall into two main categories, blocking games and scoring games.
* Most domino games are blocking games, where the objective is to empty one's hand while blocking the opponents’. In the end, a score may be determined by counting the pips in the losing players' hands.
* In scoring games, the scoring is different and happens mostly during game play, making it the principal objective. The draw game is often referred to as simply "dominoes".
Adaptations of both games can accommodate more than two players, who may play individually or in teams. In Muggins, players score by ensuring the total pip count of the open ends is a multiple of a certain number. In variants of Muggins, the line of play may branch due to spinners. In the common U.S. variant known as Fives players score by making the open ends a multiple of five.
In British public houses and social clubs, a scoring version of "5s-and-3s" is used. The game is normally played in pairs (two against two) and is played as a series of "ends". In each "end", the objective is for players to attach a domino from their hand to one end of those already played so that the sum of the end tiles is divisible by five or three. One point is scored for each time five or three can be divided into the sum of the two tiles, i.e. four at one end and five at the other makes nine, which is divisible by three three times, resulting in three points. Double five at one end and five at the other makes 15, which is divisible by three five times (five points) and divisible by five three times (three points) for a total of eight points.
An "end" stops when one of the players is out, i.e., has played all of their tiles. In the event no player is able to empty their hand, then the player with the lowest domino left in hand is deemed to be out and scores one point. A game consists of any number of ends with points scored in the ends accumulating towards a total. The game ends when one of the pair's total score exceeds a set number of points. A running total score is often kept on a cribbage board. 5s-and-3s is played in a number of competitive leagues in the British Isles.
Card games using domino sets
Apart from the usual blocking and scoring games, games of a very different character are also played with dominoes, such as solitaire or trick-taking games. Most of these are adaptations of card games and were once popular in certain areas to circumvent religious proscriptions against playing cards.
A very simple example is a Concentration variant played with a double-six set; two tiles are considered to match if their total pip count is 12.
A popular domino game in Texas is 42. The game is similar to the card game spades. It is played with four players paired into teams. Each player draws seven tiles, and the tiles are played into tricks. Each trick counts as one point, and any domino with a multiple of five dots counts toward the total of the hand. These 35 points of "five count" and seven tricks equals 42 points, hence the name.<!---
The following seems to be just a slightly spiced up standard variant of the 4 player Block game with empty stock. Part of this information may be worth including elsewhere, but it doesn't really belong into an "other games" section.
Also, in the Caribbean, there are other common games which involve four players in which the players can play as partners or as individuals. In partners, the partners sit across from each other and all hands can not be seen by the other players. The game is started by shuffling the tiles or 'cards' and each player pulling seven cards. The double six is then played and play continues to the starter's right side. If a player can not play then he is passed and it is the next player's turn. The object is for a team to win by one of the players running out of tiles. The winning team is awarded a point and then restart the process by shuffling and pulling a new hand and then starting with any domino either partner wishes to play. The game goes on till one team reaches six points. Double points are awarded when you get 'key'. This happens when your last card is the only card that can be played on both ends. Also when a player pulls five doubles all players put their tiles back and pull new hands, the following game is played for 2 points and the double six is started by the player who has it. This variation is called Partners, where the other variation is called Cut-Throat (or 'pin-tin tin' in the Dominican Republic), where each player plays for himself, in which all the same rules apply as in partners. This form of dominoes is most common in the Dominican Republic, Jamaica and the Cayman Islands.
-->
Competitive play
Dominoes is played at a professional level, similar to poker. Numerous organisations and clubs of amateur domino players exist around the world. Some organizations organize international competitions. Examples include the Anglo Caribbean Dominoes League (ACDL) in the UK which includes over 40 clubs including the Brixton Immortals.
Dominoes in Unicode
Since April 2008, the character encoding standard Unicode includes characters that represent the double-six domino tiles. While a complete domino set has only 28 tiles, the Unicode set has "reversed" versions of the 21 tiles with different numbers on each end, a "back" image, and everything duplicated as horizontal and vertical orientations, for a total of 100 glyphs. Few fonts are known to support these glyphs.
Historical domino competitions
*Col. Henry T. Titus vs. Capt. Clark Rice for the naming of Titusville, Florida.See also
<!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description WP:SEEALSO -->
*Domino games
**Glossary of domino terms
**List of domino games
**Chinese dominoes
*Other related articles
**Domino effect
**Domino theory
**Domino's Pizza
**Domino show/Domino toppling
**Polyominoes
**Pub games
**Tile-based game
**List of world championships in mind sports
<!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order -->
Notes
References
Sources
*
*
* |date1863 |titleHow to Play Draughts, Backgammon, Dominoes and Minor Games at Cards |locationLondon |publisher=Stevens}}
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
Category:Chinese inventions
Category:Children's games
Category:Gaming devices
Category:Gambling games
Category:Pub games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominoes
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Dissociation constant
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In chemistry, biochemistry, and pharmacology, a dissociation constant (KD) is a specific type of equilibrium constant that measures the propensity of a larger object to separate (dissociate) reversibly into smaller components, as when a complex falls apart into its component molecules, or when a salt splits up into its component ions. The dissociation constant is the inverse of the association constant. In the special case of salts, the dissociation constant can also be called an ionization constant. For a general reaction:
A_\mathit{x} B_\mathit{y} \mathit{x} A{} + \mathit{y} B
in which a complex \ce{A}_x \ce{B}_y breaks down into x A subunits and y B subunits, the dissociation constant is defined as
K_\mathrm{D} = \frac{[\ce A]^x [\ce B]^y}{[\ce A_x \ce B_y]}
where [A], [B], and [Ax By] are the equilibrium concentrations of A, B, and the complex Ax By, respectively.
One reason for the popularity of the dissociation constant in biochemistry and pharmacology is that in the frequently encountered case where x y 1, KD has a simple physical interpretation: when [A] KD, then [B] [AB] or, equivalently, \tfrac {[\ce{AB}]}{{[\ce B]} + [\ce{AB}]} = \tfrac{1}{2}. That is, KD, which has the dimensions of concentration, equals the concentration of free A at which half of the total molecules of B are associated with A. This simple interpretation does not apply for higher values of x or y. It also presumes the absence of competing reactions, though the derivation can be extended to explicitly allow for and describe competitive binding. It is useful as a quick description of the binding of a substance, in the same way that EC50 and IC50 describe the biological activities of substances.
Concentration of bound molecules
Molecules with one binding site
Experimentally, the concentration of the molecule complex [AB] is obtained indirectly from the measurement of the concentration of a free molecules, either [A] or [B].
In principle, the total amounts of molecule [A]0 and [B]0 added to the reaction are known.
They separate into free and bound components according to the mass conservation principle:
\begin{align}
\ce{[A]_0} &= \ce{{[A]} + [AB]} \\
\ce{[B]_0} &= \ce{{[B]} + [AB]}
\end{align}
To track the concentration of the complex [AB], one substitutes the concentration of the free molecules ([A] or [B]), of the respective conservation equations, by the definition of the dissociation constant,
[\ce A]_0 = K_\mathrm{D} \frac{[\ce{AB}]}{[\ce B]} + [\ce{AB}]
This yields the concentration of the complex related to the concentration of either one of the free molecules
\ce{[AB]} \frac\ce{[A]_0 [B]}{K_\mathrm{D} + [\ce B]} \frac\ce{[B]_0 [A]}{K_\mathrm{D} + [\ce A]}
Macromolecules with identical independent binding sites
Many biological proteins and enzymes can possess more than one binding site.
The formation of a ligand–protein complex LP can be described by a two-state process
L + P LP
the corresponding dissociation constant is defined
K_\mathrm{D} = \frac{\left[ \ce{L} \right] \left[ \ce{P} \right]}{\left[ \ce{LP} \right]}
where [P], [L], and [LP] represent molar concentrations of the protein, ligand, and protein–ligand complex, respectively.
The dissociation constant has molar units (M) and corresponds to the ligand concentration [L] at which half of the proteins are occupied at equilibrium, i.e., the concentration of ligand at which the concentration of protein with ligand bound [LP] equals the concentration of protein with no ligand bound [P]. The smaller the dissociation constant, the more tightly bound the ligand is, or the higher the affinity between ligand and protein. For example, a ligand with a nanomolar (nM) dissociation constant binds more tightly to a particular protein than a ligand with a micromolar (μM) dissociation constant.
Sub-picomolar dissociation constants as a result of non-covalent binding interactions between two molecules are rare. Nevertheless, there are some important exceptions. Biotin and avidin bind with a dissociation constant of roughly 10−15 M 1 fM 0.000001 nM.
Ribonuclease inhibitor proteins may also bind to ribonuclease with a similar 10−15 M affinity.
The dissociation constant for a particular ligand–protein interaction can change with solution conditions (e.g., temperature, pH and salt concentration). The effect of different solution conditions is to effectively modify the strength of any intermolecular interactions holding a particular ligand–protein complex together.
Drugs can produce harmful side effects through interactions with proteins for which they were not meant to or designed to interact. Therefore, much pharmaceutical research is aimed at designing drugs that bind to only their target proteins (negative design) with high affinity (typically 0.1–10 nM) or at improving the affinity between a particular drug and its in vivo protein target (positive design).
Antibodies
In the specific case of antibodies (Ab) binding to antigen (Ag), usually the term affinity constant refers to the association constant.
Ab + Ag AbAg
K_\mathrm{A} \frac{\left[ \ce{AbAg} \right]}{\left[ \ce{Ab} \right] \left[ \ce{Ag} \right]} \frac{1}{K_\mathrm{D}}
This chemical equilibrium is also the ratio of the on-rate (kforward or ka) and off-rate (kback or kd) constants. Two antibodies can have the same affinity, but one may have both a high on- and off-rate constant, while the other may have both a low on- and off-rate constant.
K_A \frac{k_\text{forward}}{k_\text{back}} \frac{\mbox{on-rate}}{\mbox{off-rate}}
Acid–base reactions
For the deprotonation of acids, K is known as Ka, the acid dissociation constant. Strong acids, such as sulfuric or phosphoric acid, have large dissociation constants; weak acids, such as acetic acid, have small dissociation constants.
The symbol Ka, used for the acid dissociation constant, can lead to confusion with the association constant, and it may be necessary to see the reaction or the equilibrium expression to know which is meant.
Acid dissociation constants are sometimes expressed by pKa, which is defined by
\text{p}K_\text{a} = -\log_{10}{K_\mathrm{a}}
This \mathrm{p}K notation is seen in other contexts as well; it is mainly used for covalent dissociations (i.e., reactions in which chemical bonds are made or broken) since such dissociation constants can vary greatly.
A molecule can have several acid dissociation constants. In this regard, that is depending on the number of the protons they can give up, we define monoprotic, diprotic and triprotic acids. The first (e.g., acetic acid or ammonium) have only one dissociable group, the second (e.g., carbonic acid, bicarbonate, glycine) have two dissociable groups and the third (e.g., phosphoric acid) have three dissociable groups. In the case of multiple pK values they are designated by indices: pK1, pK2, pK3 and so on. For amino acids, the pK1 constant refers to its carboxyl (–COOH) group, pK2 refers to its amino (–NH2) group and the pK3 is the pK value of its side chain.
\begin{align}
\ce{H3 B} &\ce{{} {H+} + {H2 B^-}} & K_1 &\ce{[H+] . [H2 B^-] \over [H3 B]} & \mathrm{p}K_1 & -\log K_1 \\
\ce{H2 B^-} &\ce{{} {H+} + {H B^{2-}}} & K_2 &\ce{[H+] . [H B ^{2-}] \over [H2 B^-]} & \mathrm{p}K_2 & -\log K_2 \\
\ce{H B^{-2}} &\ce{{} {H+} + {B^{3-}}} & K_3 &\ce{[H+] . [B^{3-}] \over [H B^{2-}]} & \mathrm{p}K_3 & -\log K_3
\end{align}
Dissociation constant of water
The dissociation constant of water is denoted Kw:
K_\mathrm{w} = [\ce{H}^+] [\ce{OH}^-]
The concentration of water, [H2O], is omitted by convention, which means that the value of Kw differs from the value of Keq that would be computed using that concentration.
The value of Kw varies with temperature, as shown in the table below. This variation must be taken into account when making precise measurements of quantities such as pH.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;"
|-
! Water temperature
! Kw
! pKw
|-
|0 °C
|0.112
|14.95
|-
|25 °C
|1.023
|13.99
|-
|50 °C
|5.495
|13.26
|-
|75 °C
|19.95
|12.70
|-
|100 °C
|56.23
|12.25
|}
See also
Acid
Equilibrium constant
Ki Database
Competitive inhibition
pH
Scatchard plot
Ligand binding
Avidity
References
Category:Equilibrium chemistry
Category:Enzyme kinetics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissociation_constant
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Dimensional analysis
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In engineering and science, dimensional analysis is the analysis of the relationships between different physical quantities by identifying their base quantities (such as length, mass, time, and electric current) and units of measurement (such as metres and grams) and tracking these dimensions as calculations or comparisons are performed. The term dimensional analysis is also used to refer to conversion of units from one dimensional unit to another, which can be used to evaluate scientific formulae.
<!--use bold, because target of redirect-->
Commensurable physical quantities are of the same kind and have the same dimension, and can be directly compared to each other, even if they are expressed in differing units of measurement; e.g., metres and feet, grams and pounds, seconds and years. Incommensurable physical quantities are of different kinds and have different dimensions, and can not be directly compared to each other, no matter what units they are expressed in, e.g. metres and grams, seconds and grams, metres and seconds. For example, asking whether a gram is larger than an hour is meaningless.
Any physically meaningful equation, or inequality, must have the same dimensions on its left and right sides, a property known as dimensional homogeneity. Checking for dimensional homogeneity is a common application of dimensional analysis, serving as a plausibility check on derived equations and computations. It also serves as a guide and constraint in deriving equations that may describe a physical system in the absence of a more rigorous derivation.
The concept of physical dimension or quantity dimension, and of dimensional analysis, was introduced by Joseph Fourier in 1822. Formulation
The Buckingham π theorem describes how every physically meaningful equation involving variables can be equivalently rewritten as an equation of dimensionless parameters, where m is the rank of the dimensional matrix. Furthermore, and most importantly, it provides a method for computing these dimensionless parameters from the given variables.
A dimensional equation can have the dimensions reduced or eliminated through nondimensionalization, which begins with dimensional analysis, and involves scaling quantities by characteristic units of a system or physical constants of nature. Mathematically, the dimension of the quantity is given by
: <math>\operatorname{dim}Q = \mathsf{T}^a\mathsf{L}^b\mathsf{M}^c\mathsf{I}^d\mathsf{\Theta}^e\mathsf{N}^f\mathsf{J}^g</math>
where , , , , , , are the dimensional exponents. Other physical quantities could be defined as the base quantities, as long as they form a basis – for instance, one could replace the dimension (I) of electric current of the SI basis with a dimension (Q) of electric charge, since .
A quantity that has only (with all other exponents zero) is known as a geometric quantity. A quantity that has only both and is known as a kinematic quantity. A quantity that has only all of , , and is known as a dynamic quantity.
A quantity that has all exponents null is said to have dimension one. although this does not invalidate the usefulness of dimensional analysis. Simple cases
As examples, the dimension of the physical quantity speed is
: <math>\operatorname{dim}v
\frac{\text{length}}{\text{time}} \frac{\mathsf{L}}{\mathsf{T}}
= \mathsf{T}^{-1}\mathsf{L} .</math>
The dimension of the physical quantity acceleration is
: <math>\operatorname{dim}a
\frac{\text{speed}}{\text{time}} \frac{\mathsf{T}^{-1}\mathsf{L}}{\mathsf{T}}
= \mathsf{T}^{-2}\mathsf{L} .</math>
The dimension of the physical quantity force is
: <math>\operatorname{dim}F
\text{mass} \times \text{acceleration} \mathsf{M} \times \mathsf{T}^{-2}\mathsf{L}
= \mathsf{T}^{-2}\mathsf{L}\mathsf{M} .</math>
The dimension of the physical quantity pressure is
: <math>\operatorname{dim}P
\frac{\text{force}}{\text{area}} \frac{\mathsf{T}^{-2}\mathsf{L}\mathsf{M}}{\mathsf{L}^2}
= \mathsf{T}^{-2}\mathsf{L}^{-1}\mathsf{M} .</math>
The dimension of the physical quantity energy is
: <math>\operatorname{dim}E
\text{force} \times \text{displacement} \mathsf{T}^{-2}\mathsf{L}\mathsf{M} \times \mathsf{L}
= \mathsf{T}^{-2}\mathsf{L}^2\mathsf{M} .</math>
The dimension of the physical quantity power is
: <math>\operatorname{dim}P
\frac{\text{energy}}{\text{time}} \frac{\mathsf{T}^{-2}\mathsf{L}^2\mathsf{M}}{\mathsf{T}}
= \mathsf{T}^{-3}\mathsf{L}^2\mathsf{M} .</math>
The dimension of the physical quantity electric charge is
: <math>\operatorname{dim}Q
\text{current} \times \text{time} \mathsf{T}\mathsf{I} .</math>
The dimension of the physical quantity voltage is
: <math>\operatorname{dim}V
\frac{\text{power}}{\text{current}} \frac{\mathsf{T}^{-3}\mathsf{L}^2\mathsf{M}}{\mathsf{I}}
= \mathsf{T^{-3}}\mathsf{L}^2\mathsf{M} \mathsf{I}^{-1} .</math>
The dimension of the physical quantity capacitance is
: <math>\operatorname{dim}C
\frac{\text{electric charge}}{\text{electric potential difference}} \frac {\mathsf{T}\mathsf{I}}{\mathsf{T}^{-3}\mathsf{L}^2\mathsf{M}\mathsf{I}^{-1}}
\mathsf{T^4}\mathsf{L^{-2}}\mathsf{M^{-1}}\mathsf{I^2} .</math> Rayleigh's method
In dimensional analysis, '''Rayleigh's method' is a conceptual tool used in physics, chemistry, and engineering. It expresses a functional relationship of some variables in the form of an exponential equation. It was named after Lord Rayleigh.
The method involves the following steps:
# Gather all the independent variables that are likely to influence the dependent variable.
# If is a variable that depends upon independent variables , , , ..., , then the functional equation can be written as .
# Write the above equation in the form , where is a dimensionless constant and , , , ..., are arbitrary exponents.
# Express each of the quantities in the equation in some base units in which the solution is required.
# By using dimensional homogeneity, obtain a set of simultaneous equations involving the exponents , , , ..., .
# Solve these equations to obtain the values of the exponents , , , ..., .
# Substitute the values of exponents in the main equation, and form the non-dimensional parameters by grouping the variables with like exponents.
As a drawback, Rayleigh's method does not provide any information regarding number of dimensionless groups to be obtained as a result of dimensional analysis.
Concrete numbers and base units
Many parameters and measurements in the physical sciences and engineering are expressed as a concrete number—a numerical quantity and a corresponding dimensional unit. Often a quantity is expressed in terms of several other quantities; for example, speed is a combination of length and time, e.g. 60 kilometres per hour or 1.4 kilometres per second. Compound relations with "per" are expressed with division, e.g. 60 km/h. Other relations can involve multiplication (often shown with a centered dot or juxtaposition), powers (like m<sup>2</sup> for square metres), or combinations thereof.
A set of base units for a system of measurement is a conventionally chosen set of units, none of which can be expressed as a combination of the others and in terms of which all the remaining units of the system can be expressed. For example, units for length and time are normally chosen as base units. Units for volume, however, can be factored into the base units of length (m<sup>3</sup>), thus they are considered derived or compound units.
Sometimes the names of units obscure the fact that they are derived units. For example, a newton (N) is a unit of force, which may be expressed as the product of mass (with unit kg) and acceleration (with unit m⋅s<sup>−2</sup>). The newton is defined as .
Percentages, derivatives and integrals
Percentages are dimensionless quantities, since they are ratios of two quantities with the same dimensions. In other words, the % sign can be read as "hundredths", since .
Taking a derivative with respect to a quantity divides the dimension by the dimension of the variable that is differentiated with respect to. Thus:
* position () has the dimension L (length);
* derivative of position with respect to time (, velocity) has dimension T<sup>−1</sup>L—length from position, time due to the gradient;
* the second derivative (x/dt d(dx/dt) / dt}}, acceleration) has dimension .
Likewise, taking an integral adds the dimension of the variable one is integrating with respect to, but in the numerator.
* force has the dimension (mass multiplied by acceleration);
* the integral of force with respect to the distance () the object has travelled (, work) has dimension .
In economics, one distinguishes between stocks and flows: a stock has a unit (say, widgets or dollars), while a flow is a derivative of a stock, and has a unit of the form of this unit divided by one of time (say, dollars/year).
In some contexts, dimensional quantities are expressed as dimensionless quantities or percentages by omitting some dimensions. For example, debt-to-GDP ratios are generally expressed as percentages: total debt outstanding (dimension of currency) divided by annual GDP (dimension of currency)—but one may argue that, in comparing a stock to a flow, annual GDP should have dimensions of currency/time (dollars/year, for instance) and thus debt-to-GDP should have the unit year, which indicates that debt-to-GDP is the number of years needed for a constant GDP to pay the debt, if all GDP is spent on the debt and the debt is otherwise unchanged.
Dimensional homogeneity (commensurability)
The most basic rule of dimensional analysis is that of dimensional homogeneity.
However, the dimensions form an abelian group under multiplication, so:
For example, it makes no sense to ask whether 1 hour is more, the same, or less than 1 kilometre, as these have different dimensions, nor to add 1 hour to 1 kilometre. However, it makes sense to ask whether 1 mile is more, the same, or less than 1 kilometre, being the same dimension of physical quantity even though the units are different. On the other hand, if an object travels 100 km in 2 hours, one may divide these and conclude that the object's average speed was 50 km/h.
The rule implies that in a physically meaningful expression only quantities of the same dimension can be added, subtracted, or compared. For example, if , and denote, respectively, the mass of some man, the mass of a rat and the length of that man, the dimensionally homogeneous expression is meaningful, but the heterogeneous expression is meaningless. However, is fine. Thus, dimensional analysis may be used as a sanity check of physical equations: the two sides of any equation must be commensurable or have the same dimensions.
Even when two physical quantities have identical dimensions, it may nevertheless be meaningless to compare or add them. For example, although torque and energy share the dimension , they are fundamentally different physical quantities.
To compare, add, or subtract quantities with the same dimensions but expressed in different units, the standard procedure is first to convert them all to the same unit. For example, to compare 32 metres with 35 yards, use to convert 35 yards to 32.004 m.
A related principle is that any physical law that accurately describes the real world must be independent of the units used to measure the physical variables. For example, Newton's laws of motion must hold true whether distance is measured in miles or kilometres. This principle gives rise to the form that a conversion factor between two units that measure the same dimension must take multiplication by a simple constant. It also ensures equivalence; for example, if two buildings are the same height in feet, then they must be the same height in metres.
Conversion factor
In dimensional analysis, a ratio which converts one unit of measure into another without changing the quantity is called a conversion factor. For example, kPa and bar are both units of pressure, and . The rules of algebra allow both sides of an equation to be divided by the same expression, so this is equivalent to . Since any quantity can be multiplied by 1 without changing it, the expression "" can be used to convert from bars to kPa by multiplying it with the quantity to be converted, including the unit. For example, because , and bar/bar cancels out, so .
Applications
Dimensional analysis is most often used in physics and chemistry – and in the mathematics thereof – but finds some applications outside of those fields as well.
Mathematics
A simple application of dimensional analysis to mathematics is in computing the form of the volume of an -ball (the solid ball in n dimensions), or the area of its surface, the -sphere: being an -dimensional figure, the volume scales as }}, while the surface area, being -dimensional, scales as }}. Thus the volume of the -ball in terms of the radius is r}}, for some constant }}. Determining the constant takes more involved mathematics, but the form can be deduced and checked by dimensional analysis alone.
Finance, economics, and accounting
In finance, economics, and accounting, dimensional analysis is most commonly referred to in terms of the distinction between stocks and flows. More generally, dimensional analysis is used in interpreting various financial ratios, economics ratios, and accounting ratios.
* For example, the P/E ratio has dimensions of time (unit: year), and can be interpreted as "years of earnings to earn the price paid".
* In economics, debt-to-GDP ratio also has the unit year (debt has a unit of currency, GDP has a unit of currency/year).
* Velocity of money has a unit of 1/years (GDP/money supply has a unit of currency/year over currency): how often a unit of currency circulates per year.
* Annual continuously compounded interest rates and simple interest rates are often expressed as a percentage (adimensional quantity) while time is expressed as an adimensional quantity consisting of the number of years. However, if the time includes year as the unit of measure, the dimension of the rate is 1/year. Of course, there is nothing special (apart from the usual convention) about using year as a unit of time: any other time unit can be used. Furthermore, if rate and time include their units of measure, the use of different units for each is not problematic. In contrast, rate and time need to refer to a common period if they are adimensional. (Note that effective interest rates can only be defined as adimensional quantities.)
* In financial analysis, bond duration can be defined as , where is the value of a bond (or portfolio), is the continuously compounded interest rate and is a derivative. From the previous point, the dimension of is 1/time. Therefore, the dimension of duration is time (usually expressed in years) because is in the "denominator" of the derivative.
Fluid mechanics
In fluid mechanics, dimensional analysis is performed to obtain dimensionless pi terms or groups. According to the principles of dimensional analysis, any prototype can be described by a series of these terms or groups that describe the behaviour of the system. Using suitable pi terms or groups, it is possible to develop a similar set of pi terms for a model that has the same dimensional relationships. In other words, pi terms provide a shortcut to developing a model representing a certain prototype. Common dimensionless groups in fluid mechanics include:
* Reynolds number (), generally important in all types of fluid problems: <math display"block">\mathrm{Re} \frac{\rho\,ud}{\mu}.</math>
* Froude number (), modeling flow with a free surface: <math display"block">\mathrm{Fr} \frac{u}{\sqrt{g\,L}}.</math>
* Euler number (), used in problems in which pressure is of interest: <math display"block">\mathrm{Eu} \frac{\Delta p}{\rho u^2}.</math>
* Mach number (), important in high speed flows where the velocity approaches or exceeds the local speed of sound: <math display"block">\mathrm{Ma} \frac{u}{c},</math> where is the local speed of sound.
History
The origins of dimensional analysis have been disputed by historians. The first written application of dimensional analysis has been credited to François Daviet, a student of Joseph-Louis Lagrange, in a 1799 article at the Turin Academy of Science. In the second edition of 1833, Poisson explicitly introduces the term dimension instead of the Daviet homogeneity.
In 1822, the important Napoleonic scientist Joseph Fourier made the first credited important contributions based on the idea that physical laws like should be independent of the units employed to measure the physical variables.
James Clerk Maxwell played a major role in establishing modern use of dimensional analysis by distinguishing mass, length, and time as fundamental units, while referring to other units as derived. Although Maxwell defined length, time and mass to be "the three fundamental units", he also noted that gravitational mass can be derived from length and time by assuming a form of Newton's law of universal gravitation in which the gravitational constant is taken as unity, thereby defining . By assuming a form of Coulomb's law in which the Coulomb constant k<sub>e</sub> is taken as unity, Maxwell then determined that the dimensions of an electrostatic unit of charge were , which, after substituting his equation for mass, results in charge having the same dimensions as mass, viz. .
Dimensional analysis is also used to derive relationships between the physical quantities that are involved in a particular phenomenon that one wishes to understand and characterize. It was used for the first time in this way in 1872 by Lord Rayleigh, who was trying to understand why the sky is blue. Rayleigh first published the technique in his 1877 book The Theory of Sound.
The original meaning of the word dimension, in Fourier's Theorie de la Chaleur, was the numerical value of the exponents of the base units. For example, acceleration was considered to have the dimension 1 with respect to the unit of length, and the dimension −2 with respect to the unit of time. This was slightly changed by Maxwell, who said the dimensions of acceleration are T<sup>−2</sup>L, instead of just the exponents.
Examples
A simple example: period of a harmonic oscillator
What is the period of oscillation of a mass attached to an ideal linear spring with spring constant suspended in gravity of strength ? That period is the solution for of some dimensionless equation in the variables , , , and .
The four quantities have the following dimensions: [T]; [M]; [M/T<sup>2</sup>]; and [L/T<sup>2</sup>]. From these we can form only one dimensionless product of powers of our chosen variables, Tk/m}} , and putting C}} for some dimensionless constant gives the dimensionless equation sought. The dimensionless product of powers of variables is sometimes referred to as a dimensionless group of variables; here the term "group" means "collection" rather than mathematical group. They are often called dimensionless numbers as well.
The variable does not occur in the group. It is easy to see that it is impossible to form a dimensionless product of powers that combines with , , and , because is the only quantity that involves the dimension L. This implies that in this problem the is irrelevant. Dimensional analysis can sometimes yield strong statements about the irrelevance of some quantities in a problem, or the need for additional parameters. If we have chosen enough variables to properly describe the problem, then from this argument we can conclude that the period of the mass on the spring is independent of : it is the same on the earth or the moon. The equation demonstrating the existence of a product of powers for our problem can be written in an entirely equivalent way: {{tmath|1T \kappa \sqrt\tfrac{m}{k} }}, for some dimensionless constant (equal to <math>\sqrt{C}</math> from the original dimensionless equation).
When faced with a case where dimensional analysis rejects a variable (, here) that one intuitively expects to belong in a physical description of the situation, another possibility is that the rejected variable is in fact relevant, but that some other relevant variable has been omitted, which might combine with the rejected variable to form a dimensionless quantity. That is, however, not the case here.
When dimensional analysis yields only one dimensionless group, as here, there are no unknown functions, and the solution is said to be "complete" – although it still may involve unknown dimensionless constants, such as .
A more complex example: energy of a vibrating wire
Consider the case of a vibrating wire of length (L) vibrating with an amplitude (L). The wire has a linear density (M/L) and is under tension (LM/T<sup>2</sup>), and we want to know the energy (L<sup>2</sup>M/T<sup>2</sup>) in the wire. Let and be two dimensionless products of powers of the variables chosen, given by
: <math>\begin{align}
\pi_1 &= \frac{E}{As} \\
\pi_2 &= \frac{\ell}{A}.
\end{align}</math>
The linear density of the wire is not involved. The two groups found can be combined into an equivalent form as an equation
: <math>F\left(\frac{E}{As}, \frac{\ell}{A}\right) = 0 ,</math>
where is some unknown function, or, equivalently as
: <math>E = As f\left(\frac{\ell}{A}\right) ,</math>
where is some other unknown function. Here the unknown function implies that our solution is now incomplete, but dimensional analysis has given us something that may not have been obvious: the energy is proportional to the first power of the tension. Barring further analytical analysis, we might proceed to experiments to discover the form for the unknown function . But our experiments are simpler than in the absence of dimensional analysis. We'd perform none to verify that the energy is proportional to the tension. Or perhaps we might guess that the energy is proportional to , and so infer that . The power of dimensional analysis as an aid to experiment and forming hypotheses becomes evident.
The power of dimensional analysis really becomes apparent when it is applied to situations, unlike those given above, that are more complicated, the set of variables involved are not apparent, and the underlying equations hopelessly complex. Consider, for example, a small pebble sitting on the bed of a river. If the river flows fast enough, it will actually raise the pebble and cause it to flow along with the water. At what critical velocity will this occur? Sorting out the guessed variables is not so easy as before. But dimensional analysis can be a powerful aid in understanding problems like this, and is usually the very first tool to be applied to complex problems where the underlying equations and constraints are poorly understood. In such cases, the answer may depend on a dimensionless number such as the Reynolds number, which may be interpreted by dimensional analysis.
A third example: demand versus capacity for a rotating disc
Consider the case of a thin, solid, parallel-sided rotating disc of axial thickness (L) and radius (L). The disc has a density (M/L<sup>3</sup>), rotates at an angular velocity (T<sup>−1</sup>) and this leads to a stress (T<sup>−2</sup>L<sup>−1</sup>M) in the material. There is a theoretical linear elastic solution, given by Lame, to this problem when the disc is thin relative to its radius, the faces of the disc are free to move axially, and the plane stress constitutive relations can be assumed to be valid. As the disc becomes thicker relative to the radius then the plane stress solution breaks down. If the disc is restrained axially on its free faces then a state of plane strain will occur. However, if this is not the case then the state of stress may only be determined though consideration of three-dimensional elasticity and there is no known theoretical solution for this case. An engineer might, therefore, be interested in establishing a relationship between the five variables. Dimensional analysis for this case leads to the following () non-dimensional groups:
: demand/capacity = ω/S}}
: thickness/radius or aspect ratio =
Through the use of numerical experiments using, for example, the finite element method, the nature of the relationship between the two non-dimensional groups can be obtained as shown in the figure. As this problem only involves two non-dimensional groups, the complete picture is provided in a single plot and this can be used as a design/assessment chart for rotating discs.
Properties
Mathematical properties
The dimensions that can be formed from a given collection of basic physical dimensions, such as T, L, and M, form an abelian group: The identity is written as 1; , and the inverse of L is 1/L or L<sup>−1</sup>. L raised to any integer power is a member of the group, having an inverse of L<sup></sup> or 1/L<sup></sup>. The operation of the group is multiplication, having the usual rules for handling exponents (</sup> × L<sup></sup> L<sup></sup>}}). Physically, 1/L can be interpreted as reciprocal length, and 1/T as reciprocal time (see reciprocal second).
An abelian group is equivalent to a module over the integers, with the dimensional symbol </sup>|L<sup></sup>|M<sup></sup>}} corresponding to the tuple . When physical measured quantities (be they like-dimensioned or unlike-dimensioned) are multiplied or divided by one other, their dimensional units are likewise multiplied or divided; this corresponds to addition or subtraction in the module. When measurable quantities are raised to an integer power, the same is done to the dimensional symbols attached to those quantities; this corresponds to scalar multiplication in the module.
A basis for such a module of dimensional symbols is called a set of base quantities, and all other vectors are called derived units. As in any module, one may choose different bases, which yields different systems of units (e.g., choosing whether the unit for charge is derived from the unit for current, or vice versa).
The group identity, the dimension of dimensionless quantities, corresponds to the origin in this module, .
In certain cases, one can define fractional dimensions, specifically by formally defining fractional powers of one-dimensional vector spaces, like }}}}. However, it is not possible to take arbitrary fractional powers of units, due to representation-theoretic obstructions.
One can work with vector spaces with given dimensions without needing to use units (corresponding to coordinate systems of the vector spaces). For example, given dimensions and , one has the vector spaces }} and }}, and can define : V ⊗ V}} as the tensor product. Similarly, the dual space can be interpreted as having "negative" dimensions. This corresponds to the fact that under the natural pairing between a vector space and its dual, the dimensions cancel, leaving a dimensionless scalar.
The set of units of the physical quantities involved in a problem correspond to a set of vectors (or a matrix). The nullity describes some number (e.g., ) of ways in which these vectors can be combined to produce a zero vector. These correspond to producing (from the measurements) a number of dimensionless quantities, }}. (In fact these ways completely span the null subspace of another different space, of powers of the measurements.) Every possible way of multiplying (and exponentiating) together the measured quantities to produce something with the same unit as some derived quantity can be expressed in the general form
: <math>X \prod_{i1}^m (\pi_i)^{k_i}\,.</math>
Consequently, every possible commensurate equation for the physics of the system can be rewritten in the form
: <math>f(\pi_1,\pi_2, ..., \pi_m)=0\,.</math>
Knowing this restriction can be a powerful tool for obtaining new insight into the system.
Mechanics
The dimension of physical quantities of interest in mechanics can be expressed in terms of base dimensions T, L, and M – these form a 3-dimensional vector space. This is not the only valid choice of base dimensions, but it is the one most commonly used. For example, one might choose force, length and mass as the base dimensions (as some have done), with associated dimensions F, L, M; this corresponds to a different basis, and one may convert between these representations by a change of basis. The choice of the base set of dimensions is thus a convention, with the benefit of increased utility and familiarity. The choice of base dimensions is not entirely arbitrary, because they must form a basis: they must span the space, and be linearly independent.
For example, F, L, M form a set of fundamental dimensions because they form a basis that is equivalent to T, L, M: the former can be expressed as [F LM/T<sup>2</sup>], L, M, while the latter can be expressed as [T (LM/F)<sup>1/2</sup>], L, M.
On the other hand, length, velocity and time (T, L, V) do not form a set of base dimensions for mechanics, for two reasons:
* There is no way to obtain mass – or anything derived from it, such as force – without introducing another base dimension (thus, they do not span the space).
* Velocity, being expressible in terms of length and time (), is redundant (the set is not linearly independent).
Other fields of physics and chemistry
Depending on the field of physics, it may be advantageous to choose one or another extended set of dimensional symbols. In electromagnetism, for example, it may be useful to use dimensions of T, L, M and Q, where Q represents the dimension of electric charge. In thermodynamics, the base set of dimensions is often extended to include a dimension for temperature, Θ. In chemistry, the amount of substance (the number of molecules divided by the Avogadro constant, ≈ ) is also defined as a base dimension, N.
In the interaction of relativistic plasma with strong laser pulses, a dimensionless relativistic similarity parameter, connected with the symmetry properties of the collisionless Vlasov equation, is constructed from the plasma-, electron- and critical-densities in addition to the electromagnetic vector potential. The choice of the dimensions or even the number of dimensions to be used in different fields of physics is to some extent arbitrary, but consistency in use and ease of communications are common and necessary features.
Polynomials and transcendental functions
Bridgman's theorem restricts the type of function that can be used to define a physical quantity from general (dimensionally compounded) quantities to only products of powers of the quantities, unless some of the independent quantities are algebraically combined to yield dimensionless groups, whose functions are grouped together in the dimensionless numeric multiplying factor. This excludes polynomials of more than one term or transcendental functions not of that form.
Scalar arguments to transcendental functions such as exponential, trigonometric and logarithmic functions, or to inhomogeneous polynomials, must be dimensionless quantities. (Note: this requirement is somewhat relaxed in Siano's orientational analysis described below, in which the square of certain dimensioned quantities are dimensionless.)
<!--see discussion page/transcendental functions This requirement is clear when one observes the Taylor expansions for these functions (a sum of various powers of the function argument). For example, the logarithm of 3 kg is undefined even though the logarithm of 3 is nearly 0.477. An attempt to compute ln 3 kg would produce, if one naively took ln 3 kg to mean the dimensionally meaningless "ln(1 + 2 kg)",
: <math>\mathrm{2\,kg} - \frac{\mathrm{4\,kg}^2}{2} + \cdots ,</math>
which is dimensionally incompatible – the sum has no meaningful dimension – requiring the argument of transcendental functions to be dimensionless.
Another way to understand this problem is that the different coefficients scale differently under change of unit – were one to reconsider this in grams as "ln 3000 g" instead of "ln 3 kg", one could compute ln 3000, but in terms of the Taylor series, the degree 1 term would scale by 1000, the degree-2 term would scale by 1000<sup>2</sup>, and so forth – the overall output would not scale as a particular dimension.
-->
While most mathematical identities about dimensionless numbers translate in a straightforward manner to dimensional quantities, care must be taken with logarithms of ratios: the identity , where the logarithm is taken in any base, holds for dimensionless numbers and , but it does not hold if and are dimensional, because in this case the left-hand side is well-defined but the right-hand side is not.
Similarly, while one can evaluate monomials () of dimensional quantities, one cannot evaluate polynomials of mixed degree with dimensionless coefficients on dimensional quantities: for , the expression makes sense (as an area), while for , the expression does not make sense.
However, polynomials of mixed degree can make sense if the coefficients are suitably chosen physical quantities that are not dimensionless. For example,
: <math> \tfrac{1}{2} \cdot (\mathrm{-9.8~m/s^2}) \cdot t^2 + (\mathrm{500~m/s}) \cdot t. </math>
This is the height to which an object rises in time if the acceleration of gravity is 9.8 and the initial upward speed is 500 . It is not necessary for to be in seconds. For example, suppose = 0.01 minutes. Then the first term would be
: <math>\begin{align}
&\tfrac{1}{2} \cdot (\mathrm{-9.8~m/s^2}) \cdot (\mathrm{0.01~min})^2 \\[10pt]
{} &\tfrac{1}{2} \cdot -9.8 \cdot \left(0.01^2\right) (\mathrm{min/s})^2 \cdot \mathrm{m} \\[10pt]{} &\tfrac{1}{2} \cdot -9.8 \cdot \left(0.01^2\right) \cdot 60^2 \cdot \mathrm{m}.
\end{align}</math>
Combining units and numerical values
The value of a dimensional physical quantity is written as the product of a unit [] within the dimension and a dimensionless numerical value or numerical factor, .
: <math>Z n \times [Z] n [Z]</math>
When like-dimensioned quantities are added or subtracted or compared, it is convenient to express them in the same unit so that the numerical values of these quantities may be directly added or subtracted. But, in concept, there is no problem adding quantities of the same dimension expressed in different units. For example, 1 metre added to 1 foot is a length, but one cannot derive that length by simply adding 1 and 1. A conversion factor, which is a ratio of like-dimensioned quantities and is equal to the dimensionless unity, is needed:
: <math> \mathrm{1\,ft} \mathrm{0.3048\,m}</math> is identical to <math> 1 \frac{\mathrm{0.3048\,m}}{\mathrm{1\,ft}}.</math>
The factor 0.3048 m/ft is identical to the dimensionless 1, so multiplying by this conversion factor changes nothing. Then when adding two quantities of like dimension, but expressed in different units, the appropriate conversion factor, which is essentially the dimensionless 1, is used to convert the quantities to the same unit so that their numerical values can be added or subtracted.
Only in this manner is it meaningful to speak of adding like-dimensioned quantities of differing units.
Quantity equations
A quantity equation, also sometimes called a complete equation, is an equation that remains valid independently of the unit of measurement used when expressing the physical quantities. Dimensionless concepts Constants
The dimensionless constants that arise in the results obtained, such as the in the Poiseuille's Law problem and the in the spring problems discussed above, come from a more detailed analysis of the underlying physics and often arise from integrating some differential equation. Dimensional analysis itself has little to say about these constants, but it is useful to know that they very often have a magnitude of order unity. This observation can allow one to sometimes make "back of the envelope" calculations about the phenomenon of interest, and therefore be able to more efficiently design experiments to measure it, or to judge whether it is important, etc.
Formalisms
Paradoxically, dimensional analysis can be a useful tool even if all the parameters in the underlying theory are dimensionless, e.g., lattice models such as the Ising model can be used to study phase transitions and critical phenomena. Such models can be formulated in a purely dimensionless way. As we approach the critical point closer and closer, the distance over which the variables in the lattice model are correlated (the so-called correlation length, ) becomes larger and larger. Now, the correlation length is the relevant length scale related to critical phenomena, so one can, e.g., surmise on "dimensional grounds" that the non-analytical part of the free energy per lattice site should be }}, where is the dimension of the lattice.
It has been argued by some physicists, e.g., Michael J. Duff, that the laws of physics are inherently dimensionless. The fact that we have assigned incompatible dimensions to Length, Time and Mass is, according to this point of view, just a matter of convention, borne out of the fact that before the advent of modern physics, there was no way to relate mass, length, and time to each other. The three independent dimensionful constants: , , and , in the fundamental equations of physics must then be seen as mere conversion factors to convert Mass, Time and Length into each other.
Just as in the case of critical properties of lattice models, one can recover the results of dimensional analysis in the appropriate scaling limit; e.g., dimensional analysis in mechanics can be derived by reinserting the constants , , and (but we can now consider them to be dimensionless) and demanding that a nonsingular relation between quantities exists in the limit , and . In problems involving a gravitational field the latter limit should be taken such that the field stays finite.
Dimensional equivalences
Following are tables of commonly occurring expressions in physics, related to the dimensions of energy, momentum, and force. SI units
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! scope"col" style"width:100px;" | Energy,
T<sup>−2</sup>L<sup>2</sup>M
! scope"col" style"width:100px;" | Expression
! scope"col" style"width:350px;" | Nomenclature
|-
|rowspan="4"| Mechanical
| <math> Fd </math>
| force, distance
|-
| <math> S/t \equiv Pt </math>
| action, time, = power
|-
| <math> mv^2 \equiv pv \equiv p^2/m </math>
| mass, velocity, = momentum
|-
| <math> I\omega^2 \equiv L\omega \equiv L^2/I </math>
| angular momentum, moment of inertia, = angular velocity
|-
| Ideal gases
| <math> p V \equiv NT </math>
| pressure, volume, temperature, amount of substance
|-
| Waves
| <math> AIt \equiv ASt </math>
| area of wave front, wave intensity, time, Poynting vector
|-
| rowspan="3" | Electromagnetic
| <math> q\phi </math>
| electric charge, electric potential (for changes this is voltage)
|-
| <math> \varepsilon E^2V \equiv B^2V/\mu </math>
| electric field, magnetic field, <br /> permittivity, permeability, <br /> = 3d volume
|-
| <math> pE \equiv m B \equiv I A B </math>
| electric dipole moment, magnetic moment, <br /> area (bounded by a current loop), I electric current in loop
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! scope"col" style"width:100px;" | Momentum,
T<sup>−1</sup>LM
! scope"col" style"width:100px;" | Expression
! scope"col" style"width:350px;" | Nomenclature
|-
| rowspan="2" | Mechanical
| <math> mv \equiv Ft </math>
| mass, velocity, force, time
|-
| <math> S/r \equiv L/r </math>
| action, angular momentum, = displacement
|-
| Thermal
| <math> m \sqrt{\left\langle v^2 \right\rangle} </math>
| <math> \sqrt{\left\langle v^2 \right\rangle} </math> root mean square velocity, m mass (of a molecule)
|-
| Waves
| <math> \rho V v </math>
| density, volume, = phase velocity
|-
| Electromagnetic
| <math> q A </math>
| = magnetic vector potential
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! scope"col" style"width:100px;" | Force,
T<sup>−2</sup>LM
! scope"col" style"width:100px;" | Expression
! scope"col" style"width:350px;" | Nomenclature
|-
| Mechanical
| <math> ma \equiv p/t </math>
| mass, acceleration
|-
| Thermal
| <math> T \delta S/\delta r </math>
| entropy, temperature, = displacement (see entropic force)
|-
| Electromagnetic
| <math> Eq \equiv Bqv </math>
| electric field, magnetic field, velocity, charge
|}
Programming languages
Dimensional correctness as part of type checking has been studied since 1977.
Implementations for Ada and C++ were described in 1985 and 1988.
Kennedy's 1996 thesis describes an implementation in Standard ML, and later in F#. There are implementations for Haskell, OCaml, and Rust, Python, and a code checker for Fortran.<br />
Griffioen's 2019 thesis extended Kennedy's Hindley–Milner type system to support Hart's matrices.
McBride and Nordvall-Forsberg show how to use dependent types to extend type systems for units of measure.
Mathematica 13.2 has a function for transformations with quantities named NondimensionalizationTransform that applies a nondimensionalization transform to an equation. Mathematica also has a function to find the dimensions of a unit such as 1 J named UnitDimensions. Mathematica also has a function that will find dimensionally equivalent combinations of a subset of physical quantities named DimensionalCombations. Mathematica can also factor out certain dimension with UnitDimensions by specifying an argument to the function UnityDimensions. For example, you can use UnityDimensions to factor out angles.
Geometry: position vs. displacement
Affine quantities
Some discussions of dimensional analysis implicitly describe all quantities as mathematical vectors. In mathematics scalars are considered a special case of vectors; vectors can be added to or subtracted from other vectors, and, inter alia, multiplied or divided by scalars. If a vector is used to define a position, this assumes an implicit point of reference: an origin. While this is useful and often perfectly adequate, allowing many important errors to be caught, it can fail to model certain aspects of physics. A more rigorous approach requires distinguishing between position and displacement (or moment in time versus duration, or absolute temperature versus temperature change).
Consider points on a line, each with a position with respect to a given origin, and distances among them. Positions and displacements all have units of length, but their meaning is not interchangeable:
* adding two displacements should yield a new displacement (walking ten paces then twenty paces gets you thirty paces forward),
* adding a displacement to a position should yield a new position (walking one block down the street from an intersection gets you to the next intersection),
* subtracting two positions should yield a displacement,
* but one may not add two positions.
This illustrates the subtle distinction between affine quantities (ones modeled by an affine space, such as position) and vector quantities (ones modeled by a vector space, such as displacement).
* Vector quantities may be added to each other, yielding a new vector quantity, and a vector quantity may be added to a suitable affine quantity (a vector space acts on an affine space), yielding a new affine quantity.
* Affine quantities cannot be added, but may be subtracted, yielding relative quantities which are vectors, and these relative differences may then be added to each other or to an affine quantity.
Properly then, positions have dimension of affine length, while displacements have dimension of vector length. To assign a number to an affine unit, one must not only choose a unit of measurement, but also a point of reference, while to assign a number to a vector unit only requires a unit of measurement.
Thus some physical quantities are better modeled by vectorial quantities while others tend to require affine representation, and the distinction is reflected in their dimensional analysis.
This distinction is particularly important in the case of temperature, for which the numeric value of absolute zero is not the origin 0 in some scales. For absolute zero,
: −273.15 °C ≘ 0 K = 0 °R ≘ −459.67 °F,
where the symbol ≘ means corresponds to, since although these values on the respective temperature scales correspond, they represent distinct quantities in the same way that the distances from distinct starting points to the same end point are distinct quantities, and cannot in general be equated.
For temperature differences,
: 1 K 1 °C ≠ 1 °F 1 °R.
(Here °R refers to the Rankine scale, not the Réaumur scale).
Unit conversion for temperature differences is simply a matter of multiplying by, e.g., 1 °F / 1 K (although the ratio is not a constant value). But because some of these scales have origins that do not correspond to absolute zero, conversion from one temperature scale to another requires accounting for that. As a result, simple dimensional analysis can lead to errors if it is ambiguous whether 1 K means the absolute temperature equal to −272.15 °C, or the temperature difference equal to 1 °C.
Orientation and frame of reference
Similar to the issue of a point of reference is the issue of orientation: a displacement in 2 or 3 dimensions is not just a length, but is a length together with a direction. (In 1 dimension, this issue is equivalent to the distinction between positive and negative.) Thus, to compare or combine two dimensional quantities in multi-dimensional Euclidean space, one also needs a bearing: they need to be compared to a frame of reference.
This leads to the extensions discussed below, namely Huntley's directed dimensions and Siano's orientational analysis.
Huntley's extensions
Huntley has pointed out that a dimensional analysis can become more powerful by discovering new independent dimensions in the quantities under consideration, thus increasing the rank <math>m</math> of the dimensional matrix.
He introduced two approaches:
* The magnitudes of the components of a vector are to be considered dimensionally independent. For example, rather than an undifferentiated length dimension L, we may have L<sub>x</sub> represent dimension in the x-direction, and so forth. This requirement stems ultimately from the requirement that each component of a physically meaningful equation (scalar, vector, or tensor) must be dimensionally consistent.
* Mass as a measure of the quantity of matter is to be considered dimensionally independent from mass as a measure of inertia.
Directed dimensions
As an example of the usefulness of the first approach, suppose we wish to calculate the distance a cannonball travels when fired with a vertical velocity component <math>v_\text{y}</math> and a horizontal velocity component {{tmath|v_\text{x} }}, assuming it is fired on a flat surface. Assuming no use of directed lengths, the quantities of interest are then , the distance travelled, with dimension L, {{tmath|v_\text{x} }}, {{tmath|v_\text{y} }}, both dimensioned as T<sup>−1</sup>L, and the downward acceleration of gravity, with dimension T<sup>−2</sup>L.
With these four quantities, we may conclude that the equation for the range may be written:
: <math>R \propto v_\text{x}^a\,v_\text{y}^b\,g^c .</math>
Or dimensionally
: <math>\mathsf{L} = \left(\mathsf{T}^{-1}\mathsf{L}\right)^{a+b} \left(\mathsf{T}^{-2}\mathsf{L}\right)^c</math>
from which we may deduce that <math>a + b + c 1</math> and , which leaves one exponent undetermined. This is to be expected since we have two fundamental dimensions T and L, and four parameters, with one equation.
However, if we use directed length dimensions, then <math>v_\mathrm{x}</math> will be dimensioned as T<sup>−1</sup>L<sub></sub>, <math>v_\mathrm{y}</math> as T<sup>−1</sup>L<sub></sub>, as L<sub></sub> and as T<sup>−2</sup>L<sub></sub>. The dimensional equation becomes:
: <math>
\mathsf{L}_\mathrm{x} =
\left({\mathsf{T}^{-1}}{\mathsf{L}_\mathrm{x}}\right)^a
\left({\mathsf{T}^{-1}}{\mathsf{L}_\mathrm{y}}\right)^b
\left({\mathsf{T}^{-2}}{\mathsf{L}_\mathrm{y}}\right)^c
</math>
and we may solve completely as , and . The increase in deductive power gained by the use of directed length dimensions is apparent.
Huntley's concept of directed length dimensions however has some serious limitations:
* It does not deal well with vector equations involving the cross product,
* nor does it handle well the use of angles as physical variables.
It also is often quite difficult to assign the L, L<sub></sub>, L<sub></sub>, L<sub></sub>, symbols to the physical variables involved in the problem of interest. He invokes a procedure that involves the "symmetry" of the physical problem. This is often very difficult to apply reliably: It is unclear as to what parts of the problem that the notion of "symmetry" is being invoked. Is it the symmetry of the physical body that forces are acting upon, or to the points, lines or areas at which forces are being applied? What if more than one body is involved with different symmetries?
Consider the spherical bubble attached to a cylindrical tube, where one wants the flow rate of air as a function of the pressure difference in the two parts. What are the Huntley extended dimensions of the viscosity of the air contained in the connected parts? What are the extended dimensions of the pressure of the two parts? Are they the same or different? These difficulties are responsible for the limited application of Huntley's directed length dimensions to real problems.
Quantity of matter
In Huntley's second approach, he holds that it is sometimes useful (e.g., in fluid mechanics and thermodynamics) to distinguish between mass as a measure of inertia (inertial mass), and mass as a measure of the quantity of matter. Quantity of matter is defined by Huntley as a quantity only to inertial mass, while not implicating inertial properties. No further restrictions are added to its definition.
For example, consider the derivation of Poiseuille's Law. We wish to find the rate of mass flow of a viscous fluid through a circular pipe. Without drawing distinctions between inertial and substantial mass, we may choose as the relevant variables:
{| class="wikitable"
! Symbol !! Variable !! Dimension
|-
| <math>\dot{m}</math> || mass flow rate || T<sup>−1</sup>M
|-
| <math>p_\text{x}</math> || pressure gradient along the pipe || T<sup>−2</sup>L<sup>−2</sup>M
|-
| || density || L<sup>−3</sup>M
|-
| || dynamic fluid viscosity || T<sup>−1</sup>L<sup>−1</sup>M
|-
| || radius of the pipe || L
|}
There are three fundamental variables, so the above five equations will yield two independent dimensionless variables:
: <math>\pi_1 = \frac{\dot{m}}{\eta r}</math>
: <math>\pi_2 = \frac{p_\mathrm{x}\rho r^5}{\dot{m}^2}</math>
If we distinguish between inertial mass with dimension <math>M_\text{i}</math> and quantity of matter with dimension <math>M_\text{m}</math>, then mass flow rate and density will use quantity of matter as the mass parameter, while the pressure gradient and coefficient of viscosity will use inertial mass. We now have four fundamental parameters, and one dimensionless constant, so that the dimensional equation may be written:
: <math>C = \frac{p_\mathrm{x}\rho r^4}{\eta \dot{m}}</math>
where now only is an undetermined constant (found to be equal to <math>\pi/8</math> by methods outside of dimensional analysis). This equation may be solved for the mass flow rate to yield Poiseuille's law.
Huntley's recognition of quantity of matter as an independent quantity dimension is evidently successful in the problems where it is applicable, but his definition of quantity of matter is open to interpretation, as it lacks specificity beyond the two requirements he postulated for it. For a given substance, the SI dimension amount of substance, with unit mole, does satisfy Huntley's two requirements as a measure of quantity of matter, and could be used as a quantity of matter in any problem of dimensional analysis where Huntley's concept is applicable.
Siano's extension: orientational analysis
Angles are, by convention, considered to be dimensionless quantities (although the wisdom of this is contested ) . As an example, consider again the projectile problem in which a point mass is launched from the origin at a speed and angle above the x-axis, with the force of gravity directed along the negative y-axis. It is desired to find the range , at which point the mass returns to the x-axis. Conventional analysis will yield the dimensionless variable , but offers no insight into the relationship between and .
Siano has suggested that the directed dimensions of Huntley be replaced by using orientational symbols to denote vector directions, and an orientationless symbol 1<sub>0</sub>. Thus, Huntley's L<sub></sub> becomes L1<sub></sub> with L specifying the dimension of length, and specifying the orientation. Siano further shows that the orientational symbols have an algebra of their own. Along with the requirement that , the following multiplication table for the orientation symbols results:
{| class="wikitable"
! !! <math>\mathbf{1_0}</math> !! <math>\mathbf{1_\text{x}}</math> !! <math>\mathbf{1_\text{y}}</math> !! <math>\mathbf{1_\text{z}}</math>
|-
! scope="col" | <math>\mathbf{1_0}</math>
| <math>1_0</math> || <math>1_\text{x}</math> || <math>1_\text{y}</math> || <math>1_\text{z} </math>
|-
! scope="col" | <math>\mathbf{1_\text{x}}</math>
| <math>1_\text{x}</math> || <math>1_0</math> || <math>1_\text{z} </math> || <math>1_\text{y}</math>
|-
! scope="col" | <math>\mathbf{1_\text{y}}</math>
| <math>1_\text{y}</math> || <math>1_\text{z} </math> || <math>1_0</math> || <math>1_\text{x}</math>
|-
! scope="col" | <math>\mathbf{1_\text{z}}</math>
| <math>1_\text{z} </math> || <math>1_\text{y}</math> || <math>1_\text{x}</math> || <math>1_0</math>
|}
The orientational symbols form a group (the Klein four-group or "Viergruppe"). In this system, scalars always have the same orientation as the identity element, independent of the "symmetry of the problem". Physical quantities that are vectors have the orientation expected: a force or a velocity in the z-direction has the orientation of . For angles, consider an angle that lies in the z-plane. Form a right triangle in the z-plane with being one of the acute angles. The side of the right triangle adjacent to the angle then has an orientation and the side opposite has an orientation . Since (using to indicate orientational equivalence) we conclude that an angle in the xy-plane must have an orientation , which is not unreasonable. Analogous reasoning forces the conclusion that has orientation while has orientation 1<sub>0</sub>. These are different, so one concludes (correctly), for example, that there are no solutions of physical equations that are of the form , where and are real scalars. An expression such as <math>\sin(\theta+\pi/2)\cos(\theta)</math> is not dimensionally inconsistent since it is a special case of the sum of angles formula and should properly be written:
: <math>
\sin\left(a\,1_\text{z} + b\,1_\text{z}\right) =
\sin\left(a\,1_\text{z}) \cos(b\,1_\text{z}\right) +
\sin\left(b\,1_\text{z}) \cos(a\,1_\text{z}\right),
</math>
which for <math>a \theta</math> and <math>b \pi/2</math> yields {{tmath|1\sin(\theta\,1_\text{z} + [\pi/2]\,1_\text{z}) 1_\text{z}\cos(\theta\,1_\text{z})}}. Siano distinguishes between geometric angles, which have an orientation in 3-dimensional space, and phase angles associated with time-based oscillations, which have no spatial orientation, i.e. the orientation of a phase angle is .
The assignment of orientational symbols to physical quantities and the requirement that physical equations be orientationally homogeneous can actually be used in a way that is similar to dimensional analysis to derive more information about acceptable solutions of physical problems. In this approach, one solves the dimensional equation as far as one can. If the lowest power of a physical variable is fractional, both sides of the solution is raised to a power such that all powers are integral, putting it into normal form. The orientational equation is then solved to give a more restrictive condition on the unknown powers of the orientational symbols. The solution is then more complete than the one that dimensional analysis alone gives. Often, the added information is that one of the powers of a certain variable is even or odd.
As an example, for the projectile problem, using orientational symbols, , being in the xy-plane will thus have dimension and the range of the projectile will be of the form:
: <math>R = g^a\,v^b\,\theta^c\text{ which means }\mathsf{L}\,1_\mathrm{x} \sim
\left(\frac{\mathsf{L}\,1_\text{y}}{\mathsf{T}^2}\right)^a \left(\frac{\mathsf{L}}{\mathsf{T}}\right)^b\,1_\mathsf{z}^c.\,</math>
Dimensional homogeneity will now correctly yield and , and orientational homogeneity requires that {{tmath|11_x /(1_y^a 1_z^c)1_z^{c+1} = 1}}. In other words, that must be an odd integer. In fact, the required function of theta will be which is a series consisting of odd powers of .
It is seen that the Taylor series of and are orientationally homogeneous using the above multiplication table, while expressions like and are not, and are (correctly) deemed unphysical.
Siano's orientational analysis is compatible with the conventional conception of angular quantities as being dimensionless, and within orientational analysis, the radian may still be considered a dimensionless unit. The orientational analysis of a quantity equation is carried out separately from the ordinary dimensional analysis, yielding information that supplements the dimensional analysis.
See also
* Buckingham π theorem
* Dimensionless numbers in fluid mechanics
* Fermi estimate – used to teach dimensional analysis
* Numerical-value equation
* Rayleigh's method of dimensional analysis
* Similitude – an application of dimensional analysis
* System of measurement
Related areas of mathematics
* Covariance and contravariance of vectors
* Exterior algebra
* Geometric algebra
* Quantity calculus
Notes
References
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* As [http://www.georgehart.com/research/tdm.ps postscript]
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*
| title = Orientational Analysis – A Supplement to Dimensional Analysis – I
| journal = Journal of the Franklin Institute
| volume 320 | issue 6 | pages = 267–283
| doi = 10.1016/0016-0032(85)90031-6
}}
*
| title = Orientational Analysis, Tensor Analysis and The Group Properties of the SI Supplementary Units – II
| journal = Journal of the Franklin Institute
| volume 320 | issue 6 | pages = 285–302
| doi = 10.1016/0016-0032(85)90032-8
}}
* , (5): 147, (6): 101, (7): 129
*
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* Wilson, Edwin B. (1920) [https://archive.org/details/aeronautics00wilsgoog/page/n197/mode/2up "Theory of Dimensions"], chapter XI of Aeronautics, via Internet Archive
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Further reading
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External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100410142839/http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Fluids/Dimension_Analysis.html List of dimensions for variety of physical quantities]
* [http://www.calchemy.com/uclive.htm Unicalc Live web calculator doing units conversion by dimensional analysis]
* [http://www.boost.org/doc/libs/1_66_0/doc/html/boost_units.html A C++ implementation of compile-time dimensional analysis in the Boost open-source libraries]
* [http://www.math.ntnu.no/~hanche/notes/buckingham/buckingham-a4.pdf Buckingham's pi-theorem]
* [http://QuantitySystem.CodePlex.com Quantity System calculator for units conversion based on dimensional approach]
* [http://www.outlawmapofphysics.com Units, quantities, and fundamental constants project dimensional analysis maps]
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Category:Measurement
Category:Conversion of units of measurement
Category:Chemical engineering
Category:Mechanical engineering
Category:Environmental engineering
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimensional_analysis
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2025-04-05T18:28:32.326708
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